Microbial Fuel Cell Material

Microbial Fuel Cells
Materials and Applications
Edited by
Inamuddin1,2,3, Mohammad Faraz Ahmer4,

and Abdullah M. Asiri1,2
1
Centre of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
2
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University,
3
Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 002, India
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mewat College of Engineering and Technology,
Mewat-122103, India
Copyright © 2019 by the authors
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Table of Contents
Preface
Microalgae–Microbial Fuel Cell

Sabeela Beevi Ummalyma, Dinabandhu Sahoo, Ashok Pandey,
Kooloth Valapil Prajeesh .................................................................................................. 1
The Progress of Microalgae Biofuel Cells

Rajesh K. Srivastava ....................................................................................................... 21
Microbial Fuel Cell Operating Conditions

Naveen Patel, Dhananjai Rai, MD. Zafar Ali Khan, Shivam Soni,
Umesh Mishra, Biswanath Bhunia.................................................................................. 53
Microbial Fuel Cells Characterization

Fatma Aydin Unal, Mehmet Harbi Calimli, Hakan Burhan, Fatma Sismanoglu,
Busra Yalcın, Fatih Şen................................................................................................... 75
Paper-Based Microbial Fuel Cell

Suruchee Samparnna Mishra, Swaraj Mohanty, Sonali Mohapatra ............................. 101
Carbon Nanotube Based Anodes and Cathodes for Microbial Fuel Cells
Naveen Patel, Dhananjai Rai, Deepak Chauhan, Shraddha Shahane,
Umesh Mishra, Biswanath Bhunia................................................................................ 125
Use of Carbon-Nanotube Based Materials in Microbial Fuel Cells

Hakan Burhan, Gazi Yilmaz, Ahmet Zeytun, Harbi Calimli, Fatih Sen ...................... 151
Biofuel Production from Food Processing Waste

Nivedita Sharma, Kanika Sharma, Neha Kaushal, Ranjana Sharma ............................ 177
Microbial Desalination Cell: An Integrated Technology for Desalination,

Wastewater Treatment and Renewable Energy Generation
V.R.V. Ashwaniy, M. Perumalsamy ............................................................................. 221
Biofuels from Food Processing Wastes

Rouf Ahmad Dar, Mudasir Yaqoob, Manisha Parmar, Urmila Gupta Phutela ........... 249
Microbial Fuel Cell for the Treatment of Wastewater
Dibyajyoti Haldar, Mriganka Sekhar Manna, Dwaipayan Sen,
Tridib Kumar Bhowmick, Kalyan Gayen ..................................................................... 289
Microbial Production of Ethanol

Khush Bakhat Alia, Ijaz Rasul, Farrukh Azeem, Sabir Hussain,
Muhammad Hussnain Siddique, Saima Muzammil, Muhammad Riaz,
Amna Bari, Sehrish Liaqat, Habibullah Nadeem .......................................................... 307
Microbial Production of Propanol

Mehmet Gülcan, Fulya Gülbağça, Kubra Sevval Cevik,
Remziye Kartop, Fatih Şen ........................................................................................... 335
Keyword Index .............................................................................................................. 354

About the Editors........................................................................................................... 355
Preface
Nowadays, a renewable and clean source of energy is the need for our industrialized
world. The industrial developments have increased the socioeconomic status of the
people. On the other hand, it is leading to a global energy crisis, excessive environment
pollution and depletion of fossil fuels. An alternative source of energy may somehow
encounter these human threatening problems. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are one of
the new renewable sources of energy that are based on the direct conversion of organic
or inorganic matters to electricity by utilizing dynamic microorganism as a biocatalyst.
Supported advancements and consistent improvement endeavours have recognized the
practicality of microbial fuel cells for power generation in various specialized
applications that require only low power, for example, ultracapacitors, small 3-wagon
toy train, portable electronic gadgets, meteorological buoys, remote sensors, digital
wristwatches, smartphones, hardware in space and robots. Wastewater treatment
beyond electricity generation is also possible by using microbial fuel cells. Therefore,
the values added applications of microbial fuel cells has drawn the wise attention of
research and development specialist of various disciplines including, engineers,
biotechnologists biologists, environmentalist, material scientists and mechanical
engineers. The research in the area of microbial fuel cells has been in progress towards
the development of practically viable technologies. Thus, microbial fuel cells based
devices have an incredible future but still more research and development studies are
needed for commercializing them at a large scale.
Microbial Fuel Cells: Materials and Applications explores the various aspects of
microbial fuel cells, including fuel cells electrochemistry, characterization techniques
and operating conditions. The progress of microbial fuel cells is also discussed in brief.
The use of different types of materials for the construction of anode and cathode are
also reported. Wastewater treatment, desalination and biofuel production by using
microbial fuel cells are also described in details.
We are appreciative to all the contributing authors and their co-authors for their nice
chapters. We may like to thank all publishers and authors who had given permission to
use their figures, tables, and schemes.
Inamuddin1,2,3, Mohammad Faraz Ahmer4 and Abdullah M. Asiri1,2
1
Centre of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research, King Abdulaziz University,
2
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589,
Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh-202 002, India
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mewat College of Engineering and Technology,
Mewat-122103, India
Microbial Fuel Cells: Materials and Applications Materials Research Forum LLC
Materials Research Foundations 46 (2019) 1-20 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.21741/9781644900116-1
Chapter 1
Microalgae–Microbial Fuel Cell
Sabeela Beevi Ummalyma1,*, Dinabandhu Sahoo1, Ashok Pandey2, Kooloth Valapil Prajeesh3
1
Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development (IBSD), A National Institute under
Department of Biotechnology Govt.of India, Takyelpat, Imphal-795001 Manipur, India
2
CSIR-Indian Institute for Toxicology Research, 226-001, Lucknow, India
3
CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR-NIIST),
Trivandrum-695 019, India
* [email protected]
Abstract
Pollution of the environment associated with increased population along with energy
consumption and the projected reduction of fossil fuels highlights the necessities for
sustainable, cost-effective eco-friendly bio-energy sources. The latest research on
microalgae revealed that algal biomass has promising technologies for biofuel
production, high-value product development, carbon sequestration and wastewater
treatment. However, the latest application of microalgal biomass is its use as microbial
fuel cells (MFCs). Microalgae-based microbial fuel cells (mMFCs) are used as a device
that can convert energy from sunlight into electrical energy through biological pathways.
This chapter is aimed to highlight the advantages of microalgae for power generation in
MFCs, factors influencing electricity production from algae, and future perspectives of
mMFCs.
Keywords
Microalgae, Microbial Fuel Cells, Bioenergy, Algal Biomass
Contents
1. Introduction................................................................................................2
2. Microbial fuel cells .....................................................................................3
3. Microalgal microbial fuel cell (mMFC) technology ...............................4
3.1 Role of microalgae at the anode ..........................................................4
3.2 Role of algae at the cathode .................................................................5
1
4. Factors affecting bioelectricity generation from microalgae ................6

4.1 pH.........................................................................................................6
4.2 Temperature .........................................................................................7
4.3 Light and photosynthesis .....................................................................7
4.4 Nature of substrate and its load. ..........................................................8
4.5 Membrane material ..............................................................................9
Future perspective and conclusion .....................................................................9
Acknowledgement ..............................................................................................10
References ...........................................................................................................10
1. Introduction
The increase in alarming signals of global warming associated with the energy crisis
throughout the world lead researchers to focus on alternative renewable energy sources.
There are different types of resources which have been investigated for bio-energy
applications ranging from corn, lignocellulosic biomass, agricultural and other industrial
wastes [1]. Microalgae are known as photosynthetic green microscopic plants and
resources for third generation biofuels. The advantageous features of algal biomass
include high growth rate, availability throughout the year, cultivation on non-agricultural
land and are non-competitive with food. The photosynthesis process is initiated with the
photon induction in an algal cell similar to higher plants and carbon fixation into different
storage compounds such as lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. Many types of research
have proven that algal biomass can be used for biofuel production. However, the process
technology has not been commercialized in a full-scale operation due to certain
challenges associated with energy intensive and costly process. Algal biomass harvesting
from liquid suspension itself is 30% of the cost of the whole process [2]. Consequently, a
possible way of algal biomass utilization is where drying and harvesting are not involved
in the process. Hence the coupling of algal biomass in microbial fuel cells represents a
possible, cost effective, alternative environmental friendly technology for sustainable
biorefineries. Microalgae can be mass cultivated in seawater, wastewater and rivers as
valuable biomass enriched with carbohydrates, lipids and protein. They can be exploited
for a wide range of applications of bio-energy with different routes for bio-oils, biodiesel,
bioethanol, biomethane, hydrogen and even electricity as well [3-5]. The microalgal
biomass production has been initiated with suitable algal strain selection and cultivation,
dewatering of biomass from suspended water via harvesting methods followed by
2
subsequent thickening, drying, post-processing for oils and other product extractions [6].
For mass cultivation of algae, biomass is conducted either in phototrophic or mixotrophic
cultivation systems. Algal growths under phototrophic conditions are limited by the light
sources. Under high light intensities, the growth of cells is limited; whereas penetration
of light can be affected at high cell density, penetration of light is limited to few
millimetres of depth from the surface. However, photobioreactor with a large surface area
per unit volume and appropriate light intensities are recommended [7]. Microorganisms’
cells have simple cellular construction for fast growth; usually grow in motile unicellular
states which help for an easy harvest [8]. Algae-based photosynthetic microbial fuel cell
(PMMFC) is an attractive technology, algae are utilized to provide organic substrates in
the anodic compartment, production of oxygen for the cathodic compartment, carbon
dioxide capture, biofuel production and wastewater treatment [1, 9-16]. This chapter
summarizes the microalgal microbial fuel cells along with their advantages and
limitations. Future perspectives for the commercial applications are also discussed.
2. Microbial fuel cells

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) functions on the catalytic activity of certain
microorganisms which utilize organic compounds as a substrate for generating electrons
at anode [17]. The electrons present in the anode chamber travelled through an external
circuit for electricity generation. These electrons are reduced in the cathode chamber and
finally, redox reaction is completed. Proton exchange membranes (PEMs) are used for
separating anode and cathode chambers [18]. The ordinary MFCs operate by using a
variety of substrates such as alcohols [19], glucose [20], acetates [21] and organic
compounds [22]. These fuel cells are gaining more attraction recently owing to their
possibility as a renewable source of energy coupled with wastewater treatment [23, 24].
MFCs technology based on the microbiological process, where some bacteria oxidize
organic compounds under anaerobic condition and power is generated as a result of
electron transport via an electrical circuit. In addition, as a result of the metabolism of
substrates, secondary byproduct like hydrogen is produced which can act as fuel and
oxidized to produce electrons [25].
The main limitation of MFC is that it works on connection with wastewater treatment
which reduces system performance and hence decreasing the output of power. Even
though, for more power the substrate feeding rate needs to be increased which is not a
cost effective process [26, 27]. The main problems of MFCs for practical use are the cost
associated with high installation/operation along with the use of costly membranes and
the Pt-implemented cathode. Research is undergoing to lower the fuel cell cost with the
refinement of the architecture of MFCs [28] for applying single chamber design to proton
3
exchange membrane. However, microbial fuels cells can be replaced or linked with
microalgae-based fuel technology to reduce the cost and resultant algal biomass can be
utilized for biofuels and other high-value products formation.
3. Microalgal microbial fuel cell (mMFC) technology

Recent investigations on microalgae in relation to MFCs have been extensively reported
by many researchers throughout the world [9-12, 28]. The mMFCs utilize photosynthetic
microorganisms potential for generating electricity from solar energy via metabolic
reactions of photosynthetic microorganisms along with bacteria [13]. In addition to that
mMFCs also have the potential for CO2 sequestration from the atmosphere and the
removal of nitrogen contaminants from wastewaters [1, 13]. Exploitation of energy from
sunlight by microalgae in a microbial fuel cell for generation of electricity is a significant
achievement for sustainable production of power. Microalgae can be used in either
cathode chamber for supplying oxygen or as substrate at anode for the multiplication of
bacteria. It has been noticed that most of the mMFCs generated more power in the dark.
Oxygen produced in the light during photosynthesis reaction reduces the power
production [29]. Many types of research are undergoing for improving power production
in the light phase as well and exploitation of better microorganisms for improving the
efficiency with photosynthetic microalgae [29-31]. MFCs are mainly used for wastewater
treatment systems.
3.1 Role of microalgae at the anode

The utilization of microalgae as a substrate at the anode is primarily linked with
wastewater treatment. The electrogenic bacteria present in the chamber utilize algal
biomass, but fresh algal biomass does not produce enough electrons for high power
density [32-34]. Hence algal powder and live cells have been exploited for this purpose.
Deoiled algal biomass, activated sludge and pretreated biomass have also been utilized,
but these resulted in low power output [35]. The algae produce proton and electrons in
the anodic chamber during light phase and algae perform photosynthesis with the help of
light and CO2. During this process products such as algal biomass, organic substrates and
oxygen are liberated. Microorganisms present in the anodic chamber utilize/ degrade
algal waste and excreted solute for producing electrons and protons [36]. Some
researchers have used algae as a source of electron donor. It has been reported that
marine microalgae produced maximum electricity [37]. Microalgae Tetraselmis gracilis,
Mougeotia, Scenedesmus, Chlorella sp., blue-green algae, and mixed cultures have been
exploited by several researchers for electricity generation. The electron extraction from
algae and electricity production are a novel idea. Oxygen liberation during the
4
photosynthesis process negatively affects the power output which is one of the limitations
in this kind of fuel cells. In order to overcome this issue, some reports showed that
purging of nitrogen gas, as well as use of concentrated salt solution, can minimize the
problem [38]. For this condition, a salt-tolerant alga is needed to balance the normal
functioning of the cell without affecting its physiology.
Figure1: Representing the role of algae at the cathode and anodic chambers (A),
microalgae used as substrates for microorganisms in the anode chamber of fuel cells.
(Adapted from Baicha et al. [15]
3.2 Role of algae at the cathode

Interest in using photosynthetic microorganisms as biocathode of MFC has increased due
to their potential for oxygen production and capturing of generated CO2.
Photosynthetically produced oxygen can be used at cathode whereas carbon dioxide
consumed as a carbon source for the photosynthetic process. Sometimes cathodic
chamber of MFCs chemicals is used which is not a viable choice as it increases the cost
as well as environmental pollution. Hence, the air cathode has been preferred where
oxygen is utilized as a terminal electron acceptor, but it needs costly catalyst such as
5
platinum for redox reactions and energy-intensive process to maintain the dissolved
oxygen at its optimum level [39, 40]. The biocathode approach offers microorganisms to
act as a biocatalyst for enabling electrochemical reduction at the cathode [41, 42].
Integration of microalgal photosynthesis in MFCs is a viable way to reduce or maintain
consumption of energy [43, 44]. The released oxygen in the cathode chamber via the
photosynthetic process helps in running MFCs and utilization of produced biomass for
various applications. The utilization of algae at the cathodes allows expensive catalysts
normally used for reduction of oxygen to be replaced with biomaterials [38, 40]. Figure 1
illustrates the role of algae on both cathode and anode for electricity generations.
4. Factors affecting bioelectricity generation from microalgae

There are several factors influencing the MFCs and power output. Some of the important
parameters affecting the functioning of fuel cells are discussed below:
4.1 pH
pH is the main physiological factor affecting the proper functioning of MFCs. Low
concentrations of ions and neutral pH in the anode chamber are required for proper
metabolic activity of microorganisms. In this regard, the cathode chamber pH is almost
similar to that of the anode chamber [45]. Any fluctuation in proton, electron or oxygen
concentrations leads to a pH gradient and decreases the power output by perturbing the
physiology of the cell. The travelling of electrons to anode leads to elevated proton
concentration in the anodic chamber. Zhang et al. [46, 47] reported that a higher electric
current can also result in decreased pH at the anode. The chemical and physical
atmosphere in the MFCs harshly affects the kinetics and thermodynamics of oxygen
reduction. In the case of oxygen reduction in the cathode chamber leads to a shifting of
alkaline pH. The physical and chemical environments of MFCs adversely affect the
kinetics and thermodynamics of the electrocatalytic reduction of oxygen. Reduction of
oxygen at the cathode resulted in alkaline pH [97]. Alkaline pH influences cathode and
anode reactions of the single chambered membrane. Even though high pH (8-10) inhibits
the activity of microorganism at the anode, which can be favoured for cathodic reaction
thus improving overall efficiencies. Hence, the current density at the cathode can be
improved by using low-cost catalysts [48]. In order to maintain the pH in the original
level, buffers like phosphate, carbonates, carbon dioxide, borax and zwitterions are used
[40, 49-50]. For large scale operation, a carbonate buffer is the best. It has been proven
that carbonate is more beneficial than phosphate for regulating pH because of inorganic
carbon readily available in wastewaters and more diffusion coefficient in water which
enable its transports via biofilm. However, the benefits of the zwitter ionic buffer are its
6
less toxicity, non-interference with biochemical activity and slightly high pKa (6-8) than
the normal pH buffer [51-53].
4.2 Temperature
For the proper functioning of MFCs, high operation temperatures are beneficial in terms
of the mass transfer, reaction kinetics, low resistance, high current density and better
columbic efficiency. The high-temperature increase the rate of biochemical reaction,
which enhances the growth of microorganisms due to more substrates assimilation and
helps in high ionic conductivity which reduces the resistance [54]. Many researchers have
conducted experiments to assess the effect of a wide range of temperature for the
performance of MFCs [55, 57]. It has been reported that 35°C, but can be varied with the
type of organisms is optimum. The conductivity of membrane enhanced with the
increased in temperature [56]. Zhang et al. [58] evaluated the influence of day/light
temperature ranges and showed that more power density was obtained at 18/30°C.
4.3 Light and photosynthesis

Photosynthetic microalgae are productive when compared with terrestrial plants due to
their efficiency in photosynthesis. Sometimes photosynthetic efficiency of algae is
reduced due to reduced kinetic coupling between light harvesting system for captured
light, electron transfer processes and down-stream photochemical reactions [58, 59]. It
was reported that theoretical maximum microalgal productivity was within 170-190 g
DWm-2 d-1 [60]. The real efficiencies in photobioreactors and ponds obtained with present
technology with available strains ranged from 20-35 g DWm-2 d-1 [61, 62]. The efficiency
of photosynthesis can be enhanced by a different approach such as modulation of growth
condition, tuning of light harvesting systems and reducing the size of antenna per reaction
complex [50, 63-66]. When high light intensity condition, electron transfer saturation can
be lowered by an optical cross section of antennae complexes which further reduces the
shading effect of cells and further enhances the diffusion of photosynthetically active
radiation (PAR) to larger depth [40]. Research on metabolic engineering approach for
deregulation of light harvesting protein translation to study the effect of photosynthesis in
algae is progressing [67, 68]. It has been reported that microalgae lacking peripheral
light-harvesting complex II, which helps in increasing the photosynthetic rate, however in
certain cases algae can achieve photosynthetic efficiency via reduced size of peripheral
antennae under an autotrophic growth mode [64, 69, 70]. Therefore researchers have
fabricated photosynthetic apparatus for increasing the process efficiency [71]. It has been
reported that from microbial solar cells, average light/electricity production was
estimated to be 0.03% of power conversion efficiency (PCE) [72]. Reports of syntrophic
binary cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii along with Geobacter sulfurreducens
7
which is an iron-reducing bacteria in microbial solar cells anode chamber produced 0.1 %
of PCE [73], but organic acids produced as a result of fermentation of photosynthetically
produced intracellular starch were found to be a bottleneck for light/electricity
conversion. Other studies on algae digesting consortium of Lactobacillus and Geobacter
used for bioelectricity from phototrophic grown Chlamydomonas cells showed 0.47% of
power conversion efficiency [74]. Usually, algae-based MFCs, alteration of algal biomass
into organic acids is directly proportional to PCE. The photosynthetic fuel cell from light
to electricity is promising and results showed that conversion efficiency of 3% was
similar to organic solar cells [75-77]. Mixed culture predominating Chlorella showed the
efficiency of PAMFC converting PAR light energy to electricity as 0.1% per day [30].
Another parameter affecting algae-assisted cathodes is light intensity. Wu et al. [78]
evaluated influence of various intensities of light on photo-microbial fuel cells with
cathode containing Desmodesmus sp and results showed that resistance of cathode and
anode were strongly influenced by variation in light intensity and hence the voltage.
Gonzalez del Campo et al. [79] achieved maximum power output in continuous flow
mode compared to that of sequencing batch mode.
4.4 Nature of substrate and its load.

MFCs are able to use a broad range of substrates from pure to complex along with
wastewaters. The substrates type and nature has been significantly affecting the system
performance. The fast and simple digestible substrates such as glucose, molasses and
volatile fatty acids have been used for electricity generation in MFCs [79-82]. Different
wastewaters also tested as a substrate in MFCs. The major constraints of choosing a
substrate are its nature and biodegradability. Some of the wastewaters contain large
quantities of organic carbon that cannot easily be degraded into simple molecules
meanwhile; simple molecules are easily utilized by a microorganism and produce a large
number of reducing equivalents which help in better system performance. Therefore, the
selection of the substrates for MFCs depends on their type and nature that are critical for
the proper performance of the system [82]. In addition to these substrates, loading rates
and retention time significantly influence the power and Coloumbic efficiency of
microbial fuels cells performance which especially depends on substrates used as a fuel
and also affecting the bacterial growth and morphology of biofilm [83]. Power density
depends on the substrates loading rates. Reports showed that increase in power density
from 1884Mw/m3 to 2981 Mw/m3 obtained from substrates loading was increased from
1.9-3.8 g/Ld [84].
8
4.5 Membrane material

The type of membrane materials used for cathode and anode chambers affects the transfer
rates of chemical species of the reaction in fuel cells which will affect the fuel cells [85].
Cations of high conductivity and low internal resistance need to be transferred from
anode to cathode chamber and their transfers happen as a result of potential gradients
generated inside the cells [86-88, 59]. Good quality membrane material has the capacity
to overcome pH splitting. The resistance permeability for oxygen is required to reduce
the cost of MFC [89-91]. For this, different membrane filtration systems such as salt
bridge, bipolar membrane, an ultrafiltration membrane (UFM), anion exchange
membrane (AEM), cation exchange membrane (CEM), glass fibre and ceramic
membrane, etc. have been used [92-95]. For MFCs ion exchange membranes, cationic
and anionic membranes have been preferred. The cation exchange membranes (CEMs)
have fixed negatively charged groups (–COO-, SO3 -, PO3 2- ) in the backbone of the
membrane for selective permeability of cations [96, 97]. Membranes used as cation
exchanger are Nafion, bipolar membranes, polystyrene, and glass wool and
microfiltration membranes. The most commonly chosen one for MFC is Nafion which
helps in providing more specific conductivity of proton, enhanced Columbic efficiency of
fuel cells and helps in microorganisms in active state [98,99] but its thickness and
hydration level affect the system performance. The anion exchange membrane (AEMs)
containing positive charges such as PR3 +, –SR+ and –NH3 + attached to the membrane
transfers anions [99]. Another type of exchanger is a bipolar membrane containing both
AEM and CEM which helps to conduct proton and hydroxide ion. Separator like bipolar
membrane (BPM) contains both CEM and AEM, which conduct both proton and
hydroxide ion. The single unit MFC is not economical and hence for various studies,
stacks of MFCs have been used to make the technology possible on a large scale [97].
Future perspective and conclusion

For the production of electricity, biomass is the best choice and algae are a readily
available biomass for power generation. Microalgal based microbial fuel cells (mMFCs)
have proven successful for the treatment of effluents and simultaneous electricity
generation. However, mMFCs have some barriers and limitations for their
commercialization. These types of fuel cells are influenced by seasonal variation. Mohan
et al. have proven low fuel cell activity in summer compared to winter seasons [100].
Better designs for microalgal bacterial fuel cells are still not available. Symbiotic
microorganisms can be beneficial for the proper functioning of fuels cells, but extensive
researches are needed on this aspect. Biomass production coupled with electricity
generation is attractive but lots of research and experimental proof are required for
9
overcoming the obstacles for economically efficient and viable mMFCs. Sustainability of
the technology strongly depends on the performance of cathodic and anodic reactions.
Moreover, future research work on MFCs can be focused on technologies for developing
low-cost energy input in mMFCs and exploitation of wet algal biomass for boils and
biochar production. Hence mMFCs represent a novel, promising, environmental friendly
cost-effective technology for sustainable energy production.
Acknowledgement
Sabeela Beevi Ummalyma is grateful to the Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable
Development, A National Institute under Department of biotechnology Govt. of India for
providing financial support and help for this work.
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20
Chapter 2
The Progress of Microalgae Biofuel Cells
Rajesh K. Srivastava
Department of Biotechnology, GIT, Gitam Institute of Technology and Management (GITAM)
(Deemed to be University), Visakhapatnam, A. P. India
[email protected]
Abstract
The microalgal cell provides an alternative source for bioenergy generation with
application in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) construction. Availability in an
environmentally friendly nature, it has exhibited the capability to capture CO2 gas with an
accumulation of rich oil contents for biofuel. Biodiesel, bioethanol, methane or hydrogen
production capabilities are found in microalgae. Microalgae-MFC has contributed in
electricity generation by using the electrons released at the anode electrode. Microalgae
are also useful in simultaneous electricity generation and wastewater treatment. In this
chapter, our focus is on the advantages, limitations and future prospects of microalgae
species, highlighting enhanced biofuel production.
Keyword
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC), Biofuels, Microalgae, CO2 Emissions, Wastewater
Treatment, Electricity Generation
Contents
The Progress of Microalgae Biofuel Cells........................................................21

1. Introduction..............................................................................................22
2. Microalgae species ...................................................................................24
3. Strategies for microalgal strain improvement ......................................26
3.1 Genetic change in microalgae species ...............................................27
3.2 Engineering of lipid pathways ...........................................................28
3.3 Random and insertional mutagenesis ................................................28
21
3.4 Genetic engineering in microalgae strains ........................................29

4. Application of microalgae species ..........................................................31
4.1 In microbial fuel cell (MFC) construction.........................................31
4.2 Bioethanol production .......................................................................34
4.3 Biobutanol production .......................................................................35
4.4 Biohydrogen production ....................................................................36
4.5 Biodiesel production ..........................................................................38
4.6 Biogas (Methane) production ............................................................39
Conclusion...........................................................................................................40
Abbreviations .....................................................................................................40
References ...........................................................................................................41
1. Introduction
Increased use of arable land is reported for the cultivation of agricultural crops or plant
biomass which is utilized for the production of first and second-generation biofuels but
current researches are now focusing on the utilization of non-arable land for the
cultivation of algal biomass for obtaining of third generation biofuels. During the last few
years, advanced research activities have been carried out for the cultivation of algal
biomasses and their use in biofuel production [1]. Applications of microalgae have been
reported for conversion of CO2 gas into potential biomasses and their ability to produce
oxygen gas as strategic importance. Significant research has carried out to exploit the
ability of microalgae for microbial fuel cells (MFC) development via integration with
favourable facts of phototrophic organisms as in-situ generators of oxygen by facilitating
the reaction in the cathode chamber of MFC. Microalgae have the capability of effective
removal of phosphorous and nitrogen from wastewater as an important application of the
MFCs [2, 3]. The potential for algal biomass production in conjunction with wastewater
treatment and power generation with fully biotic MFCs has been discussed in many
recent kinds of literature with anaerobic biofilm and anodic half-cell for generating
current. Phototrophic biofilm on the cathode has been provided with the oxygen for the
oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and also form microalgal biomass [4]. Mass outdoor
cultivation of microalgae for biofuels and co-products has shown many challenges due to
low lipid productivity, contamination, inefficient CO2 supply, and difficulties in
harvesting. In this regards, stage cultivation process has been developed to address these
challenges while culturing microalgae in a fermentor heterotrophically or photobioreactor
22
mixotrophically [5]. Lipid degradation processes have been found in microalgae for their
survival and cells grown under fluctuating environmental conditions. And microalgae
have the capability for permanent remodelling or turnover of membrane lipids as well as
rapid mobilization of storage lipids [6]. Microalgal species has the capability at first-stage
for rapidly obtaining their high cell densities via inoculating a phototrophic open-pond
culture and the second-stage is the nourishment of high levels of carbonate, pH, and
salinity. Microalgae species have the capability to resist in phototrophic conditions and
shown capability to utilize the organic carbon. A model of triacylglyceride (TAG) has
been developed for rapid, non-destructive lipid quantization using liquid-state NMR. A
two-stage cultivation system and a high pH-mediated auto-flocculation method have been
utilized for haloalkaline-tolerant and multitrophic green microalgae (taken from soda
lakes) strain ALP2 in a 1 L fermentor and 40 L open-tank which has achieved a final
biomass concentration of 0.978 g DCL-1 with lipid content of 39.78% DC and auto-
flocculation harvesting efficiency of 64.1% in unoptimized conditions [7]. There are
some suitable conditions reported for microalgal biofuel (i.e. diesel) production and these
are optimal bio-environment for microalgae cultivation, process design of algal biodiesel
production, physicochemical properties of lipids extracted from microalgae, properties of
the produced biodiesel fuel, and the transesterification process. Designs of full-scale and
lab-scale photobioreactors (PBRs) have been illustrated for the cultivation of microalgae
[8]. For biodiesel production, sufficient nutrients are added for enhanced microalgae
biomass production. Biodiesel has become renewable and environmentally friendly
energy due to its production from microalgae which have high growth rate and ability to
synthesize a large quantity of lipids within their cell. Microalgae cultivation can be done
in wastewater or organic compost with sufficient nutrients to maintain growth. After
microalgal cell cultivation, harvesting and drying, the microalgae oil extractions are done
in downstream processes during the process of microalgae-derived biodiesel production
[9]. Microalgae and cyanobacteria have been utilized for production of bioethanol. The
industrial bioethanol production has been found to depend on the capability of reducing
production costs for the third generation of biofuels production. Production of bioethanol
has carried out via three routes from microorganisms. The traditional methods are
involving hydrolysis and fermentation of biomass with bacteria or yeast, the dark
fermentation route and the use of engineered cyanobacteria or photofermentation [10]. A
modification of CoA-dependent 1-butanol production pathway into a cyanobacterium,
Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 has been done for 1-butanol production from CO2.
For this purpose, the activity of each enzyme in the pathway was done by chromosomal
integration and expression of the genes. Treponema denticola trans-enoyl-CoA reductase
(Ter) has utilized the NADH (as reducing power) and used for the reduction of crotonyl-
CoA to butyryl-CoA by Clostridium acetobutylicum butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase with
23
by-passing the need of Clostridial ferredoxins. Addition of polyhistidine-tag has

increased the overall activity of Ter to achieve higher 1-butanol production [11]. The
generation of biodiesel, fuel gas or bio-syngas, bio-oil, methane, hydrogen and different
alcohols (ethanol, propanol, isopropanol and n-butanol) from microalgae biomass has
demonstrated the applicability of microalgae biomass in MFCs construction. Microalgae
have accumulated up to 70% of lipid content within their cells (depending on species
efficiently) with high photosynthetic efficiency and mass cultivation capacity by reducing
the carbon dioxide emission and impact of global warming to the atmosphere [12]. Algae
culture and its optimal growth with the development of cost-effective technologies are
also essential for efficient biomass harvesting, lipid extraction and biofuels production
[13]. In the present chapter, the author aimed to discuss recent research developments on
microalgae growth conditions with respect to biofuel production as well as effective
microbial fuel cell (MFC) construction for utilization in wastewater treatment and
pollution control processes.
2. Microalgae species
Microalgae are microscopic algal organisms of single-cell (unicellular size range 1 µm to
few hundred µm) of algal species with surviving capability individually or in chains or
clusters. They are grown in suspended forms (i.e. free-float in a water body) or attached
forms (via adhering to a submerged surface). They have the capability to produce
approximately half of the atmospheric oxygen on earth by consuming vast amounts of the
CO2 gas as a component of greenhouse gas. Around 35,000 species have been identified
and described as they are known to assimilate the different pollutants in natural water
systems [14]. Microalgal cells growth has the capability to survive in fluctuating
environmental conditions with permanent remodelling or turnover of membrane lipids in
rapid mobilization of storage lipids. Lipid catabolism is associated with lipolysis (i.e.
releases fatty acids and head groups by lipases at membranes or lipid droplets) and
degradation of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA at peroxisome through the β-oxidation pathway
in green microalgae) [15].
Necessary enzymes and regulatory proteins are found to involve in lipolysis and
peroxisomal β-oxidation with highlighting of gaps in understanding of lipid degradation
pathways of microalgae. Glyoxylate cycle and gluconeogenesis have been analyzed with
metabolic use of acetyl-CoA products via understanding various cellular processes such
as vesicle trafficking, cell cycle and autophagy of lipid turnover [6]. The microalgae have
exhibited many applications in environmental biotechnology as utilized for
bioremediation of wastewater and also to monitor the environmental toxicants.
Microalgal biomass production occurs during wastewater treatment in the biofuel
24
manufacturing processes. Microalgal lipid potential has forced research towards finding
effective ways to manipulate biochemical pathways in lipid biosynthesis with more
attention toward cost-effective algal cultivation and harvesting systems [16].
Microalgal has been used as promising feedstock for biodiesel and other liquid fuels and
it has shown fast growth rate with high lipid yields as well as ability to grow in a broad
range of environments. Many microalgae have been achieved maximal lipid yields only
under stress conditions via hindering their growth but compositions were not found ideal
for biofuel applications [17]. Metabolic engineering of algal fatty acid biosynthesis has
shown the promises for the creation of certain microalgal strains with enhanced capability
of economically producing fungible and sustainable biofuels. The algal fatty acid
biosynthetic pathways have shown more homology to bacterial and plant systems and
understand of the algal fatty acid biosynthetic pathway has gleaned from basic studies of
plant or bacterial systems. Successful engineering of lipid metabolism in algae can
express necessary change with the characterization of the algal fatty acid synthase (FAS)
including protein-protein interactions and regulation [18]. Microalgae are capable of
producing greater than 50,000 kg/acre/year of biomass and their biomass is naturally
capable of accumulating energy-dense oils which can be converted into transportation
fuels. It has economic parity with fossil fuels with several challenges such as identifying
crop protection strategies, improving harvesting and oil extraction processes, and
increasing biomass productivity as well as oil content. These challenges can be solved by
genetic, molecular and synthetic biology techniques to enable the capability of microalgal
biofuels to economically competitive with fossil fuels [19].
Microalgae biofuel production technologies have improved fuel security with reduction
of CO emissions. Microalgal has helped in the development of photosynthetically derived
fuels as renewable and potentially carbon-neutral with scalable alternative reserve.
Microalgae can be produced on non-arable land as well as saline and wastewater streams
with the utilization of salt or organic wastes present in it. Further, it can be used to
produce a range of products such as biofuels, protein-rich animal feeds, chemical
feedstocks (e.g. bioplastic precursors) and higher-value products. Selection, breeding and
engineering approaches can be utilized for improved microalgal biomass production with
biofuel conversion efficiencies [20].
Chlorella Vulgaris, Nannochloropsis and Spirulina are some reported microalgal species,
utilized for algal electrical outputs at the stationary phases of algae development. And
indirect correlation has been reported between absorption levels and electrical output
with the investigation as a proportional increase from the stationary phase [21]. Live
green microalgae Chlorella pyrenoidosa has been utilized at the anode of a microbial fuel
cell (MFC) to act as an electron donor. High cell density has developed at controlled
25
oxygen content and light intensity at the anode with the capability to generate electricity
without any externally added substrates. Two models of algal microbial fuel cells (MFCs)
have been shown with the utilization of graphite/carbon electrodes without any mediator.
Model 1 algal MFC has been constructed with live microalgae grown at the anode and
potassium ferricyanide at the cathode. Model 2 algal MFC has live microalgae in both the
anode and cathode under different growth conditions. The maximum power densities per
unit anode volume were found relatively higher (6030 mW/m2/L) in model 1 algal MFC
as compared to previously reported bacteria-driven MFC with a maximum power density
of 30.15 mW/m2 containing graphite/carbon electrode [22]. A much smaller power
density (2.5 mW/m2) has been reported in model 2 algal MFC. Increasing the algal cell
permeability by 4-nitroaniline can increase the open circuit voltage with mitochondrial
action where as proton leak promoting agents (i.e. resveratrol and 2, 4-dinitrophenol) has
increased the electric current production in algal MFC. Introducing Chlorella vulgaris to
the cathode chamber is used to generate oxygen in situ and this algal species is used to
construct the modified microbial fuel cell (MFC) with a tubular photobioreactor (PHB)
configuration as a cathode compartment [12]. And carbon paper-coated Pt is used as a
cathode electrode and it has increased voltage output at a higher extent than carbon felt
used as an electrode. The maximum power density of 24.4 mW/m2 has been obtained
from the MFC with algae biocathode via utilization of carbon paper-coated Pt as the
cathode electrode under intermittent illumination. Maximum power density has been
shown 2.8 times higher than the abiotic cathode. Continuous illumination has shortened
the algal lifetime [23]. Microalgal species has the ability to grow in a freshwater and
saturated saline and it can efficiently use CO2 for global carbon fixation (more than 40%)
and marine microalgae can develop the capability for more productivity due to very
rapidly biomass with doubling time (6 h to one day) depending on the microalgal strain.
Microalgae have more capacity to produce energy-rich oils in a natural way in total dry
biomass via accumulation. Some Botryococcus spp. has been identified to have up to
50% of their dry mass stored as long-chain hydrocarbons. Microalgae are diatoms, green
algae, golden brown, prymnesiophytes, eustigmatophytes and cyanobacteria [24, 25].
3. Strategies for microalgal strain improvement

Groups of microalgal strains have the potential for different types of fuel production and
millions of species with microalgal diversity have been identified with different
production of biomass capabilities via genetic information. Various strategies are
available which can be used to improve the production of biomass strains. Advances in
cultivation techniques coupled with genetic manipulation of crucial metabolic networks
have further promoted microalgae as an attractive platform for the production of
26
numerous high-value compounds. And metabolic engineering has found to do the

necessary change in order to achieve full processing capabilities. These have started with
the development of a number of transgenic algal strains via boasting recombinant protein
expression, engineered photosynthesis, and enhanced metabolism encourage as the
possibility of new designed microalgae strain [26]. Recent advances in the genetic
transformation as well as in genome-editing technologies have been applied for
manipulation of genomes for lipid biosynthetic pathways (with the identification of gene
functions and their regulation) of microalgae in order to expand their use in
biotechnology such as enhanced lipid production and modifications in fatty acid
composition. Microalgae are reported as a source of valuable nutritional ingredients, such
as long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) and carotenoids, as well as
precursors for biodiesel production. Focus on the biochemistry and enzymology for
triacylglycerol formation in microalgal cells, can be helpful to identify some novel genes
functions and cellular features for lipid metabolism in microalgae with the difference in
some aspects from higher plants [15]. Some of the strategies for improvement of
microalgae strains are aimed to discuss below for their cultivation of biomass and also
more storage of lipid contents for biofuels production.
3.1 Genetic change in microalgae species

Engineered algal species have the ability to enhance biomass production capabilities with
high storage of lipid contents in their cells and need sufficient knowledge of algal biology
for conducting targeted optimized processes. Algal biotechnology for genetically
modified (GM) strain needs a firm foundation of fundamental research for algal genomes
information. Much biological variability is accumulated from the ancient origins of algal
phyla and their early divergence from plants and animals. Much specific knowledge of
algal gene regulation is required before skilful, efficient and routine genetic
manipulation. The recently expanded algal gene library is available for advancement in
algal genomes which is systematically mapped, curated, annotated and understood via
performing a more time- consuming task than the actual sequencing. Generations of
knockout mutants of all Chlamydomonas genes and the transcriptomic (FANTOM)
approaches have been pioneered at RIKEN in Japan. FANTOM is an international
research consortium established by Hayashizaki and his colleagues in 2000. It can
develop the ability to quick with certain assigned biological functions to specific genes
and curate algal genomes [27, 28]. Functional microRNAs in Chlamydomonas species
have been applied for understanding the genomic biology of algae and it has expected to
the involvement of molecular pattern receptors, signal transduction mechanisms and
complex transcription factor-mediated feedback control of nuclear genes with many of
the protein motifs. Further painstaking molecular analysis can help in final validation of
27
proposed biochemical and information pathways for algal biosynthesis. Significant

changes to cell status, such as nutrient limitation (sulphate, nitrogen, iron, copper) can
lead with up-regulation of a few receptors or import proteins and coordinated changes of
thousands of genes [29].
3.2 Engineering of lipid pathways

Lipid metabolism in microalgae is found to be substantially different from higher plants
as well as between microalgal genera. The neutral and polar lipids, enzymes and
metabolic pathways involved in their biosynthesis and catabolisms of lipids have been
found with the current focus upon gene identification to enable proper metabolic
engineering. C. reinhardtii has been the most extensively studied model for microalgal
lipid metabolism and use phosphatidylcholine as a substrate in TAG synthesis or to
accumulate TAG unless under stress conditions or in starch accumulation (sta) mutants
[30,31]. Knowledge of specific enzymatic processes and the genes needed to do further
advancement before effective metabolic engineering strategies to enhance the metabolic
flux for lipid biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) transformed diatom
Cyclotella cryptica with additional copies of the ACCase gene within the TCA cycle has
been found to increase the flux of carbon towards lipid biosynthesis without an increase
in enzyme activity in lipid accumulation. Engineering of C. reinhardtii has enhanced
DGAT mRNA levels without increasing intracellular TAG accumulation [32]. C.
reinhardtii PDAT strain is involved in TAG biosynthesis with RNAi-induced PDAT
knock-down mutants. RNAi, new CRISPR/Cas and TALEN technologies have offered
the potential to dissect these pathways with optimization of individual catalytic steps
through genetic editing and amino acid level. Incorporation of antisense and RNAi into
the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana has targeted a newly identified gene
Thaps3_264297 for multifunctional lipase (phospholipase–acyltransferase) [33]. Knock-
down mutants have increased accumulation of TAG droplets and total lipid production
without negatively affecting cell division and biomass growth. Malate dehydrogenase
(mdh gene), pyruvate formate-lyase (pfl gene) or the fatty acid synthase complex (FAS)
has driven carbon towards fatty acid synthesis [34].
3.3 Random and insertional mutagenesis

Use of irradiation or chemical mutagenesis has resulted in a significant alteration in the
behaviour of a gene, typically by partial or total deletion and resultant mutant can lead to
base pair changes to a range of disturbances including altered amino acid sequence, small
deletions, truncations, frameshifts and splicing defects. The functional knockouts can
give rise to complex phenotypes. Biological mechanisms in Chlamydomonas and other
algae can help in specific phenotypic screening, needed to identify relevant genes such as
28
the multigene family of LHC genes for encoding light-harvesting chlorophyll-a/b (LHC)
proteins of photosystem (PS)II [28, 35].
3.4 Genetic engineering in microalgae strains

Transformation of the nuclear genome of C. reinhardtii is carried out by random insertion
through non-homologous end joining or by using linear DNA with the insertion of
multiple copies in one locus. And resultant transformants are confirmed by phenotypic
and genetic screening which minimized undesirable non-target effects of the random
insertion of a transgene with disrupted genes or regulatory elements. It is used to study
genes of an unknown function using high-throughput insertional mutagenesis. Targeted
gene integration through homologous recombination (HR) using single-stranded
transforming DNA is C. reinhardtii strain. High rates of homologous recombination have
been reported for other green algal species Nannochloropsis with more promise for
reverse genetics and targeted gene knockouts [36, 37]. Some of the microalgae with their
genome size have been discussed with respective biofuel/ or triglyceraldyde (TAG) as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Different microalgae reported with triglyceraldyde storage for biofuel source
Microalgal strain Cell Bio-products References
Structure
Chlamydomonas Genome Biodiesel from triacylglycerol (TG) 46– [38, 39]
reinhardtii with 65% of dry weight in starch
121Mbp accumulation (sta) mutants. Cellulosic
ethanol produced from terrestrial plants
Oedogonium Chloroplast Biodiesel, Algal oil and methanol used [40, 41]
cardiacum genome for transesterification (92) by lipase-
mediated synthesis of fatty acid
monoalkyl esters (FAME, biodiesel-)
Coccomyxa A genome Saturated (C16:0 and C18:0) and [42, 43]
subellipsoidea with 49 monounsaturated fatty acid (C18:1)
Mbp high-quality biofuels-making. Lipid
productivity (from OCNL treatment)
232.37 mg/L/ day and 1.25-fold more
than TBNS and as much as 5.06-fold
more than OCND strategy.
Volvox carteri Genome Hydrogen production (30.8 nmole H2 [44, 45]
UTEX2908 with 138 mg Chl-1s-1)
Mbp
29
Red Genome 17 TAG accumulation for biodiesel [46, 47]

alga Cyanidio- Mbp production at low pH (1-5)
schyzon merolae
10D
Porphyridium Genome 20 Accumulation of starch and [48, 49]
purpureum Mbp triacylglycerol for production of biofuel
and high added-value oil.
Galdieria Genome 14 Use of acidophile-based wastewater [50, 51]

sulphuraria Mbp treatment systems is done by and
growing the biomass of this algae and
it has been utilized as total fatty acid
methyl esters (5%) with HTL biocrude
yield (19%) by weight
Emiliania huxleyi Genome This microalgal served as raw materials [52, 53]
CCMP1516 168 and contained long-chain (31 and 33
With Thermosipho carbon atoms) alkenes and very long-
globiformans and chain (37 to 39 carbon atoms)
Methanocaldococc alkenones, in addition to phospholipids
us jannaschii and glycolipids, generated a high yield
of n-alkanes of various lengths (n-
tridecane to n-pentatriacontane
Attheya sp. Genome Total Polyunsaturated fatty acids [54, 55]
CCMP212 (PUFAs) concentration in CO2 aerated
cultures of Attheya. longicornis is
48.63% to 49.26%,
Amphora sp. CTM Genome FAME yield is 16 to 18% and 9 to 26% [56, 57]
20023 of the dry weight, in Amphora
subtropical CTM 20013 and Amphora
sp. CTM 20023 respectively
Guillardia theta Genome This microalga stored microalgal [57]
CCMP2712 87mbp triglyceride (TAG) and utilized in
biofuel precursor molecule production
Chroomonas 702.9 Kbp This algal oil or fat contained lauric [58]
mesostigmatica acid as a constituent fatty acid
CCMP1168
30
4. Application of microalgae species
4.1 In microbial fuel cell (MFC) construction

Recently research interest has developed in bioelectrochemical systems with emergence
as fascinating technologies via utilization of electroactive microorganisms with the
capability of consuming a variety of organic compounds and release of electrons directly
on the anode electrode. And practical applications of microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have
been studied with the perspective of generating electricity via removing organics
pollutants from the electrolyte or from wastewater via its treatment. The performance of
different designs of MFCs has been analyzed for the capability of the electric current
generation and power outputs with the judging of wastewater treatment efficiency as well
as removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) with Columbic efficiency (CE) and some
reported results are shown in Table 2 [59]. For a few years, electroactive microorganisms
have been utilized for different applications in the development of bioelectrochemical
systems (BES). In this regards, microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been created
with widespread attention and good research extensively on electrogenic nature of certain
bacteria or microalgal species (with alone or combination), used simultaneously to treat
different wastewaters and produce electric power. Examining of various types of organic
compounds has been done in various types of wastewaters treatment via utilized as
substrates source for the feeding of bacteria in MFCs system [60, 61].
Platinum group metal-free (PGM-free) oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalysts from
the Fe-N-C family have been recently synthesized using a sacrificial support method
(SSM) technique. The effects of each synthetic parameter have been studied with the help
of surface chemistry and the electrocatalytic performance in neutral media. Rotating ring
disk electrode (RRDE) experiment has been utilized to increase half-wave potential and
limiting current after the pyrolysis steps. Additional improvement has been found after
etching and performing the second pyrolysis. A similar trend had been seen in MFCs and
power output has increased from 167 ±2 to 214 ± 5 μW cm−2 [61]. The production of
electricity in MFC has been reported with simultaneous biomass regeneration in the
cathodic half-cell with dependent on the nutrient value of the anodic feedstock. The
growth of algal biomass in the cathode chamber can be measured monitored and assessed
against the MFC power production (charge transfer) during the process. MFC generation
of electricity can be enhanced through activated cation and crossover for the formation of
biomass via harvesting and reusing of microalgae as an energy source in a closed loop
system. Nutrient reclamation and assimilation into new biomass of microalgae can
increase the energy efficiency [8, 9].
31
Table 2 Application of different microalgal species with other microbial strains in MFCs
construction with the capability to electricity generation
Microalgal species a MFCs Maximum Power References
lone/ with others density (mW/m2)/
Current generation
(mA)
Chlorella pyrenoidosa Anode of MFCs an 30.15- 104.06 in Model [67, 68]
electron donor with two 1 algal MFCs; 2.16 in
chamber Model 2 algal MFCs -
Chlorella vulgaris The cathode as an 23.17 - 327.67 [68]
with Actinobacteria electron acceptor
and
Deltaproteobacteria
Saccharomyces An anode as an electron 146.71 ± 7.7 [69]

cerevisiae with donor with improved
methylene blue and performance
ferricyanide as
electron mediators
Saccharomyces Two chambered MFC 10.89 mA and 10.45 [70]
cerevisae and using Artificial Waste mA respectively
Clostridium water
acetobutylicum
Chlamydomonas MFCs with sulfur- 9 mA with a maximum [71]
reinhardtii CC-125 deprived conditions by hydrogen production
polymer-coated rate of 4.1 ml h−1
electrocatalytic
electrodes
Scenedesmus acutus PBI-based Higher volumetric [72]
microalga as MFCs photosynthetic MFCs power density value is
for wastewater with algae-assisted 400 mWm-3 after more
treatment biocathode than 100 operating
days
Algae biomass Two chamber microbial 951 mW·m−3/ 276 [4]
−2
Scenedesmus obliquus fuel cells (MFCs) with mA·m for electricity
pretreated algal biomass generation
was 102 mW·m−2 with
lactate and acetate
Microbial biophotovoltaic (BPV) cells have been exploited by the ability of

cyanobacteria and microalgae to convert light energy into electrical current using water
32
as the source of electrons. In this regard the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp.
PCC 6803 has been used extensively in BPV devices. Bioelectrochemical systems have
advantages over conventional microbial fuel cells as these require the input of organic
carbon for microbial growth. Innovative approaches can address scale-up issues
associated with the fabrication of the inorganic (electrodes) and biological (microbe)
parts of the biophotovoltaic devices [62]. It needed a simple commercial inkjet printer to
fabricate a thin-film paper-based biophotovoltaic cell consisting of a layer of
cyanobacterial cells on top of a carbon nanotube-conducting surface to generate a
sustained electrical current both in the dark (as a ‘solar bio-battery’) and in response to
light (as a ‘bio-solar-panel’) with potential applications in low-power devices [63].
Microbial electrochemical technology has been utilized for diverse applications such as
wastewater treatment, biofuel production, water desalination, remote power sources and
biosensors. It has shown many advantages based on the self-sustaining nature of the
microorganisms with donation or acceptance of electrons from an electrode and the range
of fuels can be used. Systems can be scaled up through careful consideration of electrode
spacing and packing per unit volume of the reactor. MFCs can be used to produce
electricity along with the use of microorganisms on the anodes or cathodes, or both
electrodes for a variety of different purposes as shown in Figure 1 [64].
Multimeter Computer
e- e-
Resistor
Organic matters H2O

H+
O2
CO2
Air Sparger
Anode Membrane Cathode
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of two-chamber microbial fuel cell (MFCs) [65]
Cyanobacteria have been found to produce electricity. Microorganisms have the

capability to transfer electrons derived from the metabolism of organic matters to anode,
33
and glucose is the most used substrate in MFC. Plants have also been used in MFC for
generating electric power [66].
In an MFC, bacteria are used as catalysts to oxidize organic matters in order to generate
electrical current. MFC has been found effective in the removal of chemical oxygen
demand (COD) from wastewater. Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus has been reported
with only bacteria containing MFC [73]. Improvement in treatment efficiency of
wastewater can be achieved by a combined process consisting of MFC and microalgae
cultivation. Wastewater treated with a single-chamber MFC (SMFC) has shown
electricity generation (maximum power density of 268.5 mW/m2) with 67% COD
removal as well as partial removal of nitrogen (50%) and (34%) of total phosphorus. The
treated wastewater has been further used to cultivate microalgae to remove the residual
phosphorus and nitrogen (97% TP and 99% NH4+-N). The combined process of SMFC
with cultivated microalgae has been effective and a promising candidate for treating
wastewater with complete removal of TP and NH4+-N [74].
For power generation, various parameters have been considered in MFC technologies
which include maximum power density, coulombic efficiencies and sometimes chemical
oxygen demand removal rate [75]. These parameters have helped in the construction of
effective MFCs devices. Application of microbes for bioremediation while at the same
time generating electricity via MFC technology have a highly advantageous position for
applications in various sectors of industrial, municipal and agricultural waste
management. Bioelectricity production involves the generation of electricity by anaerobic
digestion of organic substrates by microbes [76]. MFC is a device that converts chemical
energy released as a result of oxidation of complex organic carbon sources which are
utilized as substrates by micro-organisms to produce electrical energy thereby proving to
be an efficient means of sustainable energy production. The electrons released due to the
microbial metabolism are captured to maintain a constant power density, without an
effective carbon emission in the ecosystem [77].
4.2 Bioethanol production

Microalgae (Chlorococcum infusionum, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Porphyridium
cruentum Undaria pinnatifida (brown seaweed) Sargassum spp. (brown seaweed)
Kappaphycus alvarezii (red seaweed) Gelidium amansii (red seaweed) and Ulva lactuca
(green seaweed)) have been reported as most potentially significant resources of
sustainable biofuels for future of renewable energy due to high accumulation of
starch/cellulose. Many developments have been made in the recent years for
commercialization of algal bioethanol with some challenges of the techno-economic
constraints which need to be overcome for successfully large-scale bioethanol production
34
from microalgal species of both marine and freshwater algae [78]. Algal species do not
produce any food for people. The carbohydrate content in the algae cell is available as
starches and sugars to be utilized for fermentation to produce bioethanol [1].
The low hemicellulose levels and absence of lignin in microalgae (Spirogyra) species
results in increased hydrolysis efficiency of biomass and fermentation yields as well as
reduction of the cost of the bioethanol production. Algae species have the ability to take
up CO2 from the atmosphere and power the plants for use of appropriate technology
options to get the good algae bioethanols to yield with GHG reductions relative to fossil
and other biobased fuels [79]. Algal biomass is a crucial energy resource, utilized for the
generation of electricity and transportation fuels. High level of biocomponents in
microalgae has exhibited the potential feedstock for the generation of ecofriendly
biofuels. Microalgae-derived biofuels are suitable as carbon-neutral replacements for
petroleum oil/ fuel [80].
Fermentation process for metabolic conversion of microalgal compounds has been used
for the synthesis of bioethanol and higher alcohols synthesis. Major biocomponents
(carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) of microalgal biomass are, have been utilized for
maximum biofuel generation. Efficient pretreatment methods for algal biomass
hydrolysis can help in enhancing the bioavailability of substrates (simple sugar, amino
acid, and fatty acid). Biocomponents have been useful for the generation of various
biofuels (bioethanol, higher alcohol, and biodiesel) through fermentation and
transesterification processes. Maximum utilization of algal biomasses has been successful
to get economically feasible biofuel production [81]. The technical potential of producing
biofuel has been reported in naturally occurring microalgae spirulina. It was grown in
such environment which contained nitrates, phosphates and carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. After drying of algae and grinding, this algal matter was subjected to acid
hydrolysis to extract carbohydrates for the formation of an algal sugar solution.
Fermentation of this algal sugar solution (15.2 g.L-1 of reducing sugar) by Saccharomyces
cerevisiae was performed to produce ethanol (0.85-1.0%). Varied ethanol percentages
were found based on the variation of hydrolysis time, the concentration of sulfuric acid
and fermentation time. This process provided the assurance in a defined way for biofuel
production from other carbohydrates enriched microalgae [82].
4.3 Biobutanol production

Biobutanol is a potential biofuel, exhibiting similar energy to that of gasoline. Design and
selection of a complete industrial scale of biobutanol production plant using microalgae
as the feedstock have been reported [83]. Clostridium acetobutylicum has produced the
butanol titre (3.86g.L-1) with yield (0.13 g/g-carbohydrate) via Acetone n-butanol and
35
ethanol (ABE) fermentation by using microalgae biodiesel residues as a substrate with

one-third of carbohydrate residue. Biological butanol production from microalgae
biodiesel residues reported for further research on fermentation strategies for improving
the production yield of n-butanol. Normally the highest butanol yield of 0.4 g/g-glucose
has been reported with 60 g.L-1 of glucose and 18 g.L-1 of butyrate by C. acetobutylicum
with approximately one-third of carbohydrate residual [84].
Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum N1- 4 in ABE fermentation has used
microalgae biomass (cultivated wastewater) as feedstock by utilization proper
pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. Addition of 1% glucose has significantly
improved the ABE yield of 0.311 g/g (1.6 fold) and production 0.102 g.L-1h-1 [85].
photoautotrophically cultivated microalgae Chlorella vulgaris (111g of acid-pretreated
biomass) has been utilized for butanol production (titre~3.37g.L-1) with a Clostridium
acetobutylicum strain in acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation. Microalgae have
shown their capability to mitigate CO2 emission via the conversion of CO2 into biomass
(as a source of abundant in carbohydrates) and emerged as third-generation feedstock for
fermentation [86].
Microalgal biomass has been examined as a biodiesel feedstock due to its ability to
accumulate oil bodies, and it has been considered a promising substrate for ABE
fermentation because its structure contains starch. Modelling approaches have been
utilized under a single-nutrient basis to predict lipid formation. A predictive multi-
parameter kinetic model has been used for optimization of the starch formation during
microalgae cultivation. The algal growth rate is affected by nitrogen, phosphorus, and the
carbon sources with an exhibition of a compartmentalized biomass structure of active
biomass with starch and lipids components. Lab-scale cultures of Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii CCAP 11/32C under various nutrient concentrations have grown
mixotrophically. Model fitting parameters have been used through an in-house developed
optimization algorithm via linking stochastic and deterministic methods with avoidance
of getting trapped in local optima. This model has used the optimal conditions for
maximum starch formation. Biobutanol has been produced through renowned ABE
fermentation (a microbial process) [87].
4.4 Biohydrogen production

Bio-hydrogen from microalgae (cyanobacteria) has enhanced our commercial awareness
as a clean source of biofuel and has shown its potential as an alternative, reliable and
renewable energy source. Photosynthetic hydrogen production from microalgae is
reported as promising options for clean energy. Advances in hydrogen-fuel-cell
technology have provided an eco-friendly way of biofuel production and its use for
36
generating electricity with the release of water as a byproduct. Advances in

genetic/metabolic engineering in microalgal species have enhanced the photobiological
hydrogen production with manipulation of competing for metabolic pathways by
modulating the certain key enzymes (hydrogenase or nitrogenase or both) [88].
Biological route of H2 production is found at low operating cost-effective with the
requisition of economic viability. Utilization of large-scale microalgae biomass
sustainable for hydrogen production via photobioreactors has been started with recent
technological progress with modified enzymes involvement as well as genetic or
metabolic engineering approaches [89]. Two biological methods for hydrogen production
from microalgae are reported. In the first method, microalgae have utilized the light
energy to produce hydrogen from water whereas in the second one, bacteria with
capability for fermenting the carbohydrates (i.e. structural or stored in the microalgal cell
wall) are used to produce hydrogen. These approaches are direct and indirect
biophotolysis and strategies for using microalgae as feedstock for dark fermentation for
hydrogen generation. Further improvement in hydrogen production can be done by
identifying technological bottlenecks, detecting the weaknesses and focusing the research
efforts [90].
Microalgae with remarkable molecular pathways have generated biohydrogen as an
environmentally friendly and sustainable energy source. The effect of environmental
factors has simulated outdoor conditions using Chlamydomonas reinhardtii D1 mutant
strains and CC124 as a control strain. The D1 mutant strains have shown effective
hydrogen generation capacity whereas strain D239-40 has been found more attractive in
term of hydrogen output due to having a promising D1 protein mutant. Further
developments in both strains were done in genetic and bioprocess aspects to scaling up
and commercialization for outdoor cultures [91]. Hydrogen has been reported as a zero-
carbon and energy dense alternative energy carrier with clean-burning properties.
Biohydrogen production by microalgae has reduced the emissions of GHGs to great
extent. Biohydrogen is produced through dark fermentation using sugars, starch, or
cellulosic materials whereas microalgae-based biohydrogen production is by photolysis
[92]. Algal strain Chlorella vulagaris is used to produce the H2 gas in biophotolysis.
Initial substrate concentration (5- 40 g,L-1, optimum at 10 g.L-1), initial pH (6-10,
optimum at 8) and total of nitrogen and phosphate contents (10-30% optimum at 10%)
for the Bold's Basal culture (BBC) media concentration are found to affect the hydrogen
production (10 g.L-1) [93].
37
4.5 Biodiesel production

Microalgal biodiesel is made up of lipid content, often low quantity in a green microalgal
species like Chlorella vulgaris as a potential feedstock for biodiesel. Identification with
evaluation of the relationships between the critical variables in microalgal species can
enhance the lipid yield via characterization of various factors for biodiesel production.
Multifactor optimization has reported enhancing the lipid pool to 55% dry cell weight
compared to 9% control. C. vulgaris cells have been pre-grown in glucose (0.7%)
supplemented medium and transferred to the optimized conditions at the second stage. It
has boosted to lipid yield (20-fold higher) and titre of 1974 mg.L−1 than the control. The
transesterified C. vulgaris oil has shown the presence of ∼82% saturated fatty acids with
palmitate and stearate as the major components with oxidative stability of biodiesel. The
biodiesel properties such as density, viscosity, acid value, iodine value, calorific value,
cetane index, ash and water contents have been compared with the international (ASTM
and EN) and Indian standards (IS) for biodiesel quality. C. vulgaris biomass (potentially
a renewable feedstock) with 55% lipid content has been reported as adequate biodiesel
source [94].
Microalgae Chlorella pyrenoidosa has been grown autotrophically in a vertical bioreactor
for its greater efficiency to enhance the biomass concentration and lipid content and it has
inoculated to the vertical bioreactor to increase in growth with the effect of different
concentrations of nitrogen source (0-0.4 g.L-1 KNO3, with optimal at 0.05 g.L-1) and lipid
content (15%). With the decrease in nitrate concentration in the medium has found to
decrease the biomass production with increased lipid content. Concentration-effect of
nitrate source is found to accumulate more lipids in stationary phase compared to
exponential phase. Nitrogen starvation has been an effective approach to enhance lipid
for biofuel production in Chlorella pyrenoidosa [95].
Microalgae have been considered an attractive medium for capturing the excess CO2
from the atmosphere. Power plants, automobiles, volcanic eruption, decomposition of
organic matters and forest fires generate CO2 as a GHGs component. Capturing of CO2
through microalgae species has been reported as a potential carbon source to produce
lipids for the generation of biofuel. Recent developments in the field of biological carbon
capture through microalgae has been found towards the generation of biodiesel with help
in selection of significance of certain key parameters such as selection of efficient strain,
microalgal metabolism, cultivation systems (open and closed) and biomass production
along with the national and international biodiesel specifications and its properties. The
potential use of photobioreactors have been reported for biodiesel production under the
influence of various factors viz., light intensity, pH, time, temperature, CO2 concentration
38
and flow with more focus on economic and future overview on biodiesel production from
microalgae [96].
Commercial production of microalgal biodiesel is not found economically viable due to
low storage lipid yield. Selection of lipid-rich microalgae is an important task for
microalgal biodiesel production. Laboratory screening protocols with a comprehensive
assessment of microalgae species have been done under the laboratory as well as fields
conditions. Graesiella sp. WBG-1 has the capability of accumulating a large amount of
storage lipid content (33.4 % DW with 90% of storage TAGs) under natural solar
irradiance and temperature with pilot-scale raceway pond. It has shown the feasibility of
using a low-cost raceway pond for autotrophic cultivation of microalgae for biodiesel
production [97].
4.6 Biogas (Methane) production

Microalgae are potential feedstocks biomass for biogas production. Hydrolysis and
methanogenesis are two main bioprocesses for biogas production. Low-cost biorefinery
approach has been reported for producing additional products (using carbon dioxide and
digestates) rather than methane generated during anaerobic digestion (AD). Limitations
of commercialization using microalgae for the production of biogas have also discussed
with the implementation of a number of research projects on microalgal species
improvement with supported worldwide [98].
For conversion of microalgae into biofuels/biogases, anaerobic digestion (AD) of
microalgal biomass has been reported as energy efficient technologies. Improved biogas
productivity has been found by breaking up the tough and rigid cell wall of microalgae by
pretreatment with the utilization of Bacillus licheniformis. Pretreatment process for
Chlorella sp with pure bacterial culture (0 and 8% v/v) has been reported under an
anaerobic condition at 370C for 60 h. Enhancement in methane production (9.2–22.7%)
has been reported in subsequent AD with more dosages of bacteria for pretreating the
microalgal biomass (1–8%). Improvement in volatile fatty acids (VFAs) (17.3–44.2%)
has also observed with increased soluble chemical oxygen demands (SCOD) content
(16.4–43.4%) [99].
The anaerobic co-digestion has been done for microalgal biomass grown in wastewater
and wheat straw. Biochemical methane potential (BMP) tests have performed with
different substrate proportions (20–80, 50–50 and 80–20%) on a volatile solid basis. For
improvements in their mass biodegradability, the co-digestion of both substrates
(microalgal biomass and 50% of wheat) has been evaluated after applying a thermo-
alkaline pretreatment (10% CaO at 750C for 24 h). Co-digestion of 50% microalgae –
50% wheat straw has been done in mesophilic lab-scale reactors with enhanced methane
39
yield (77%) [100]. Ruminal fluid as a source of hydrolytic microorganisms has been
utilized for the pretreatment of microalgae (Senedesmus). In a bioreactor, use of enriched
culture microalgae to the ruminal fluid ratio (S/X: 0.5) has been reported for the
hydrolysis (29%) with subsequent production of methane yield for 7 days. The main
predominant ruminal hydrolytic bacteria were principally Clostridium, Proteocatella and
Pseudomonas [101].
Conclusion
Microalgae species are available as alternative substrate /source for biofuel synthesis as
these have shown an environmentally friendly nature with the capability to capture CO2
gas for the accumulation of rich oil contents for biofuel (biodiesel, bioethanol / n-butanol,
methane or hydrogen gas as production capability). Microalgae are utilized as low cost
and promise substrate for third generation biofuels production. Microalgae-MFC has
been utilized in electricity generation by using the electrons released to the anode
electrode. Microalgae have also been utilized in electricity generation via wastewater
treatment with removal of toxic compounds. Lipid degradation processes in microalgae
have been reported for their survival and cells grown under fluctuating environmental
conditions. Microalgae cultivation and process designing have been reported for algal
biodiesel production. Lipids from microalgae have been utilized for the production of
biodiesel fuel by transesterification process. Lab-scale photobioreactors (PBRs) have
been utilized for cultivation of microalgae via utilization of wastewater or organic
compost with sufficient nutrients to sustain its growth. We need to focus more research
on the development of microalgae species with more lipid storage capacity via utilization
of wastewater treatment and ability to utilize the excess CO2. As microalgae species are
not a competitor for arid / fertilized land (utilize for food cultivation) they shoould be
promoted as a source for biofuel production for future energy demand.
Abbreviations
ABE: Acetone–Butanol–Ethanol; ACCase: Acetyl-CoA carboxylase; AD: Anaerobic
digestion; Algal Res: Algal research; Appl Biochem Biotechnol: Applied biochemistry
and biotechnology; ASTM: American section of the international association for testing
materials; BBC: Bold's basal culture; Biol Evol: Biology evolution Biol: Biology;
Biomass Bioenergy: Biomass and bioenergy; Bioresour Technol: Bioresource
technology; Biotechnol Adv: Biotechnology advances; Biotechnol: Biotechnology;
BMP: Biochemical methane potential; BPV: Biophotovoltaic; CaO: Calcium oxide;
Cas: CRISPR-associated; CE: Columbic efficiency Chin J Chem Eng: Chinese journal
of chemical engineering; CO2: Carbon dioxide; COD: Chemical oxygen demand;
40
Comm: Communications; CRISPR: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic

Repeats; Curr Opin Chem Biol: Current opinion in chemical biology; DC/L: Dry cell
per litre; EN: European Standard; Ener: Energy; Environ Sci Pollut Res Int:
Environmental science and pollution research international; Environ: Environment;
FAME: Fatty acid monoalkyl esters; FANTOM: Functional annotation of the
mammalian genome; FAS: Fatty acid synthase; Front Environ Sci Eng: Frontiers of
environmental science and engineering; GHGs: Green house gases; GM: Genetically
modified; g.L-1: Gram per litre; HR: Homologous recombination; HTL: Hydrothermal
liquefaction; Int: International; IS: Indian standards; J Acad Indust Res: Journal of
academia and industrial research; J Biosci Bioeng: Journal of bioscience and
bioengineering; Kbp: Kilo-base pair; KNO3: Potassium nitrate; LC-PUFA: Long-chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids ; LHC: Light-harvesting chlorophyll; mA: Milli ampere;
Mbp: mMega base pair; Mdh: Malate dehydrogenase (gene), Metab Eng: Metabolic
Engineering; MFCs: Microbial fuel cells; Microb Cell Fact: Microbial cell factory;
Microbiol: Microbiology; mW/m2/L: Milliwatt per square meter per litre; NADH:
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; nmoleH2mg Chl-1s-1): Nanomole hydrogen
milligram per chlorophyll per second; OCND: One-stage continuous N-deprivation;
OCNL: One-stage continuous N-limitation; OCNS: One-stage continuous N-sufficiency;
ORR: Oxygen reduction reaction; PBRs: Photobioreactors; pfl: pyruvate formate-lyase
(gene); Physiol: Physiology; PGM: Platinum group metal; Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol:
Prikladnaia biokhimiia i mikrobiologiia; Proc Natl Acad Sci: Proceedings of the national
academy of sciences; Process Biochem: Process biochemistry; PS: Photosystem;
PUFAs: Polyunsaturated fatty acids; Renew Sust Energ Rev: Renewable and
sustainable energy reviews; Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci: Research journal of
pharmaceutical, biological and chemical sciences; RIKEN : Rikagaku kenkyūjyo; RNAi:
RNA interference; RRDE: Rotating ring disk electrode; S/X: Substrate/ microbial
biomass; SSM: Sacrificial support method; SCOD: Soluble chemical oxygen demands;
SMFC: Single-chamber MFC; Sta: Starch accumulation; TAG: Triacylglyceride;
TALEN: Transcription activator-like effector nucleases; TBNS: Two-stage batch N-
starvation; Ter: Trans-enoyl-CoA reductase; TG: Triacylglycerol; Thaps3:
Thalassiosira pseudonana; TP: Total phosphate; Trends Biotechnol: Trends in
biotechnology
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52
Chapter 3
Microbial Fuel Cell Operating Conditions
Naveen Patel1a*, Dhananjai Rai2b, MD. Zafar Ali Khan3b, Shivam Soni1d, Umesh Mishra1e and
Biswanath Bhunia4f
1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Agartala, Agartala-799046,
Tripura, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Bundelkhand Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Jhansi, Jhansi-284128, Uttar Pradesh, India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Government Polytechnic College, Gonda, Gonda-271001,
Uttar Pradesh, India
4
Department of Bio Engineering, National Institute of Technology Agartala, Agartala-799046,
Tripura, India
a
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
d
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The exploitation of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas have been increasing and is
creating a worldwide energy crisis. Because of global environmental concerns about
pollution and energy uncertainty, sustainable and clean energy resources are needed to be
investigated. Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is such a technology, which uses organic
compounds and converts it into electrical energy through catalytic reactions by
microorganisms. The electricity generation efficiency of MFC is greatly influenced by
various physical and chemical parameters i.e. operating conditions like temperature, pH,
type of oxidant, electrode surface area, electrolyte conductivity and substrate, etc.
Keywords
MFC, Operating Condition, Substrate, Oxidant, Electrode, Conductivity
List of Abbreviations
MFC Microbial fuel cell
PTFE Polytetra fluoroethylene
CoTMPP Cobalt tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin
53
AC Activated carbon
RVC Reticulated vitreous carbon
CNT Carbon nanotubes
MEA Membrane electrode assembly
UMFC Upflow Microbial fuel cell
PEM Proton exchange membrane
CEM Cation exchange membrane
AEM Anion exchange membrane
BPM Bipolar membrane
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CE Coulombic efficiency
OCP Open circuit potential
Contents
1. Introduction..............................................................................................55
2. Cathode Electrode ...................................................................................55
2.1 Cathode Electrode with Catalysts ......................................................55
2.2 Cathode Electrode without Catalysts.................................................56
3. Anode electrode Materials and surface modification ..........................57
4. Reactor configuration..............................................................................59
5. Membranes/Separators Tested in MFC ................................................60
5.1 Ion Exchange Membrane ...................................................................60
5.2 Size Selective Separators ...................................................................61
6. Effect of Temperature on MFC Performance ......................................62
7. Substrates (Fuels) in the MFC Anode Chamber ..................................62
8. Electrolyte Conductivity .........................................................................63
9. Electrolyte pH in Governing MFC Performances................................64
54
10. Oxidants in an MFC Cathode.................................................................65

Conclusions .........................................................................................................67
References ...........................................................................................................67
1. Introduction
Development and industrialization are obligatory to produce power from available
resources to fulfil the world's increasing energy demand. Fossil fuels such as natural gas,
coal, and petroleum are being exploited more to fulfil the energy requirements.
Dependence on these natural sources is unsustainable due to pollution and limited
availabilities which have further created the problem of a global energy crisis. Lots of
research is going in the quest for developing highly efficient energy transformations and
ways to utilize alternative renewable energy sources [1]. Hence, the development of an
alternate long-term energy source is necessary. Bioelectricity generation using microbial
fuel cells (MFCs) is one of the areas of green energy productions utilizing renewable
resources. MFC is a bio-electrochemical device, which utilizes organic matter and
degrades them into smaller molecules through the catalytic activities of microorganisms
to generate electricity [2]. The MFC's performance is largely affected by many physical
and chemical parameters, such as membrane/separator, types of oxidants, electrode
surface area [3], electrode material [4], reactor configuration [5], pH, types of oxidants,
electrolyte conductivity, substrates (fuels) and temperature [6]. By optimizing these
operating parameters, the performance of MFC can be enhanced by decreasing the
polarizations/internal resistance. This chapter encapsulates details related to the effects of
these operating parameters on MFC performance
2. Cathode Electrode
2.1 Cathode Electrode with Catalysts

Cathode catalyst plays an important role in enhancing the cathode performance by
lowering the cathodic activation overpotential and reducing the cost of construction. The
catalyst cost in air cathode MFCs comprises 47% of the total capital cost [7]. One of the
most regularly used cathode catalysts is platinum (Pt). It is used for the reduction of
oxygen in both aqueous and air cathode MFCs. However, the Pt catalysts are expensive
and can only be used at laboratory scale. To decrease the loading ratio of platinum
without further effect on its catalytic performance, various studies have been carried out
by researchers. By employing an electron beam evaporation method for Pt deposition on
carbon paper, the thickness of platinum layer has been reduced up to 1000 A. In the same
55
study, reduction in loading along with increase in current density (0.42 A m-2) as
compared to large scale (commercial) available Pt-black (0.22 A m-2, Vulcan XC-72, E-
Tek) was observed [8]. The binding energies of oxygen can be reduced by using Pt in a
combination of transition metals like Fe, Co and Ni. Higher power density
(1681 mW m-2) was obtained, when carbon electrode doped Pt-Co alloy in the ratio of 2:1
as compared to the power density (1315 mW m-2) obtained by using platinum-coated
carbon paper for MFC operation [9]. By doping MnO2 with cobalt, an increase in the
value of current generation was observed from 86 mW m-2 (when only MnO2 was used as
a control) to 180 mW m-2, which is close to the value obtained by Pt (198 mW m-2) [10].
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and perfluorosulphonic acid (Nafion) are the most
commonly used binders for coating the catalyst (Pt or CoTMPP stands for cobalt
tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin) on the electrode substrate.
A comparative study was performed by Cheng et al,. for employing two binders namely
Nafion and PTFE for coating Pt catalyst in a single chamber air cathode MFCs. During
their study, they observed the maximum power of 480 mW m-2 when Nafion was used as
binder whereas 331 mW m-2 was the maximum power density when using PTFE as a
binder. Because of the hydrophobicity of PTFE, biofilm formation was found to be low
and thin on using PTFE as binder [11]. Coating of CoTMPP catalyst using Nafion as
binder was also studied and the generated power was 369 mW m-2. In terms of cost,
Nafion binder cost was 500 times more than the PTFE binder. Nowadays, researchers
have developed biocathodes for reducing overpotentials. Biocathodes have the ability to
perform reduction reaction in MFC electrodes and are microbially catalysed. These
biocathodes are being considered as an alternative for replacing expensive catalysts. The
biocathodes are getting popularity because of their several advantages such as low cost,
reclamation nature, efficiency in wastewater treatment, environmental compatibility, and
biogas generation capability.
2.2 Cathode Electrode without Catalysts

Electrodes without catalyst like plain carbon paper can be used in MFCs but such
electrodes have the ability to produce power density of smaller quantity i.e. 0.04 mW m-3
with respect to the cathode working volume [12]. High power density of 50 mW m-3
(cathode working volume) was reported by Frehuia et al. when the air cathode MFC was
operated by using granular graphite electrode [13]. Plain cathode electrodes with larger
areas have been used by various researchers. Graphite rods, graphite plates, carbon
material (like carbon cloth or carbon paper) and activated carbon (AC) with high porosity
are essential for higher power generation [13]. For reduction of oxygen, various
chemicals such as HNO3, H3PO4 and KOH can be used for pre-treatment of AC cathodes.
56
Use of AC with HNO3 for MFC operations, among all these available chemicals for pre-
treatment, leads to exhibit higher power density of 170 mW cm-2 as compared to 51 mW
m-2 which was obtained without pre-treatment of AC. But still these cathode electrodes
without catalyst due to some reason have relatively smaller power density when
compared with Pt-coated AC [14].
3. Anode electrode Materials and surface modification

Carbon-based materials like graphite rod, graphite plate, carbon cloth, graphite fibre
brush, carbon paper and reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) have been commonly used as
anode material for most of the MFC operations. The properties like good electrical
conductivity, chemical stability and lower resistance of these carbon materials makes
them suitable for using as anode materials in MFCs. Use of high conductivity electrode
helps in increasing the power of MFCs by decreasing internal resistance (up to a few
ohms). The electrical conductivities for graphite fibre, carbon paper and carbon cloth
evaluated in a study conducted by Logan were 1.6, 0.8, and 2.2 Ω cm-1 respectively [15].
The anode electrodes made of carbon paper are quite often used in MFC operations as
these are quite thin and brittle as compared to other electrodes. This property facilitates
them to get easily connected to electrical wire and to be further sealed with non-
conductive resin. Graphite sheets, rods and plates can be used for anode electrode either
separately or in combination with AC. Use of graphite felt for MFC operations was found
to be more efficient as compared to graphite [16]. Because of the spongy structure of the
graphite, the power density increased up to 23% by increasing the anode thickness to 1.27
cm from 0.32 cm [17]. The carbon cloths because of their highly flexibility, porosity and
firmness provide a higher surface area for bacterial growth and can be used in flat plate
MFC operations. Graphite fibre brushes because of their properties like low electrical
resistance and high surface area availability for growth of bacteria have been found
suitable for application in MFC operations. Graphite fibre brushes are made up of
graphite fibres, which have been wounded with titanium or stainless steel wires
(electrically conductive and non-corrosive). With the application of graphite fibre brushes
as anode electrode material, increase in power density of about 2.4 times has been noticed
when compared with the use of carbon paper as anode in MFC operations (from 600 to
1430 mW m-2) [15, 18]. A Comparison study performed using carbon paper and carbon
brush anodes for MFC operation (anode electrode materials) in terms of power generation
is shown in Fig.1.
57
Fig. 1. Power density curves in single chamber bottle type MFCs with carbon paper and
carbon brush anodes [18].
Reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) because of its, high conductivity, porosity and brittle
nature has been used by many researchers but its cost is higher than other carbon
materials used as an anode electrode. In recent years, stainless steel, gold, ceramic with
carbon and titanium are few other non-carbon materials which have been used as anode
materials [19, 20]. In a study conducted by Dumas et al., on the use of stainless steel as
anode material in MFC operations, low power density was generated (4 mW m-2) [21].
Whereas another study performed by Richter et al., revealed that gold cannot be used by
it self as anode electrode [22].
Surface modification of anode electrode has been attempted in order to increase the
performance of MFC operations using a particular anode. In one of the successful
modifications suggested by Cheng and Logan, the carbon cloth anode was treated with
5% NH3 gas at 700°C using helium as carrier gas. It has been found that the power
increased (1640 4 to 1970 4 mW m-2) and lag period reduced up to 50% along with an
increase in positive surface charge from 0.38 to 3.9 meq m-2. It has been observed that
surface coating with materials like polyaniline, carbon nanotubes (CNT), metals and
composites of these materials (polymer/CNTs) resulted in improving power generation.
The surface area and adhesion of bacteria on the surface of the material can be increased
58
by coating polyaniline on the MFC anodes, which further help, in enhancing the
maximum power densities of MFC operations [24]. The coating of the anode with CNT
helps in increasing the transfer of an electron to the electrode from bacteria and also helps
in decreasing the internal resistance of MFC [25]. There are different types of surface
treatments which include; (a) heating of carbon mesh at 450°C for 30 min [26], (b)
oxidation of carbon electrodes surface using acid (sulphuric acid) and (c) combination of
both heat and acid treatment [27]. These treatments lead to (1) lesser contaminant
formation (2) Increase in specific surface area and (3) more positive charge transfer to
electrode [27].
Recently, applying of 1.85 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) to graphite plates in electrochemical
oxidation method had gained a lot of attention. The power density with pre-treatment can
be increased (39 to 58%) [28]. Guo et al., has reported that on increasing the surface
roughness of graphite rod/sheets/plates by sandpaper, higher power generation can be
achieved [29]. By use of mediators like neutral red and methylene blue (MB), electrons
can be transferred from bacterial cell to electrode [30]. Continuous wash out during batch
mode operation is one of the major limitations related to the use of these mediators which
are required to be supplemented continuously, so that the performance of MFC can be
maintained. This problem of washing out can be solved by using immobilized lipases
which are sustainable for higher duration.
4. Reactor configuration
Reactor volume variation, spacing of electrode, hydraulic flow pattern, oxygen supply,
and membrane area are the reactors configuration and these are the main operating
conditions that affect the performance of MFC. Double chamber "H" type MFCs, among
various types of MFCs, have been used most frequently by the researchers. One of the
major important aspects of using this type of MFC is that it helps in limiting the substrate
and oxygen crossover with increase in diffusion of proton through ion exchange
compartment [31]. The performance of MFC was decreased as the distance between the
electrodes was increased as it leads to increase in internal resistance. Therefore, clamping
of electrodes along with the membranes or separators has been done by various
researchers [32]. In double chamber MFCs, by maintaining small spacing between
electrodes, the internal resistance was lower (93Ω) [32] compared to the value obtained
by other researches who performed the operation by maintaining larger spacing of
electrodes for MFC operations (672Ω) [33]. Unknown power densities were developed
due to the application of different configurations of the MFCs and this unknown power
generated can be calculated by using Eq.1, which is based on the difference in internal
and external resistances of the two systems [31, 34].
59
(eq. 1)
Where,
= power density (mW m-2) with advanced configuration of MFC.
= power density with H type MFC.
= internal resistance of H type MFC.
= internal resistance of an advanced cell
MFCs configuration with advanced ion transport design leads to increase in power
production which was nearly 17% more than the salt bridge MFCs [34]. Just like the
previous study, it was observed that bottle type MFCs were less efficient than the cube
type MFCs [35]. A comparative study was carried out between single chamber bottle and
cube type MFCs by Logan et al. and it was reported that the higher power density was
obtained by a cube type MFC than the bottle type MFC (i.e. 2400 mWm-2 for cube type
and 1200 mWm-2 for bottle type). Further, the internal resistance for cube MFC was
smaller i.e. (8 Ω) whereas, internal resistance for the bottle type was higher (20 Ω).
Sandwich type MFCs with membrane electrode assembly (MEA) has shown higher
power density as compared to MFC with spacing between the cathode and anode
electrodes of 1.7 cm. However, main problems such as water leakage, evaporation and
high oxygen demand are associated with the use of single chamber MFC. These problems
can be eliminated by using PTFE diffusion layers on cathode, which will further help in
increasing the CE and maximum power densities [36]. He et al. have studied two
different configurations of upflow MFCs (UMFCs) and they have found maximum power
density of 170 mWm-2 from one reactor and 29.2 mWm-2 from other reactor with internal
resistances of 84 Ω and 17 Ω respectively [26, 37]. The maximum density (309 mWm-2)
was obtained by flat plate MFC [12].
5. Membranes/Separators Tested in MFC
5.1 Ion Exchange Membrane

Exchange of cations or protons in MFC operations from anode to cathode chamber is
basically done with the help of proton exchange membrane (PEM) or cation exchange
membrane (CEM). Nafion-117 with sulphonate (SO3) and hydrophobic fluorocarbon
backbone (CF2-CF2) groups is the most common CEM, for diffusion of cations. Whereas
60
CMI-700 is another most frequently used CEM/PEM, it consists of strong acidic

polymeric membrane with divinylbenzene and gel polystyrene structure. CMI-700 in
comparison with Nafion-117 has better mechanical durability, cation conductivity and
sustainability but exhibits higher ohmic resistance. Moreover, in recent years several low
cost CEMs (SPEEK and Hyflon) have been developed which have shown better
performance than the conventional CEMs like Nafion and CMI-700, in terms of power
density, ohmic resistance and conductivity [38, 39]. CEMs have certain limitations in
MFC operations, which include; (1) proton and cation competition, (2) biofouling and (3)
high cost for practical operations. Competition in proton and cation transport results in
decrease in pH at anode which further causes increase in internal resistance and variation
in power densities [40]. Anion exchange membranes (AEMs) can be used in place of
CEMs in MFC operations as these have ability to produce higher current generation. The
protons generated at the anode are consumed by carbonate or phosphate anions and
without decrease in pH at anode these are efficiently transferred to the cathode and anions
thus help in intensifying the performance of MFCs. A comparative study carried out on
CEM and AEM in MFCs operation by Kim et al. showed maximum power densities
gained by both as 0.48 and 0.61 mW m-2 respectively [35]. Bipolar membranes (BPMs)
composed of two monopolar membranes of AEM and CEM, have been used in the MFCs
operation for transporting both positive and negative ions. Because of their unique
composition, BPMs can be used in process of desalination [41].
5.2 Size Selective Separators

Based on pore size, the size separators have been classified into two categories and these
are; (1) course porous separators, and (2) microporous separators. Examples of
microporous membranes are ultrafiltration and microfiltration membranes whereas
examples of course pore separators are nylon mesh, glass fibre, and fabric materials.
Various types of the microporous separators have been used for studying the process used
in water and wastewater treatments because of their durability and performance. Anode
and cathode solutions are physically separated by microporous separators which have the
ability to allow the diffusion of charged as well as neutral species because of their
effective pore sizes. Zuo et al. conducted a study on Tabular MFCs, which were formed
by coating catalytic and conductive layers on UF and higher power density of
17.7 mW m-3 was observed by these as compared to 6.6 mW m-3 with CEM alone [42].
Fabric, glass and nylon mesh filter (course pore filter) have been reported to show great
practical applications because of their cost-effectiveness and higher power density
generation [32]. According to a comparative study, the power density was increased
when size selective separators for MFC operations was used instead of an ion exchange
membrane [31, 43]. However, the major limitations related to the size-selective
61
separators have been higher diffusion of oxygen and substrate cross over. Though, this
problem can be solved by increasing the distance between electrodes as suggested by few
researchers but it can also lead to increase in internal resistance [44]. Therefore, further
research is required to be done in this field so that the MFCs performance with size-
selective separators can be optimized.
6. Effect of Temperature on MFC Performance

The temperature effect on MFC operating conditions is very important to be studied for
maximum power generation. Temperature variation causes effect on certain parameters
of MFC operations which includes Gibbs free energy, kinetics (activation energy, mass
transfer coefficient, and solution conductivity), electrode potential, chemical solubility
and the distribution as well as the activity of microorganisms on the electrodes [45]. In
one of the research, different operational temperatures (30, 35, 40 and 45°C) were used
for operating MFC in order to study the effect of temperature on MFCs operating
performance. It was observed that power densities increased from 764 to 1065 mW m-2
with increase in temperature along with decrease in internal resistance from 177 to 121 Ω
[46]. However, on further increase in temperature to 53°C, catalytic activity diminished,
whereas if the temperature was reduced to 10°C from 30°C, the potentials of anode and
cathode get reduced [46]. Min et al. reported decrease in the lag period and increase in
power density at 30°C [47]. In another study by Guerrini et al, it was noted that as the
operational temperature increased from 4 to 35°C, the current density also increased to
100 mA m-2 from 20 mA m-2 [19].
7. Substrates (Fuels) in the MFC Anode Chamber

Substrates immensely help in determining the MFCs operating conditions and hence are
considered to be one of the most important factors to be examined. Substrates have been
used for determination of maximum electricity generated by MFC operation [48]. Till
now, several substrates from pure (simple) to mixed (complex) types have been used in
MFCs for generation of electricity. Sources of substrates include agricultural wastewater,
domestic wastewater, industrial and animal wastewater and these sources have different
organic levels, complexity and microbial community. Complexity, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), bacterial community and pH of the wastewater are the most important
factors on which generation of electrode depends upon. As compared to complex
substrates, simple substrates can be easily utilised as source of energy [49]. Further, the
complex substrates require more time to be broken down into simpler molecules and then
utilised as source of energy. When simple substrates like acetate and glucose were used
in MFC operations in place of the complex ones like starch and cellulose, higher
62
Coulombic efficiency (CE) and electricity generation were observed. The double-
chambered MFC acetate fed has shown high CE value of 72.3% as compared to 43, 15
and 36% exhibited by butyrate, glucose and propionate respectively [50]. Whereas in
term of power density, glucose as substrate has the maximum of 156 as compared to 58 ,
51.4 and 64.3 mW m-2 of acetate, butyrate and propionate substrates respectively.
Fig. 2. Effect of solution concentration (conductivity) of 100 to 400 mM on MFC power

generation [6].
8. Electrolyte Conductivity
There are two categories in which the electrolytes of MFC have been classified. These
are; Anodic solution (anolyte) and cathodic solution (catholyte). Both of these play a very
important role in preventing imbalances and hence lead to better MFC performance.
According to the study conducted by Fan et al., the level of internal resistance of
electrolyte was increased (47.3 to 82.2%) as the phosphate buffer reduced to 50 mM from
200 mM [51]. In another study of membrane-free single chambered MFC, the internal
resistance was decreased from 161 to 91 Ω as NaCl (100mM) was added into 100mM
phosphate buffer as a supplement [6]. However, no significant change was observed on
further increasing the electrolyte concentration to 400 mM (200mM NaCl+200mM
phosphate) from 200 mM (100mM NaCl+100mM phosphate). Electrolyte concentration
greatly affect the MFCs internal resistance of anode, cathode and solution. In another
63
study, it has been reported that 36-78% of the total internal resistance was contributed by
the electrolyte resistance, whereas 2-35% of the resistance was contributed by the anode
[51]. Whereas in term of power density, a special observation was reported by Cheng and
Logan, that with increase of the electrolyte conductivity from 1.7 Ms cm-1 to 7.8 mS cm-1,
the power density increased to 33 mW m-3 from 16 mW m-3 [52]. This increase in power
density was observed up to 60 mW m-3 when the conductivity was increased to 20 mS
cm-1. In another study, it has been found that the addition of buffer in the primary sludge
led to increase in power generation of up to 1.5 times [53]. This increase in power density
was observed up to 60 mW m-3 till the conductivity was increased to 20 mS cm-1. The
power generated in a single chambered air cathode MFC can be increased by 85%, as the
buffer concentration (conductivity) of solution level increased to 400 mM from 100 mM
as shown in Fig. 2 [6].
9. Electrolyte pH in Governing MFC Performances

The pH of the electrolyte plays a very crucial role in maintaining the proton transfer in
the MFC, bacterial growth along with its metabolism on the anode, and oxygen reduction
at the cathode. Electron and proton are generated at the anode and eventually transferred
to the cathode for reduction process, leading to the production of electricity [54, 55]. Till
now, in most of the studies pH changes and potential imbalances between the anode and
the cathode have been maintained by adding a buffer [56].
As the pH decreases, the acidic condition develops on the anode because of the
production of H+ ions due to the oxidation of organic substrates by the bacteria present on
it, whereas the cathode electrode is alkaline in nature due to the production of OH- ions.
Optimum pH plays a very important role in generating electrons and electrogenic bacteria
which exhibit a positive effect on MFCs current generation. Different bacterial species in
the anodic chamber are mainly responsible for variation in optimum pH condition [57]. In
a study by He et al. it was observed that with an increase in the pH from 5 to 7, the
anodic polarisation resistance was decreased whereas, with an increase in pH from 7 to
10, the polarisation resistance increased [57]. Maximum power densities can be obtained
by using primary sludge from a wastewater treatment plant at neutral pH (rather than
acidic) [53]. While in another study, the maximum power generated in a fed-batch MFC
was obtained at pH of 6, by using anaerobic sewage sludge [58]. With using the pure
culture of Bacillus strain, maximum MFC performance was achieved at pH of 10.5 (more
alkaline pH) [59]. Operational pH is the main factor responsible due to which Coulombic
efficiencies of MFC get influenced. The following Nernst equations (Eqs. 2 and 3) can be
used for calculation of potential of oxygen reduction on cathode at pH 7.
64
eq. (2)
eq. (3)
Where,
= half-cell reduction potential
= standard potential
= universal gas Constant
= temperature in Kelvin
= number of electrons transferred, and
= Faraday's constant (the number of Coulombs per mole of electrons).
Oxygen redox potentials of the cathode, previously reported by Logan et al. at various
pHs were 0.627 V (pH 10) and 0.805 V (pH 7) [2]. In another report, it was found that
when pH value decreased from 7 to 3.5, the value of open circuit potential (OCP)
increased to 1.38 from 0.90 V, whereas an increase in basic nature led to drop in OCP
[60].
10. Oxidants in an MFC Cathode

Various types of oxidants have been used in MFC operations for improving the overall
MFCs performance and determination of half-cell potential. The various types of
oxidants such as O2 (dissolved and gaseous), Fe (CN)6 3-, fumarate, NO3-, SO42-, MnO42-
and cytochromes have been used in MFC cathode as electron acceptors. Fig. 3 shows,
some of the common oxidants and their reduced forms, which are being used in the MFC
cathode. As per one of the research by Logan, it was found that oxygen because of its
availability and high redox potential (0.82 V), is the most commonly used oxidant in
MFCs [15]. But the theoretical value of cathode reduction potential with oxygen has been
lower than the practical value. The Eq. 4 shows that four electrons are required by
oxygen to get reduced to water but this process gets hindered due to the formation of
hydrogen peroxide with the use of two electrons.
65
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O (eq. 4)
O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O2 (eq. 5)
Fig. 3. Possible electron acceptors in MFC cathode chambers.
The formation of water is faster than hydrogen peroxide. However, hydroxide formation
is primarily responsible for the degradation of cathode materials and MFCs membrane,
but it also acts as a disinfectant for microbial contamination [2]. Some researchers have
tried to use Fe (CN)6 3- as an oxidant in place oxygen as it has high reduction potential as
well as the ability to replace the use of precious catalyst like platinum [60]. With the use
of ferricyanide catholyte, the voltage generation was increased to 11% (0.65 V) in
comparison to the MFC with aeration (0.578 V) [61]. In one of the similar study like
above, MFC catholytes with aerated ferricyanide have higher power generation of 155%
than the MFC catholytes with ferricyanide or only with aeration where power generation
was about 111% [62]. Permanganate's open circuit potential (OCP) of the cathode for
MFC operation was found to be higher as compared to that of oxygen (i.e. 1.7 V at pH
3.5 for permanganate whereas 0.8V at pH 7 for oxygen) [60]. Nitrate and sulphate with
biocathode (microbial interaction) along with a significant amount of oxygen
concentration can be used as final electron acceptors [63]. The performance of MFC gets
66
affected according to the concentration of reactant i.e. partial pressure of oxidisers (for
example use of oxygen in place of normal air) in the cathode according to Nernst Eq.3.
There are three possible effects due to the increase in partial pressures of oxygen [64].
These are (1) increase in OCP; (2) decrease in activation losses; and (3) increase in
limiting current due to a reduction in mass transport. Similar results were reported in one
of the studies by Kakarla et al. where MFCs performance (air cathode) was evaluated by
increasing the oxygen concentrations, supplied from externally connected algae
bioreactor [54].
Conclusions
MFCs architecture, temperature, electrode and catalyst materials, pH, membrane/
separator, conductivity and substrate concentration are the physical and chemical factors
which are very crucial for efficient, economic and sustainable MFC power generation and
hence optimization of these parameters is essential. Optimization becomes more essential
especially at the time of real field application of these MFCs, therefore the main
physicochemical parameters affecting the MFC operations need to be thoroughly
determined and optimized.
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Chapter 4
Microbial Fuel Cells Characterization
Fatma Aydin Unal1,2, Mehmet Harbi Calimli1,3, Hakan Burhan1, Fatma Sismanoglu1,
Busra Yalcın1, Fatih Şen1*
1
Sen Research Group, Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Arts and Science, Dumlupınar
University, Evliya Çelebi Campus, 43100 Kütahya, Turkey
2
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alanya Alaaddin
Keykubat University, 07450 Alanya/Antalya, Turkey
3
Tuzluca Vocational High School, Igdir University, Igdir, Turkey
[email protected]
Abstract
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) received considerable interest in recent years and represent a
promising technology based on the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy
by microbial catalysis. However, their power output and stability is low due to the
influence of the cathode, electrolyte, membrane, microorganism of the anode, and cell
configuration. The choice of appropriate characterization techniques and methods to
examine these problems, which limit the development of MFCs, is extremely important.
For this reason, this chapter focuses on biochemical and electrochemical characterization
techniques in order to examine a variety of surface morphology, analytical and
spectroscopic details.
Keywords
Fuel Cell, Microbial Fuel Cell, Characterization, Electrochemistry, SEM
Contents
1. Introduction..............................................................................................76
2. Characterization techniques of microbial fuel cells .............................77
2.1 Electrochemical techniques ...............................................................77
2.1.1 Voltammetric measurements .............................................................78
2.1.1.1 Cyclic voltammetry (CV) ................................................................78
2.1.2 Electrochemical spectroscopy technique (EST) ................................81
75
2.1.3 Chronoamperometric measurements .................................................82

2.1.3.1 Chronoamperometry (CA) ...............................................................82
2.1.4 Potentiometric measurements ............................................................82
2.1.4.1 Chronopotentiometry (CP) ..............................................................82
2.1.5 Polarization curves.............................................................................84
2.1.6 Power curves ......................................................................................86
2.2 Coulombic efficiency (CE) ................................................................87
2.3 Resistance ..........................................................................................88
2.4 Degradation efficiency.......................................................................88
2.5 Energy efficiency ...............................................................................88
2.6 Other characterization techniques .....................................................89
2.6.1 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) ...............................................89
2.6.2 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) ......................................................91
Conclusions .........................................................................................................91
References ...........................................................................................................92
1. Introduction
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) contain inorganic-organic substances and generate electrical
current by using bacteria as a catalyst. The electrons generated by the bacteria in these
materials are transmitted from the cathode to the anode. Under normal circumstances, a
positive current causes the reverse electron current from the positive point to the negative
point. For this purpose, different chemical mediators are used to generate the current
using bacteria from the electrode-free systems. The resulting electrons reach the cathode
to merge with protons thanks to the oxygen in the air and a separating material on the
anode, and so water is formed as a result of this process [1]. To characterize the contents
of the microbial fuel cell, some different techniques, such as CLSM (confocal laser
scanning microscopy), SEM (scanning electron microscopy), and fluorescence
microscopy are performed. These techniques detect growth patterns, heterogeneity, and
biofilm thickness-density on the anode surface in microbial fuel cells [2–5]. Besides, the
porosity of membrane materials and electrode are also characterized by using these
techniques. Other techniques, such as spectroscopic, electrochemical, and biochemical
are carried out to evaluate the structure of the product and the usage of the substrate and
the mediators in the microbial fuel cells. Among these, the spectroscopic techniques, such
as High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
76
(UV-VIS) [6] are used to detect the types of chemicals. The use of redox mediator as a
biochemical method is a quantitative measurement technique [7]. Cyclic voltammetry
(CV) [8], differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) [9], chronoamperometry (CA) [10],
chronopotentiometry (CP) [11], polarization curves [12], power curves [13], coulombic
efficiency [14], resistance [15], and energy efficiency [16] are electrochemical methods
which allow qualitative analysis. Among these techniques, cyclic voltammetry is the
most widely used method in biological fuel cells, and it is the basic structure to provide
electron transfer in the system [7].
2. Characterization techniques of microbial fuel cells

Lately, microbial fuel cells have been paid growing attention [17]. However, their power
output and stability is low due to the effect of the cathode, electrolyte, membrane, anodic
microorganism, and cell configuration, etc. The selection of appropriate characterization
techniques and evaluation methods are crucial to solve these problems. To effectively use
microbial fuel cells, it is necessary to take advantage of developments in different science
and engineering fields. Microbiology, molecular biology, electrochemistry, material
science, and environmental engineering provide information and technology for the
effective use of biological fuel cells. Looking at recent studies, it seems that the research
and characterization techniques for microbial fuel cells have increased steadily. In
summary, analysis methods, such as biochemical, electrochemical, and spectroscopic
methods, should be used to evaluate structurally and functionally the materials used in
microbial fuel cells [7–18]. In this chapter, these techniques are discussed in detail.
2.1 Electrochemical techniques

Electrochemistry gives the fundamental information of corrosion, battery coating,
electrode coating, biomedical applications, and electrosynthesis. The following reaction
depicts the primary reaction for electrochemistry.
Ox + ne- ↔ Red (1)
Where Ox and Red are the oxidized and reduced species, and n is the number of electrons
involved. The activity of the species presents the redox reaction activity and the standard
potential effect the electrode surface potential in the fuel cells. This is expressed by the
Nernst equation as follows [19]:
𝑅𝑅 a𝑜𝑜
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + ln (2)
𝑛𝑛 ared
77
Electrochemical/analytical techniques are very important to analyze mechanisms

(microbial, physiological, chemical and electron transport). Thus, these techniques are
useful for optimizing the operation of microbial fuel cells, promoting the electron transfer
process, and continuous innovation. Unlike conventional electrochemical systems, the
operation of microbial fuel cells is limited by optimal microbial growth and sustainability
requirements. Typical conditions contain ambient temperature and pressure, electrolytes
with a low concentration of ions, near neutral pH, etc. The following sections present the
electrochemical techniques that can be used in complex microbial fuel cells systems [20].
2.1.1 Voltammetric measurements
2.1.1.1 Cyclic voltammetry (CV)

In biochemistry, voltammetry is widely used to determine the catalytic flow and redox
conversion which occur on the surface of the electrodes in the presence of the enzyme
substrate. The linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) is another measure of linear waveform
versus potential time at the electrodes. The linear sweep voltammetry can measure the
scan rate depending on the slope of potential versus time graph [21]. A set of an
electrolytic microbial fuel cell consists of a reference electrode (RE), a counter electrode
(CE), and a working electrode (WE) [22]. The working electrode and the reference
electrode allow the cell potential to be measured [20]. In other words, the current
measurement in the cell is provided by these two electrodes. The representation of cyclic
voltammetry is given in Fig.1 and 2. The oxidation of the analyte present in the
electrolyte increases with the forward scan by increasing the potential. The surface of the
electrode is closed when the concentration of the analyte is decreased, and the potential
starts to decrease at the end of the process. A peak occurs for an analyte which can be
oxides in any range of the determined potential range. With the reversal of the previous
potential, the potential level reaches a quantity that can reduce the initial oxidation
product and the occurrence of an inverted polarity current from the forward scanning.
Cyclic voltammetry in microbial fuel cells is used to obtain information about the redox
reaction potentials in the analyte and the electrochemical ratios of the compounds in these
reactions.
The significant parameters related to the reaction in biological fuel cells are obtained by
anionic and cationic peak data, such as potentials and currents (Epa, Epc, Ipa, and Ipc) taken
from cyclic voltammogram. ΔE = Epa – Epc equation is used to evaluate the level of
electrochemical reversibility for redox reaction using the peak potentials [23].
78
Figure 1. A. Excitation signal: potential vs. time in CV; B. Cyclic voltammogram: current
vs. Potential.
The following equation is used to determine the potential of redox reaction occurring in a
microbial fuel cell.
Epa +Epc
E0 = (3)
2
Generally, the analyte concentration determines the peak height in a reaction having electron
transfer and diffusion control. The following equation is called Randles-Sevcik (Eq. 4) which is
used to calculate analyte current.
1�
nFvD 2
𝐼𝑝 = 0.4463 nFAC � � (4)
RT
where C is the concentration of analyte, A is the working electrode area (cm2), D is a

constant of diffusion for analyte (cm2/s), v is the scan rate (V/s), D is the diffusion
coefficient of the analyte (cm2/s), and n, F, R, T have their usual significance as defined
above for the Nernst Eq. (2). Using the Randle-Sevcik Equation, it is shown that the
79
graph between the square root of the scan rate and the peak current is linear [21]. In the
simplest case of Langmuir adsorption [21], the shape of the voltammogram is entirely
symmetric with identical areas under the two waves, and the peak potentials satisfy Epa =
Epc = E0. In this case, the peak current is proportional to v rather than to v1/2.
Figure 2. The principle of a three-electrode system.
It is relatively easy to determine whether a reaction is a reversible couple, with the help
of the cyclic voltammetry method. The required anion/cation ratio for an effective
reversible electrochemical system is 1, and the electrode potential separation rate in the
room conditions is 59.2 mV/n (n is the number of transferred electrons in electrochemical
reaction). The non–reversible systems have more differences with lower peak numbers
and peak potentials compared to reversible ones. The reason for this is the extension of
the time required for electron transfer in non-returnable systems [20]. In microbial fuel
cell researches, cyclic voltammetry methods were applied for (1) examining the direct or
indirect electron transfer mechanism between the biological membrane and the electrode,
(2) determining the anodic oxidation potential and the cathodic reduction potential,
including biological or chemical potential; (3) testing the performance of the catalyst
system [19]. The use of cyclic voltammetry technology is easy, but it takes time.
However, background experiments are necessary to guarantee the accuracy of the
mechanical work. The anode may contain peak current and peak potential direct or
indirect electron transfer from electrode interface reactions when the chamber is filled
80
with microbial assemblies. There are many unknown factors for complex systems, such
as wastewater [20]. The cyclic voltammetry curves are affected by the following factors:
pre-treatment of the electrode surface, microorganism types and their thermodynamic
properties, the rate of electron transfer reactions concentration of electroactive species
and their diffusion rates and sweep rate.
It should be noted that many electrode materials used in microbial fuel cells can not
fabricate reversible electrochemical reactions even for classical reversible redox couple
Fe(CN)63- /Fe(CN)64 [20–24]. This is mainly due to the fact that the heterogeneous
processes of electrode reactions can be considerably infected by the microstructure,
roughness, and functional groups present on the electrode surface. For example, an
electrode will fabricate different electrode reactions and different cyclic voltammetry
curves before and after polishing. For this reason, the electrode and operating terms must
be suitable for the proper definition of kinetic parameters [20].
2.1.2 Electrochemical spectroscopy technique (EST)

The electrochemical spectroscopy technique (EST) is applied to make the technical
examination. The displacement of the voltammetry electrodes applied with this technique
is accomplished by applying sweeps and potential steps. A small voltage is applied with
alternating current in the system, and then, the system response is investigated in the case
of equilibrium. In the electrochemical spectroscopy technique, there is no interference
during the application, so no damage occurs to the material. In other words,
measurements made in this system can be done without interruption. However, in other
characterization techniques, microbial fuel cells are degraded and require reanalysis of
the samples. In electrochemical spectroscopy technique, microbial fuel is also referred to
as a solid electrochemical material, since the voltage-current in the cell can be kept at the
same level. Electrochemical spectroscopy technique is widely used in corrosion and
various electrochemical fields. Electrochemical spectroscopy technique is also handy in
examining the effects of different internal resistances on the impedance of the fuel cells
[7]. Microbial fuel cells attract so much attention in producing alternative energy from
wastewater and organic wastes. However, excessive voltage loss and reduced electrical
power limit the use of microbial fuel cells. To overcome these factors which define the
use of microbial fuel cells, researchers have focused on avoiding cell voltage loss and
increasing electrical power density. For this purpose, in techniques such as
electrochemical spectroscopy technique, impedance is applied to determine the
components forming an internal resistance. Electrochemical spectroscopy technique is an
advanced technique for characterizing internal resistance components such as ohm
resistance, diffusion resistance, charge transfer resistance in fuel cells. In addition to
81
these, the electrochemical spectroscopy technique is recently applied to determine the

performance of anodes and used in applications to determine the electrochemical
behaviour and resistance of redox regulators. During the implementation of the
electrochemical spectroscopy technique, there were no visible effects that would cease
the components and activities of the microbial fuel cells [25–27].
2.1.3 Chronoamperometric measurements
2.1.3.1 Chronoamperometry (CA)

As a simple electrochemical technique, the chronoamperometry (CA) is widely used in
electroanalysis and electropolymerization [28]. Chronoamperometry records the current
generated on the working electrode against time. While the cyclic voltammetry measures
the current response in a dynamic state, in chronoamperometry, a specific potential
measures a transient current response to a particular state of equilibrium. This current
measured with chronoamperometry fully demonstrates all the oxidation and reduction
occurred on the surface electrode.
2.1.4 Potentiometric measurements
2.1.4.1 Chronopotentiometry (CP)

The chronopotentiometry (CP) is a potentiometric measuring device measure the half cell
potential of the electrodes in the microbial fuel cells. chronopotentiometry method
measures the current by monitoring polarization curves with a potentiostat [29]. The
potentiostat in chronopotentiometry as a measuring device can measure either the
generated current or the potential correctly. The potentiostat also consists of three
electrode systems which are a reference, counter, and working electrodes [1]. Generally,
when the cathode is a counter electrode, the biocatalysis anode is set as the working
electrode (Fig. 3). The reference electrode should be placed as close as possible to the
working electrode immersed into the electrolyte. This avoids significant potential loss
between the working electrode and a reference electrode which is responsible for the
false potential measurement [30–31].
To record a polarization curve with the potentiostat, the potential of the working
electrode is varied at a certain scan-rate from open circuit voltage (OCV) to short circuit
condition (null Rext) [1–32]. The potential scan of the reverse current continues until
coming back to the starting point, and a slow scan rate of 1 mV s-1 provides a good
polarization curve that is not relevant to oxidation/reduction reactions [32–33]. After
recording the polarization curve, the power curve can be plotted by calculating the power
82
generated (P) by the microbial fuel cells for each set Rext through the second Ohm law
(equation 5) [1–31].
𝑃 = 𝐸. 𝐼 = 𝐸. (E ∕ R ext ) = E 2�R (5)

ext
Figure 3. Three-electrode-setup for potentiostatic polarization curve recording.
Figure 4. MFC current (I), voltage (E) and power (P) as function of applied external
resistance (Rext).
83
Since there is no current for the open circuit condition (infinite Rext), no energy is
generated. The power rises with the current until Maximum Power Point (MPP) is
reached. Symmetric power curves are recorded for microbial fuel cells with high Rint.
When maximum power point is applied, Rext equals Rint (i.e., maximum power transfer
theorem). With low Rint, power generation increases in microbial fuel cells [1]. For this
reason, one of the primary objectives of microbial fuel cells is to reduce the internal
resistance of the system [34–35]. An example of how the microbial fuel cells electrical
parameters (I, E and P) change when Rext is changed is given in Fig. 4 [1–31].
2.1.5 Polarization curves

Polarization curves (P versus I) which are used to detect current as a voltage indication
are effective tools to characterize and analyze fuel cells. A potentiostat of microbial fuel
cell recording polarization curves gets data for electrodes. In the absence of
potentiometers, variable resistance boxes are used. The potential of electrodes is
measured periodically with decreasing the load. Ohm law gives the current carried. A
reference electrode is used to compare the performance of electrochemical set as
mentioned in the above sections. An appropriate scan rate (for example 1 mVs-1) must be
chosen to record data of the polarization curve in measurements with a potentiostat. In
cases where an external resistance is given to the electrochemical microbial fuel cell
system, current and potential data should be recorded when steady-state conditions are
met and depending on external conditions or the set of the electrochemical fuel cell, the
steady-state conditions are established within a few minutes. The state of the system is
temporary and this time varies depending on the substrate concentration in the anode.
This affects substrate-product mass transfer for current and voltage. Multiple batch cycles
provide the data of the polarization curves which allow the calculation of coulombic data
for each resistance [1]. Long-term recording can cause the formation of slips in
electrochemical fuel cells. The regions for Polarization curves are given as follow.
(i) Beginning with the open circuit potentials having zero current where the activation
losses predominate, the voltage initially drops steeply.
(ii) In this region where the ohmic losses predominate, the voltage drops occur slowly,
and the obtained graph of voltage drop versus the current is linear.
(iii) A rapid drop in voltage at high currents is seen in this region (solid line, Figure 5A),
and as seen in Figure 5A, the concentration losses are dominated. A linear polarization
curve is present in Figure 5A. The internal resistance (Rint) for a microbial fuel cell is
calculated from the polarization curves (for example, Rint = -∆E/∆I=26 Ω; Figure 5A,
dashed line) [1–36]. These curves are used to find potential and current for each electrode
and all of microbial fuel cells (Figure 5).
84
Figure 5. Anode (in brown) and cathode (in green) polarization curves addition gives the
total MFC polarization curve (in blue).
There are different methods to track the polarization curve of microbial fuel cells [35].
The simplest one is called the "variable resistance method." This consists of connecting
different external resistances (Rext) to the microbial fuel cells and measuring the response
regarding output voltage. Using first Ohm's law, current intensity can be calculated for
each set resistance as Eq. 6 [37]:
I = E ∕ 𝑅ext (6)
Before obtaining the polarization curve, it is suggested that the microbial fuel cells are
entirely set to the open circuit potential in the open circuit mode for several hours. Then,
Rext must be changed in descending order, starting from the highest value (in the order of
104 Ω) to conclude at the lowest one (1 Ω is sufficient). To achieve a meaningful result,
once the system reaches steady-state conditions again, the voltage on each setting
resistance must be recorded. Steady state can take a few minutes or more to set up. This
depends on the system and the amplitude of the Rext variation. It is recommended to wait
at least 2 minutes between obtaining each voltage. The polarization curve should be
85
recorded in both senses (in other words, down from high to Rext, and vice versa). Also, the
entire polarization curve measurement should not last more than 2-3 hours since it can
negatively affect the exoelectrogenic metabolism. There must be a compromise between
the number of Rext being tested (giving the curve resolution) and the time required for the
measurement (the final result). There is no general rule for this, and there must be work
arounds for each tested microbial fuel cells [38].
2.1.6 Power curves

Power is a significant parameter that can be used to reflect microbial fuel cells
performance. Polarization curves are acquired from the power curve [1]. Also, the
microbial fuel cells describe the power output as a function of the current. Generally,
there is a single maximum (called Maximum Power Point or MPP) parabolic shape that
arises when the outer resistance is equal to the inner resistance of the cell [35]. Internal
resistance (Rint) expresses a general measure of microbial fuel cell’s internal voltage
losses. It is also geometrically described by the slope of the linear region of the
polarization curve. A polarization curve’s linear approach based on open circuit potential
and Rint values is reported in Equation 7.
E = OCV − IR int (7)
An example of measuring polarization and power curves in microbial fuel cells is shown
in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Example of MFC polarization curve (in blue) and the power curve (in red).
86
Ohmic resistances are the basic building blocks of microbial fuel cells, and that provide
the primary functions for the formation of the central features of these cells, partly due to
the low ionic conductivity of the substrate solutions. However, usually due to the low
level of optimization in fuel cell design, internal resistance dominates ohmic resistance.
By the time the linear polarization curve is obtained, the slope becomes equal to the
internal resistance. E is the electromotive force, and Rint is the internal resistance of the
microbial fuel cells [20]. When the internal resistance is equal to the external resistance,
the highest power value is obtained. However, when the polarization curves are not
linear, the power output is closely related to the concentration losses.
2.2 Coulombic efficiency (CE)

Ɛc represents the coulombic efficiency which can be described as the ratio of charge of
microbial fuel cells output conducted from the substrate to the anode, and in the case of
conversion of all the substrates to current, the maximum possible coulombic yield is
obtained [1]. When acetate is used as a substrate, it can be converted to electrons or
methane. The type of these products depends on the type of microorganisms. All of the
electrons that can not be transferred to the anodes are briefly defined as losses. Possible
sinks of electrons are; the formation of methane outside of the bacterial growth with
oxygen, sulphate or nitrate at the anode, the production of hydrogen by fermentation, and
the oxidation carried out by electron receivers. The coulombic efficiency is reduced in
case of the presence of oxygen as an alternative electron acceptor for in the bacteria,
media, wastewater, or via membrane diffusion [39–40].
If the microbial fuel cells runs in fed-batch mode, εcb can be calculated from the
following formula:
tb
M ∫0 id𝑡
εCb = FbV . (9)
An ∆COD
Where M is the molecular weight of oxygen 32 g/mol, F is the Faraday constant,= 96,485
C/mol, b=4 corresponds to the number of electrons exchanged per mole of oxygen, VAn is
the volume of liquid in the anode compartment, and ∆COD is the change in COD
(chemical oxygen demand) over time tb (g/L) [38–40]. For continuous flow through the
system, microbial fuel cells can achieve its continuous steady operation state when the
load resistor (external resistor) remains constant, and the current does not change with
time. Therefore, calculation of εcb can be further simplified and calculated as follows [34–
41]:
87
Mi
εCb = FbV∆COD (10)
where VCOD is the difference in the effluent and influent COD (g/L).
2.3 Resistance
In a real microbial fuel cells system, energy loss is accompanied by internal resistance
from microorganism to electron transfer to the last electron receiver. The internal
resistance can diminish the yield by reducing the output voltage [42].
2.4 Degradation efficiency

A microbial fuel cell is not only used to generate electricity, but it can also be proposed
as a method for treating wastewater. For this reason, it is significant to appreciate the
overall performance ranges for removal of BOD, COD, or TOC. Other factors, such as
solubility of the particles and removal of nutrients may also be necessary. COD removal
is an essential process to get energy and coulombic measurements in wastewater
treatments, so much attention is given to the COD removal performance. The COD
removal efficiency (COD) can be calculated as the ratio between the removed and the
fluid COD, and the equation can be expressed as [1–43]:
∆COD
εCOD = . (11)
COD
2.5 Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency is described as the energy recovery for power production and the
theoretical energy release of microbial fuel cells. The comparison of electricity
generation of microbial fuel cells with sewage treatment systems is based on the amount
of energy recovered. The total energy efficiency in biological fuel cells is defined as the
ratio of the energy yield obtained over a certain period to the combustion heat obtained
from the added substrate. For batch-type feeding, the equation is shown as follows [1]:
𝑡𝑡
∫ Uidt
ηMFC = (12)
maddes ∆H
where H is the heat of combustion (J / mol) and m is the amount (mol) of substrate added.
This is usually only calculated for substances that are known when H is not known for
actual wastewater. In microbial fuel cells, the energy efficiency ranges from 2% to 50%
or more when biodegradable substrates are used [1].
88
2.6 Other characterization techniques

Biological fuel cells can also be examined using different analytical characterization
methods, such as spectroscopic, electrochemical, surface, biochemical, etc. The structural
characterization methods, such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy
(HRTEM), and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) are simple and useful
techniques for the definition of properties of the materials on the anode of
electrochemical systems (to reveal their heterogeneity, thickness, and density of biofilm
on the anode). Biochemical analyzes in microbial fuel cells are used to assess the redox
mediators used in electrolysis systems quantitatively. However, the spectroscopic
techniques, such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-
VIS) are used effectively in the characterization of materials in microbial fuel cell’s
systems. Due to the identification of qualitative properties of materials used in microbial
fuel cells electrochemical methods, such as differential pulse (DPV) and cyclic
voltammetry (CV) are widely used [7–44]. The structures providing electron shuttling
according to the electrochemical activity are determined based on the pixel in the
analysis. One of the useful biological fuel cells characterization techniques is cyclic
voltammetry, and it is commonly used to determine compounds in microbial fuel cells
[7–14].
2.6.1 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

To determine the biofilm morphology, samples from biofilm are examined with the help
of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) [42]. Electrode material analysis is supplemented
with high-resolution imaging and elemental analysis using scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). The probe in this technique is a focused electron beam, usually with a diameter of
10 to 20 nm that results in higher resolution images of surface features than achievable
with light microscopy. Contrary to atomic force microscopy (AFM), the probe penetrates
into the sample and therefore allows information to be acquired on its elemental and
phase composition which can also be used to enhance image contrast.
The main experimental factors crucial to the image quality are sample preparation,
electron acceleration voltage, spot size, and detector position. The acceleration voltage is
proportional to the penetration depth of the electrons into the sample where they are
scattered due to elastic and inelastic collisions. The fraction of elastic to inelastic
collisions depends on the atomic number Z of the sample material and determines the
shape as well as the size of the electron beam interaction volume. Collisions with atoms
that have low Z values result in higher penetration depths and are mainly inelastic. The
89
loss in energy causes the electrons to form a pear-shaped interaction volume in the size
region of micrometres. Increasing the acceleration voltage would only increase the
penetration depth for a given Z and not the interaction volume. The elasticity of collisions
increases with Z resulting in larger scattering angles and smaller, more spherical
interaction volumes. Elemental and phase composition of a sample, therefore, have a
strong influence on the energy and scattering angle of the reflected electrons, and
compositional analysis becomes more reliable and more significant for the differences in
Z [1]. Two types of reflected electrons are distinguished and require separate detectors,
the backscattered electrons with kinetic energy higher than 50 eV and the secondary
electrons with lower energy. The high energy backscattered electrons result from elastic
collisions with deflection angles larger than 90° and are measured for the compositional
analysis while secondary electrons lost their kinetic energy as a result of the inelastic
collision and are detected at lower deflection angles for imaging.
Consequently, the fraction and energy of backscattered electrons increase with the atomic
number of a sample which aids the compositional analysis. In practice, high acceleration
voltage and large spot size are employed to improve the count of backscattered electrons
and to reduce error in the compositional analysis. However, these settings are detrimental
for the image resolution since they increase the probe size. Backscattered electrons also
originate from a larger interaction volume than the secondary electrons measured with the
same acceleration voltage and spot size which further diminishes the usefulness of
backscattered electrons for imaging. High-resolution image acquisition is therefore
performed separately from the compositional analysis at low acceleration voltage and
small spot size in order to minimize the probe size and the interaction volume. In some
instances where phase contrast is preferred to resolution, backscattered electrons are used
for imaging as well. Phase contrast is also called Z-contrast since the atomic number
determines the energy difference between electrons reflected from different phases. The
phase contrast is improved with the same methods as the compositional analysis. Thus, a
compromise between resolution and phase visualization is necessary when such
measurements are performed.
Interference from charging and radiation damage is an additional problem for the imaging
of less conductive samples, especially when the biological specimen is investigated. The
sputter coating of several nanometers of gold, palladium, chromium, or platinum
becomes necessary if the sample is not sufficiently conductive to discharge into the
sample. Biological samples also have to be chemically fixed with cross-linking agents
and dehydrated before the metal coating since otherwise the water evaporates under the
high vacuum conditions of the measurement and scatter the electron beam. These
requirements reduce the data representativeness of the sample in its natural form and
90
make the in-situ observation of biological processes impossible. However, environmental

scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) has been developed as an SEM adaption without
the need for most sample preparation steps to overcome these problems. The high
vacuum is only maintained around the electron beam for most of the beam path through a
series of pressure limiting apertures and differential pumping while the sample is kept in
low vacuum. Specimens in environmental scanning electron microscopy are therefore
imaged closer to the electron source to reduce the scattering from gas molecules. Such a
technology presents a promising combination of the benefits from electron microscopy
and in-situ biofilm imaging and can help in future investigations of exoelectrogenic
activity of biofilms on electrodes.
2.6.2 Atomic force microscopy (AFM)

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a scanning probe technique for the investigation of
topography and electrostatic charge on the surface. In this technique, most of the surface
quality calculations are made on the topographic map, and the image quality has a critical
precaution for data evaluation. The minimization of sources for imaging artefacts is
therefore even more essential to the reliability of the results than the tip quality. Most
artefacts can be avoided with regular calibration and adjustment of scan speed, setpoint,
and signal amplification according to the sample properties [45].
Last, but not least, there are also many other spectroscopic and microscopic techniques,
such as X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, energy dispersive
analysis, etc [46–54]. All of these techniques have been used for identification of the
materials which have been used in most of the applications [55–63]. They are all
complementary techniques in order to describe the full properties of the materials [60–
64–72].
Conclusions
In conclusion, microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have received considerable interest due to
their promising technology based on the conversion of chemical energy into electrical
energy by microbial catalysis. There are many types of electrochemical characterization
techniques such as cyclic voltammetry (CV), differential pulse voltammetry (DPV),
chronoamperometry (CA), chronopotentiometry (CP), etc. There are also other
techniques such as atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, etc to
identify the related materials in microbial fuel cells. However, the choice of appropriate
characterization techniques and methods to solve the problems related to microbial fuel
cells is extremely important as mentioned in this chapter. In this regard, biochemical and
91
electrochemical characterization techniques, a variety of surface morphology, analytical,

spectroscopic, microscopic techniques will be used very commonly for identification of
materials in microbial fuel cells in the near future.
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Chapter 5
Paper-Based Microbial Fuel Cell
Suruchee Samparnna Mishra, Swaraj Mohanty and Sonali Mohapatra*

Department of Biotechnology, College of Engineering & Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
[email protected]
Abstract
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are devices that convert organic substances into electrical
energy with the help of microorganisms. The MFCs are advantageous in an industrial
perspective as these can utilize a wide range of substrates. Hence, paper-based MFCs are
a promising alternative for bioelectricity generation which can act ideally even without
much effort by the operator and can produce efficient power even after just being
plummeted onto the liquid solution containing organic matter. Further, the wide-scale
applicability of paper-based MFCs along with their cost-effective features has made the
device an important ration in the present industrial based energy sector.
Keywords
Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC), Exoelectrogens, Membranes, Electricity
List of Abbreviations
EET- Extracellular electron transfer
FMN- Flavin mononucleotide MFCs -Microbial fuel cells
OM c-Cysts- Outer-membrane c-type cytochromes
PEM -Proton exchange membrane
RF- Riboflavin
SMFCs- Sediment microbial fuel cells
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................102
2. Exoelectrogens in microbial fuel cell ...................................................104
101
3. Paper-based microbial fuel cells...........................................................107

4. Different membranes used in paper-based MFCs..............................110
5. Applications of paper-based MFCs .....................................................111
6. Future prospective of paper-based MFCs ...........................................113
Conclusion.........................................................................................................114
Reference ...........................................................................................................114
1. Introduction
The quality of human life in society directly influences the environmental condition by
interfering with the use of energy in different sectors. To keep pace with our extravagant
lifestyle, there arises an escalating need not only to produce an adequate amount of
energy but also to discover sustainable and environmentally friendly energy sources.
Though current industrial sectors rely more or less on renewable energy resources, it will
not be sufficient to encounter the augmented energy requirements in the future [1].
Renewable sources such as bioethanol and biodiesel generated from a range of organic or
inorganic wastes by anaerobic fermentation combined with other downstream techniques
can provide a competitive solution to energy and environmental dilemma concurrently.
Nevertheless, an assortment of future renewable and sustainable energy must enclose
diverse carbon-neutral based technologies such as microbial fuel cell in order to attain
future energy exigency.
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) came into light due to their ability to exploit the chemical
energy of recyclable organic matter to form electrical energy [2] though the whole
reaction which is an association of bacterial metabolism with electrochemical reactions
on the anode [3]. Moreover, attribution to electricity generation, wastewater treatment,
bioremediation of toxic metals, etc. make this particular technology an attractive
alternative for future energy demand [4]. MFCs are bio-electrochemical devices that
generally consist of an aerobic/anaerobic cathode chamber(electrode, electron acceptor
and catalyst) and an anode chamber(anaerobic; includes an electrode, microorganisms
and anolyte) alienated by a proton exchange membrane(PEM) [5]. This membrane allows
cations precisely H+ ions to pass the anode chamber and reach the cathode chamber. The
whole external circuit is completed by means of a conductive load that connects both
anode and cathode within the chambers (Fig. 1).
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Figure 1. Depicts the construction and working of the paper-based microbial fuel cell.
In-depth study about MFC reveals that on the anode surface, a biofilm develops, which
contains electro-active microorganisms capable of transferring electrons generated from
the decomposition of organic matter to the electrode. The electrons and protons are then
transferred from the organics to the cathodic surface by extracellular electron transfer
(EET) and proton exchange membrane (PEM) respectively thereby generating energy for
respiration of microorganisms. The electrons are then transferred to the cathode through
external electrical connection and merge with oxygen and protons to form H2O in the
presence of a catalyst such as platinum [6, 7]. Rahimnejad et al. [8] illustrated the
chemical reactions taking place in both the chambers by equations 1 and 2.
Anodic reaction - C2H4O2+2H2O→2CO2+8H++8e- (1)
Cathodic reaction - 2O2+8H++8e- →4H2O (2)
The electrons generated in the bacterial cells transferred directly to the anode or
facilitated by a mediator present in the solution [9]. Depending on the mode of electron
transfer from the cell to the electrode, microbial fuel cells are categorized as direct
electron transfer (DET), mediated electron transfer (MET), electron transfer through
nanowire and electron transfer by oxidizing excreted catabolites by microorganisms in
the fuel cells [10]. While METs require mediator precisely a chemical to transfer
103
electrons from the bacterial cells to the anode, DETs involve those bacteria that have the
capacity to transfer electrons and protons directly into the anode as part of its normal
metabolic process such bacteria are precisely called exoelectrogens.
Thus keeping in mind the necessity of microbial fuel cells, the present chapter discusses
(a) the role of exoelectrogens in microbial fuel cells, (b) the mechanism and efficacy of
paper-based microbial fuel cell and (c) applications of paper-based microbial fuel cells.
The future perspective of microbial fuel cells is also stated and this chapter is expected to
elucidate the importance of paper-based microbial fuel cells in various domains of
biological and engineering aspects.
2. Exoelectrogens in microbial fuel cell

Exoelectrogens make MFCs the most promising technology in the contemporary energy
market due to their capacity to transfer electrons derived from the metabolism of organic
matters to the anode. These electrochemically active bacteria possess a unique molecular
machinery to transfer the electrons exogenously using a strong oxidizing agent or solid
conductor as a final electron acceptor unlike other aerobic and anaerobic bacteria which
require oxygen or other chemical compounds for the same. Exoelectrogens exploit an
oxidoreductase pathway for direct transfer of electrons through a specialized protein
channel onto the anodic surface [11]. This distinctive transport mechanism is carried out
by conductive pili, direct contact through a conductive biofilm, or transferring by
secreted mediator enzymes. Electrons are generated subsequent to ATP production in
electron transport chain (ETC) at the time of oxidative phosphorylation [12]. Further,
strong oxidizing agents present in the solution such as iron oxides and manganese oxides
act as final electron acceptors to receive those electrons instead of molecular oxygen (O2)
in conventional respiration.
Generally, three types of microbial fuel cells have been identified depending on the types
of microorganisms used such as photoautotrophic-type biofuel cells [13], heterotrophic-
type biofuel cells [14] and sediment biofuel cells [15].
Photoautotrophic microbial fuel cells involve microorganisms such as photosynthetic
bacteria (PSB) or algae/cyanobacteria which utilize light as their source of energy rather
than a fuel for the production of electrical energy [16]. Electron transfer process in this
type of cells is being facilitated by a photostable mediator. The operation of
photoautotrophic microbial fuel cells based on their photosynthetic mechanism (oxygenic
or anoxygenic) [12]. These MFCs can function in two operating modes in which firstly,
energy can be produced and stored by the cells during illumination followed by the
release and processing of energy with a non-photosynthetic biofuel cell or secondly,
104
energy can be extracted by a mediator that aids transportation of electrons during

illumination.
Tsujimura et al. generated a photoautotrophic microbial fuel cell in which oxidation of
water occurs in the anodic compartment to produce dioxygen and protons whereas
bilirubin oxidase (BOD) was used as a biocatalyst in the cathodic compartment along
with 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) [ABTS] as a mediator. This MFC
generated 0.13 mW power at a potential of 0.26 V and a 500 Ω external resistance [13].
Heterotrophic microbial fuel cells involve those microorganisms which utilize different
chemicals such as lactate, pyruvate, sulphate, etc. as their source of energy to generate an
electron. These cells are being assisted by a mediator such as iron oxides or manganese
oxides. Cooney et al. studied the growth kinetics of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans Essex 6
in a microbial fuel cell that produces electrons by utilizing a different source of energy
[14]. The researchers involved in the use of both sulphate and lactate as the source of
energy for this microbe have observed almost equal growth conditions for both of the
energy sources. Hydrogen sulphide produced by the reduction of sulphate was observed
not only to inhibit the growth of the microbes but also to narrow down the growth yield
and sulphate-specific reduction rate mutually. Likewise, high initial lactate concentration
also witnessed to stunt the bacterial growth as well as specific sulphate reduction rates
and eventually conferred variable biomass growth yields which might arise due to some
tailback in lactate oxidation pathway leading to the production of butanol as a by-product.
Apart from these two chemicals, pyruvate was also employed as a carbon source. The
authors found that the use of lactate favoured the microbial growth rate and biomass
growth yields. A marginally higher current density was produced in case of lactate as
compared to pyruvate for equal biomass concentration.
Sediment microbial fuel cells (SMFCs) involve the application of anaerobic microbe
sediment in organic matters to which an anode is being inserted. It is then connected to
the cathode in the overlying aerobic water through an external circuit. SMFCs produce
electrical energy from the electro-potential difference between aerobic water and
anaerobic sediments present in the cell [17]. The authors proposed a distinctive prospect
to investigate the energy flow pattern through the microbial communities together with
their efficiency of collecting energy and the potential for power generation in the natural
environment. SMFCs have become favourable as the energy generation source to be
readily utilized in different sectors.
A number of microorganisms such as Geobacter sulfurreducens [18], Shewanella
oneidensis [19], Shewanella putrefaciens [20, 21], Escherichia coli [22], Rhodoferax
ferrireducens [23], Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Alcaligenes faecalis, Enterococcus
105
gallinarum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Pseudomonas species, C. reinhardtii,

Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Rhodopseudomonas palustris
DX-1 [24], and Ochrobactrum anthropi YZ-1 [25] etc. have been used as biocatalysts for
the production of electrical energy.
G. sulfurreducens is one of the most studied exoelectrogens employed in MFCs. This
microbe utilizes various carbon sources for electricity generation and develops a thick
biofilm on the anode surface. Primarily, G. sulfurreducens secretes riboflavin in a mono-
layered biofilm which later associates with outer-membrane c-type cytochromes (OM c-
Cysts) to form a complex which initiates electron transfer to the anode surface [26, 27].
As the biofilm develops, this microbe utilizes OM c-Cysts (essentially OmcZ) for
electron transport next to the anode surface, while the bacteria respiring away from the
electrode generate conductive nanowires (type IV pili) which contribute to the transfer of
electrons inside the biofilm and lastly onto the electrode surface [26]. Bond et al.
employed Geobacter sulfurreducens as biocatalyst in a microbial fuel cell and observed
that this particular microbe was capable to transfer electron and proton gained form
acetate to cathode efficiently thereby generating electrical energy from bacterial energy
[28].
Shewanella oneidensis is also a highly studied exoelectrogen as it flaunts the potential to
decrease a variety of electron acceptors [29, 30]. This specific microbe secretes two types
of flavin molecules i.e. riboflavin (RF) and flavin mononucleotide (FMN) that combine
with cytochromes like OmcA and MtrC respectively as a cofactor to promote electron
transfer to the anode surfaces [31]. Hashemi et al. found that Shewanella oneidensis MR-
1 excreted soluble redox molecules that served as extracellular electron transporter
forming almost 70% of the transport from individual bacterial cells to the electrode.
A number of researches have been carried out to identify exoelectrogens and to study
their bio-electrochemical activity for decades. Kim et al. performed cyclic voltammetry
analysis on the pure strain of Shewanella putrefaciens and found that this microorganism
retained its electrochemical activity in the presence of nitrate rather than O2 at an applied
potential of +200 mV [20]. This finding led to the conclusion that the performance of a
mediator-less microbial fuel cell can be enhanced by incorporating electrochemically
active bacteria in presence of nitrate instead of O2. The same authors in 2002 performed
cyclic voltammetry along with a fuel cell type electrochemical cell to monitor the
electron transfer from different Shewanella putrefaciens and Escherichia coli strains to
the anode and found both of the methods equally efficient in determining the
electrochemical activity of the microorganism without any electrochemical mediators
[21]. High concentration of bacteria yielded a high amount of electron transfer thereby
generating higher electrical power. The further cyclic volumetric study revealed that
106
electrochemical activity could only be observed in case of anaerobically grown

Shewanella putrefaciens MR-1, IR-1, and SR-21 strain while aerobically grown
Shewanella putrefaciens cells as well as aerobically and anaerobically grown E. coli cells
exhibited no such accomplishments. Likewise, comparable bioelectrochemical activity
was also observed in the case of Escherichia coli [32].
Park et al. [22] compared electric power production, substrate consumption and growth of
E. coli cell in biofuel cells as a biocatalyst. They found that Escherichia coli produced 3.1
μA cm−2 electricity by consuming 39 mM of acetate with neutral red electrode whereas,
with the native electrode this microbe produced 1.41 μA cm−2 electric power.
Chaudhuri et al. [23] studied another efficient exoelectrogens Rhodoferax ferrireducens
which are capable of transferring the majority of the electrons gained from the carbon
sources such as glucose to the electrode. Though a high amount of electrons was being
transferred from the anodic surface to the cathodic surface, there was little possibility to
see whether that also affected the energy transfer efficiency as it solely dependent on the
current and potential.
Xing et al. [24] also employed phototrophic purple nonsulfur bacteria
Rhodopseudomonas palustris DX-1 for production of electricity, which is able to
generate electricity in microbial fuel cells in MFC and obtained 60 mW/m2 electricity
power density. The researchers also compared the electricity densities by using pure
culture as well as the mixed culture of bacteria and found enhanced power density in case
of the single culture of microorganisms. The authors acquired gigantic achievement by
introducing the bio-electrochemical activity of this microbe as it utilizes a wide range of
substrates such as volatile acids, yeast extract, and thiosulfate.
Zuo et al. [25] developed a U-tube-shaped MFC to grow a pure culture of
exoelectrogenic bacteria Ochrobactrum anthropi YZ-1. The researchers observed that
this strain was unable to respire using hydrous Fe(III) oxide but could produce 89 mW/m2
while acetate was employed as the electron donor in the U-tube MFC.
3. Paper-based microbial fuel cells

Construction of a microbial fuel cell also plays a vital role in the sustenance of this
technique in the recent market. As MFCs are frequently fabricated using hazardous
materials such as plastic which it may threaten our ecosystem and thus should be
avoided. To avoid such problems, recently, paper-based microbial fuel cells made from
paper have become a defensible choice [33]. Moreover, due to their light weight and
portability, these paper-based MFCs have become a promising backup plan for
bioelectricity generation, especially in inaccessible areas. These fuel cells can act ideally
107
even without much effort of the operator and can produce efficient power even after only
being plummeted onto the liquid solution containing organic matter.
Moreover, the use of paper can lead the energy sector towards the emergence of light-
weighted and eco-friendly electronics along with the auxiliary remunerations of cost-
effectiveness and widespread obtainability [34]. Researchers have experimented with
different designs of paper MFCs to monitor the amount of generated bioelectricity. Some
of these paper-based MFCs such as 2D MFCs, 3D MFCs, microfabricated paper-based
MFCs, screen-printed paper microbial fuel cell, stackable, two-chambered, paper-based
microbial fuel cell and origami paper-based fuel cell is described in following
paragraphs.
Winfield et al. [35] have constructed 2D paper-based MFCs and 3D paper-based MFCs
and compared the electricity generating capacity of both the MFCs and found that though
both the cells generated current simply by dripping onto the liquid solution. The 3D
tetrahedron MFCs generated power for over 2 weeks with the output sufficient for any
basic useful applications.
Chouler et al. [36] reported single-component paper MFC that intends at evolving simple,
light-weighted single-use sensing device. The membrane-less device was constructed by
screen-printing carbon-based electrodes onto a single sheet of paper that also played a
role of a separator between the two electrodes. The capillary force of action created a
continuous flow. However, the flow pattern and force of flow differed with the range of
paper structure. The authors used 1 kΩ resistor to which the electrodes were connected.
The exoelectrogens in the biofilm generated electrons (e) and protons (H) that were either
transported across the external circuit or diffused through the paper to the cathode. The
authors also compared the effect of stacking in this device by folding two pMFCs back-
to-back (fpMFC) and found that stacking of two devices together (fpMFC) resulted into a
maximum power density and power output of 0.07 μW and 3.0 cm μA cm which were
almost 1.7 and 4 times the value obtained with a single cell respectively.
Hashemi et al. [37] constructed a 3D paper-based microbial fuel cell by employing S.
oneidensis MR-1 as a biocatalyst. The authors allowed the fuel cell to lead the liquid
solution through three-dimensional papers which curtailed the need for external force.
The cell permitted the flow of the microbial stream and potassium ferricyanide into the
chambers where both the chambers were separated by PEM. The positively charged ions
were released during the biocatalytic breakdown of the anolyte and reached the cathode.
The authors observed the production of 1.3 μW of power and 52.25 μA of current along
with the formation of a biofilm on the anode.
108
Hashemi et al. [37] designed a self-pumped paper-based microbial fuel cell operating
under continuous flow condition by the action of capillary motion. The authors employed
Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 as biocatalyst and conducted this experiment for
approximately 5 days without any intrusion and external power source for the duration of
the operation. They observed a production of 52.25 µA current and a power density of
approximately 25 W/m3 along with biofilm formation on carbon cloth electrode.
Fraiwan et al. [38] presented a micro-fabricated paper-based microbial fuel cell (MFC)
generating a maximum power of 5.5 μW/cm. The authors constructed an MFC that
involved anodic and cathodic compartments separated by a paper-based proton exchange
membrane by intruding sulfonated sodium polystyrene sulfonate and micro-fabricated
paper chambers stacked to form multilayer cell by modelling hydrophobic barriers of
photoresist. A current of 74 μA was generated immediately after the addition of biomass
and catholyte to the MFC. The authors observed that the voltage produced during the
electricity production was raised by 1.9 fold when two MFC devices were stacked in
series.
Another modification of paper-based microbial fuel cell involves origami based paper
microbial fuel cell that blends the skill of origami and the knowledge of MFCs. This
device holds the perspective to shift the prototype from traditional microbial fuel cells to
flexible paper-based cells. This three-dimensional fuel cell comprises of modular and
foldable battery stack generated by 2D paper sheets over high degrees of folding. The
multi-layered MFC is constructed on the concept of ninja star-shaped origami design
shaped by eight MFC modular blades and is flexible from sharp shuriken to round
Frisbee form. Fraiwan et al. [39] reported an origami-based paper microbial fuel cell in
which the biomass is added into an inlet of the closed cell stack which was being
transported into each MFC module through patterned fluidic concurrently by displaying
all the air-cathodes to the air for their cathodic reactions. The device was observed to
generate electrical current and potential to lighten an LED for more than 20 min.
In the similar context, Lee et al. [40] designed a fully-integrated stackable 3-D paper-
based bacteria-powered fuel cell system that was capable of generating power from
microbial metabolism. This particular device was able to deliver on-board energy with
one drop of bacteria-containing liquid from wastewater, municipal wastes, biomass and
watershed. This device was associated with an air-breathing cathode constructed of paper
with activated carbon on the sprayed nickel electrode. The authors gave this device a
compact and stackable structure by employing origami techniques.
Fraiwan et al. [41] also developed a stackable and integrable paper-based microbial fuel
cell (MFC) for potentially powering on-chip paper-based devices. A cell stack was
109
designed by connecting four MFCs in series by folding them three times. These MFCs
were prepared on a T shaped filter paper. Each MFC was constructed by sandwiching
multifunctional paper layers for two chambered fuel cell configuration. The device was
designed in the form that allowed bacteria-containing anolyte and potassium ferricyanide
to flow through predesigned separated fluidic pathways within the paper matrix, filling
the reservoir of each device. The MFC stack in series generated a power density of 1.2
μW/cm, which was almost two-fold higher than the earlier reported values on the paper-
based MFC stack [37].
4. Different membranes used in paper-based MFCs

The use of microbial fuel cells has created a new era in the field of fuel cell technology
and power generation. Due to the unique characteristics (transparency, two ionic
oppositely charged diode and flexibility), the paper-based membranes generate an
efficient power which can be helpful to operate the low power consuming biosensors and
chips with biomedical and healthcare applications.
The transfer of electrons towards the anode and protons towards the cathode across
specific membranes generate power due to high reduction potential. The electrons at the
end react with oxygen which carries out the reduction process and releases some energy
[42, 43].
There are various types of membranes used in paper-based microbial fuel cells(MFCs)
for the purpose of power and electricity generation (Table 1).
Table 1: Different types of membranes used in a microbial fuel cell(MFC)

SI Types of Composition Uses Citation
No. Membranes
1. Ceramic Ceramic and its Widely use as [86-88]
Membranes composite proton exchanger
in low-cost MFCs
2. Polymer Metal-Carbon Use as a hybrid [89-91]
Electrolyte Composite, Metal- membrane for the
Membranes Activated Carbon paper-based
Composite, Metal- microbial fuel
Carbon cells(MFCs)
Nanotube(CMT)
Composite and
Polymer-Carbon
Composite etc.
110
3. Graphene and Composite of Iron and Serve as the [92-94]

Graphene Oxide- Nitrogen Graphene(Fe- alternative to
Based Membrane N-G), Graphene Oxide Nafion membrane
in sulfonated polyether used in MFC,
ether ketone(GO- Helps to increase
SPEEK) etc. the ion exchange
property in MFCs
4. Polypyrrole Polymer of polypyrrole Use as an anode in [95-97]
Nanotube MFCs
Membrane
5. Phenolphthalein These are multiblock of Alkaline fuel cells, [98, 99]
Based Membrane phenolphthalein based Anion exchanger
polyarylene ether membranes(AEMs)
sulfone nitriles(PESN)
6. Polybenzimidazole Composite of SBA-15 Use as a [100, 101]
Membrane mesostructured silica separator(Proton
functionalized with exchanger) in
sulphonic moieties and wastewater
Polybenzimidazole(PBI) remediation and
MFCs
5. Applications of paper-based MFCs

There are various applications of the microbial fuel cells that have been developed in the
past few years due to cutting-edge research in fuel cell technology. Scientists are always
trying to make a significant change for the power generation capacity in paper-based
microbial fuel cells by certain modifications in the catholyte and anolyte. The generated
power helps to trigger the small electric devices, chips and sensors for a defined time
period.
The crucial applications of paper-based microbial fuel cells can be broadly classified as
below.
Generation of bioelectricity
The paper-based microbial fuel cell (MFC) has been developed by the help of nutrients
and food materials for the viability of the bacterial culture which can generate a small
amount of power for a prolonged time period [44]. The power can be used to supply
energy into small electrical devices with a high thoughtful safety issue and health
perspective [45]. The research in the field of bioelectricity generation tells that the
cardiac stimulation is also possible by MFC if we can generate a power of 25mWatt.
111
Rahimnejad and et al. successfully generated the power by using fabricated paper-based
MFC and operated one digital clock and ten LED lamps for the duration of 48 hours [46,
47].
Biohydrogen production
The paper-based MFCs can also be designed to produce biohydrogen apart from
electricity. These can also be used in the hydrogen economy as a renewable source of
hydrogen production to meet the hydrogen demand [45, 48].
The useful hydrocarbons can also be produced from wastewater streams by using paper-
based MFCs with the help of electrodes which can generate methane gas by the
conversion of carbon present in the effluent stream [49]. During this process, the solid
particles are separated by a screening process from the stream and then transferred into a
large tank, inside which the anode is coated with a strain of bacteria which purify the
water by oxidation and produces electricity [50]. The flow of electrons take place towards
the cathode which is coated with a specific group of bacteria hence the carbon dioxide
(CO2), hydrogen (H2) and electricity are converted into methane gas by the process of
electro-methanogenesis [51, 52].
Wastewater treatment
The paper-based MFCs play a vital role in the process of treatment of wastewater as it
contains biodegradable organic matters [53, 54]. The wastewaters coming from the
household effluents, food and beverage industry, medical and pharmaceutical work fields
are allowed to undergo the various biochemical processes in order to remove the metals
and metal ions from the leachate [55-58]. The cost-effective biological treatment
processes of wastewater with the help of paper-based MFCs are also used for the removal
of hydrocarbons, salinity and sulphate and purification of the wastewater [59, 60]. The
anaerobic degradation process of wastewater is also helpful for the energy generation and
methane gas production after a long-term treatment process [44].
Biosensors
The batteries used in electrochemical sensors are not a continuous source of energy,
hence the low power-generating microbial fuel cell (MFC) due to the reaction at the
cathode and anode for powering the small elements can be used in sensors [61]. These
sensors are used for the detection of toxicity in the environment [62], biological oxygen
demand (BOD) [63], bacterial contamination in water [64, 65], hazardous compounds in
water [36] and biomedical sensors for the detection of glucose, enzymes and vitamins
[66, 67]. These biosensors show a satisfactory performance upon use and can be used for
a period of 5 years [45, 68].
112
MFCs in space
The sources of energy production are very limited and the regular replacement processes
of the power sources are not feasible in the space stations so the need of a continuous
power source or a source of power generation with a longer period compared to others is
essential. The Paper-based MFCs are also used to power spaceships operated remotely
which can be triggered by the bioelectricity production due to the wastes [39, 69]. It has
been observed that hybrid MFCs are more effective than the lithium-ion power batteries
and can supply power to steadily operate low load devices [70]. The small satellites can
be operated by the combination of capacitors and microbial fuel cells and can provide
real-time information to the data centre [71, 72].
6. Future prospective of paper-based MFCs

The research and development in the field of biotechnology and electronics are going on
to overcome the limitations of paper-based microbial fuel cells (MFCs). The principal
problem is the low power generation, hence technocrats are much concerned about the
enhancement of the generation of a higher power from these processes [73]. The use of
nano-electrodes which can increase the surface area and the ultra-capacitor for the storage
of energy has also been the main challenge for the scientists [74, 75]. The
biotechnologists are working to develop genetically modified microbial strains which can
tolerate a wide range of temperature so that these microbial fuel cells can be operated
under extreme temperature conditions without slowing down the microbial reactions [76].
The graphene-based nanomaterial plays a great role in the manufacture of small
electronics due to its unique properties hence can be used as a solution for microbial fuel
cells (MFCs) and the power generation can be enhanced [77]. The paper-based electrodes
can be congregated from functionalized 3-dimensional graphene [78]. The graphene
nanoparticle plays a vital role in the medicine, biomaterial, biosensors and small
biomedical instrumentation hence research for the self-power source by using microbial
fuel cell is the challenge for the scientific community [68, 79]. The generation of power
for vehicles and automobiles by using fuel cells to overcome the fuel scarcity as well as
environmental management is a new key challenge for the technologist [80].
The advancement in microfluidics can help the researchers to produce small paper-based
MFC devices with high surface to volume ratio and better performance [81, 82]. The
electron transport mechanism is limited to the bacterial membrane so scientists are
looking for other permeable membranes with better strength which can be used in MFCs
[83-85].
113
Conclusion
The alternative sources of power generation to massive and expensive batteries are
stackable paper-based microbial fuel cells which can produce a power density up to 1.6
Volt by the metabolism of the microbial biomass used in it. The 2-dimensional paper
sheets are helpful to produce the 3-dimensional microbial fuel cells stack which has a
multifunctional layer forming ability due to its high degree of folding. This paper-based
microbial fuel cell has made a revolutionary change in the field of power generation by
fuel cell technology as it is very simple in design, the production cost is low and easy to
use as a power source for low power chips and sensors.
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Chapter 6
Carbon Nanotube Based Anodes and Cathodes for

Naveen Patel1*, Dhananjai Rai2, Deepak Chauhan2, Shraddha Shahane1, Umesh Mishra1, and
Biswanath Bhunia3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Agartala, Agartala-799046,
Tripura, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Bundelkhand Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Jhansi, Jhansi-284128, Uttar Pradesh, India
3
Department of Bio Engineering, National Institute of Technology Agartala, Agartala-799046,
Tripura, India
[email protected]
Abstract
Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is one of the natural cordial efficient power vitality sources
which have the capability to convert chemical energy into electrical energy from
wastewater and microorganisms as a biocatalyst. However, the low power production and
the high cost of electrodes have limited application of MFCs. One of the important
factors which affect the overall performance of MFC is an electrode. The carbon
nanotube has become a potent electrode material owing to its exceptional features. This
book chapter provides an overview of electrode materials based on carbon nanotube for
MFC operations, which will be the promising candidates for better MFC operations and
other bio-electrochemical systems. Hence, these electrodes will ultimately help in
achieving sustainable water/wastewater treatment and bioenergy production.
Keywords
Biocatalyst, Electrode, Carbon Nanotube, Bio-Electrochemical Systems and Bioenergy
List of Abbreviation
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CE Coulombic efficiency
CHIT Chitosan
CNTs Carbon nanotubes
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CVD Chemical vapour deposition

DMFC Direct methanol fuel cell
HNQ 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone
LbL Layer-by-layer
MFC Microbial fuel cell
MWCNTs Multi-walled CNTs
NPs Nanoparticles
NR Neutral red
NRES Non-renewable energy sources
OCV Open circuit voltage
ORR Oxygen reduction reaction
PANI Polyaniline
Pc Phthalocyanine
PEM Proton exchange membrane
PEI Polyethyleneimine
PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
PPy Polypyrrole
Pt Platinum
SSLbL Spin-spray layer-by-layer
SWCNTs Single-walled CNTs
TMPP Tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................127
1.2 Microbial Fuel Cell Technology......................................................128
2. Anode ......................................................................................................128
2.1 Non-carbon Anode Materials ..........................................................129
2.2 Carbon Anode Materials ..................................................................129
126
2.3 Surface Treatment and Coating for Anode Materials .....................130

3. Cathode ...................................................................................................131
4. Problem Statements ...............................................................................132
4.1 Need of CNT-based Anodes ............................................................132
4.2 Cathodes based on CNTs .................................................................132
5. Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) ...................................................................132
5.1. Synthesis of pristine CNTs ..............................................................134
5.2 Functionalization of CNTs ..............................................................135
5.3 CNT-based Electrodes in MFCs ......................................................136
5.3.1 CNT-based Anodes in MFCs ..........................................................136
5.3.2 CNT-based Cathodes in MFCs ........................................................138
Conclusion.........................................................................................................140
References .........................................................................................................141
1. Introduction
In modern days energy issues have earned a lot of attraction all around the globe. For the
world to thrive, perfect, proficient and reasonable energy administrations must be
accessible. Non-renewable energy sources (NRES) are the major energy producing
resources, near about 87% of the total energy generation around the world originates
from NRES, which are currently being depleted, which may lead a worldwide energy
emergency in the near future [1]. In addition to this, fossil fuel combustion emits
greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide which may lead to the rise of the sea water level
and global climate change, thus threatening food security [2]. The increase in the price of
fossil fuel due to high demand, energy scarcity and global climate change problems have
started the question about the need for development of other sustainable energy sources.
Nuclear power delivers a carbon-free method of energy production, but because of non-
availability of proper disposal techniques of radioactive wastes and leakages, it also
becomes a serious threat to the society [3]. Energy sources such as hydropower, solar
energy, wind power and biomass are carbon-neutral renewable energy sources which are
continually being researched [1]. From the different energy alternatives, one of the
proposed future energy sources is biomass, as it is carbon neutral. However, the
combustion process, which creates pollution, is currently being utilised for biomass
energy development [1]. Therefore, new methods without involving the combustion
127
process are required to be developed to capture the energy from biomass and to provide
sustainable energy for a global society without creating any pollution problems.
Microorganisms can be used for channelizing the electrons and energy, which leads to the
production of methane, hydrogen and electricity [4]. Electricity, among these energy
forms, is considered to be more attractive because of its ability to be utilised directly
without involving any conversion process. To the present date, wastewater is considered
to be one of the most primarily available sources of biomass. In recent years, a new
tendency has been developed where researchers have started considering wastewater not
as a waste only which needs to be discarded but it can also be harvested as a source of
energy [5]. Therefore, to find a technology that allows effective wastewater treatment to
generate electricity directly from wastewater has become very important.
1.2 Microbial Fuel Cell Technology

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a widely used technology as it is eco-friendly and
applicable to wastewater treatment with simultaneous recovery of electrical energy. MFC
uses bacteria, which have the ability to convert organic matters into energy, carbon
dioxide and water directly. The bacterial growth and their metabolism in MFCs can be
promoted and maintained by the energy generated by these. However, MFCs allow a
portion of this energy to be diverted and harvested which can be further utilized for
developing a biofilm on the anode. Accordingly, MFC could be an ideal innovation for
wastewater treatment, sustainable power source generation and convenient power supply
system [6, 7]. Due to potential advantages, MFCs have gathered an impressive
consideration by the specialists in current years. Many factors including electrode
material [8], catalyst [9], microbial inoculum [10], mediator [11], reactor design [10]
electrode spacing [10] resistance in both external and internal [12], proton exchange
membrane (PEM) [13] and substrate [14] affect the performance of MFCs. As being an
important part of MFCs, both anode and cathode, perform integral roles in the generation
of electricity and increasing the removal efficiency of organic matter. This chapter deals
with the issues related to anode and cathode electrodes.
2. Anode
Being one of the most indispensable parts of MFCs, anode materials help in amplifying
the performance of MFCs by improving the electron transfer, anode resistance, bacterial
attachment, and oxidation of substrate [9, 15]. Basically, enhanced conductivity,
improved specific surface area, elevated porosity, robust biocompatibility, chemical
stability, fabrication ease, congruous mechanical strength and cost-effectiveness are the
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primary requirements of anode materials [9]. The non-carbon- and carbon- anode
materials are discussed below.
2.1 Non-carbon Anode Materials

Till date, limited investigations based on non-carbon anode materials for MFCs have
been reported [16-19]. In 2008, Dumas and colleagues utilized stainless steel as suitable
material for the anode with Geobacter sulfurreducens for sediment MFCs. Shockingly,
the outcomes showed the low Pmax at 4 mW/m2, and this was because of the way that the
smooth surface of treated steel couldn't encourage bacterial connection. Richter et al.
demonstrated the likelihood of gold anode with Geobacter sulfurreducens [19]. These
MFCs gave a current, similar to that of the control graphite MFCs i.e. 0.4 - 0.7 mA.
Tragically, no further information on the value of open circuit voltage (OCV), Pmax and
internal resistance was provided. An earlier work by Crittenden et al. has demonstrated
the application of gold anode covered with a self-gathered monolayer with Shewanella
putrefaciens [16]. MFCs current generation is correlated with the molecular chain length
of monolayer and head-group of the monolayer molecules. However, the practical
applications of gold based anodes are limited to small-scale due to higher prices. A
comparative study, in terms of application as an anode, was performed between titanium
and graphite. And no current generation was obtained when titanium was utilised as
anode [20, 18].
2.2 Carbon Anode Materials

Generally, carbon is considered as most adaptable anode material, which incorporates
graphite plate, graphite pole, graphite granule, smooth carbon, reticulated vitreous carbon
(RVC), and fibrous materials as felt, fabric, paper, fiber and foam. Table-1 records
various carbon-based materials along with their unique properties, which enable them to
be utilised as anode materials. Among these carbon materials, carbon fabric and carbon
paper have been more frequently utilized anode materials in MFC because of their
unfaltering quality in microbial cultures and high specific surface area along with high
conductivity [7, 21]. Therefore, it became very important to develop new types of
materials or to modify these carbon materials for improving the anode performance.
Surface-based modification methods for the anode are discussed in the following section.
129
Table.1 Comparison of some carbon anode materials in MFCs.

Anode material Advantage Disadvantage Reference
Graphite rod Chemical stability Low surface area [13]
high conductivity and and porosity
low cost
Carbon felt Large aperture High resistance [22]
and low specific
surface area
RVC High conductivity, Brittle [23]
plasticity and
porosity
Carbon cloth High porosity and Expensive [24]
Flexibility
Graphite fiber High specific surface Clogging [25]
brush area and conductivity
Carbon granule High specific surface Low porosity [26]
area
2.3 Surface Treatment and Coating for Anode Materials

Anode material surface characteristics are one of the main factors that affect the
attachment of bacteria and transfer of electron. Two different modification methods have
been studied in order to enhance the performance of the anode.
a) Surface Treatment
Cheng and Logan have used ammonia gas and conductive electrolyte to treat carbon cloth
[27] and observed an increase in power yield by 48% on using the treated carbon cloth in
comparison to that of plain/untreated carbon cloth. The power output improvement was
due to the increase in the surface charge of the anode from 0.38 to 3.99 meq/m2 which
further lead to expand the positive surface charge resulting in the development of a
biofilm. However, this method requires particular equipment. Wang et al. proposed a
more suitable strategy which included warming of carbon in a muffle furnace, resulting in
the expansion of 3% in the value of Pmax. This could be due to the development of an
active surface area because of the warming process. In 2010, Feng et al. proposed carbon
brush treatment by utilizing sulfuric acid along with heat, that caused 25% expansion in
the Pmax value because of the expansion in specific surface area and a positive charge on
the anode [28]. Interestingly, the same research group proposed that carboxyl groups can
be functionalized on the graphite felt anode by electrochemical oxidation at a consistent
current density of 30 mA/cm2 [29]. Such approach resulted in the supply of higher current
130
up to 40% than that of an untreated anode because of the consideration that the carboxyl
groups on the graphite felt have the capability to furnish strong hydrogen bonding with
peptide in bacterial cytochromes, which further result in better electron transfer.
b) Surface Coating
Recently, various mediators, metals and their composites have represented as materials
for surface coating [30, 31]. A number of mediators consisting of neutral red (NR), 2‐
hydroxy‐1,4‐naphthoquinone (HNQ) and anthraquinone-1,6-disulfonic acid, have been
immobilized on the anode. The results obtained from immobilization of graphite with
mediators demonstrated the fundamental increment in Pmax value because of the
improvement in electron exchange [32, 33]. However, while using these immobilized
mediators in long-term MFC operations, easy degradation is the main problem.
Metal and metal oxide-coated anodes which include Au, Pd and Fe3O4 nanoparticles,
have also been reported. Recently, Fan et al. proposed gold nanoparticles covered
graphite anodes which helped in enhancing the value of current density by 20 times than
that of the plain graphite, compared to control graphite the current density was increased
1.5-2.5 times when graphite coated with Pd nanoparticles were used [30]. In another
investigation with iron composites, Kim et al. detailed the importance of coated ferric
oxide on the anodes, which helped them in improving the properties of iron-reducing
bacteria. The outcomes were higher Pmax and improved coulombic efficiency (CE) than
the plain anode [34]. In outline, specific equipment, high temperature, multiple steps and
long treatment time are the basic requirements for most of the anode modification
methods. Therefore, further researches are required so that simple and more effective
modification method can be developed.
3. Cathode
The majority of the materials referred under segment 2.3 for the anode, can possibly be
used as cathode materials. At present, carbon fabric and carbon paper are most
gigantically used as cathode materials. Oxygen, in perspective of its high oxidation
potential, is normally used as an electron acceptor [35]. In order to improve the kinetics
of oxygen reduction at the electrode surface along with a decrease in the activation
energy barrier catalysts are required [36]. For the most part, the catalysts required in
MFCs need to have; high catalytic activity towards the oxidation at a temperature and pH
range of 10-40oC and 5-7 respectively, chemical and electrochemical solidness, great
biocompatibility, and financially savvy [37]. Platinum (Pt) is the widely used metal
catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in MFCs due to its excellent catalytic
ability.
131
4. Problem Statements
4.1 Need of CNT-based Anodes

Among the different components that influence MFCs performance, the anode is viewed
as the basic parameter because of its ability to manage the organic removal efficiency as
well as power generation [5, 8]. High electrical conductivity, improved specific surface
area, adequate surface roughness, higher porosity, chemical stability, ease of designing,
suitable mechanical quality, strong biocompatibility and cost-ampleness are the critical
properties which are required for a material to be used as anode for the MFCs [8, 38, 39].
It has been reported that the colony forming capacity of microorganisms, the capability of
electron transfer and anode surface response have been influenced by different anode
materials [8, 39]. Carbon cloth and carbon paper in view of their high conductivity and
solid chemical stability in microbial culture, have been regularly used MFC anode
materials [40]. However, the shortcoming associated with these materials include the
limited catalytic activity, inferior porosity and low specific surface area [26].
Additionally, carbon paper due to its delicate property cannot be used for long-term MFC
operations [41]. In this way, it is important to grow new sorts of anode materials for
MFCs and in this sense, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have demonstrated as promising
contenders due to their novel structural, electrical, physical and chemical properties [15,
42].
4.2 Cathodes based on CNTs

At the cathode of a MFC, one of the most reasonable and sensible electron acceptors is
oxygen; however, its moderate oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) rate prompts high
decrease overpotential, which acts as one of the most generally perceived compelling
factors in the MFCs performance. A catalyst is generally required to improve the kinetics
of ORR and reduction in the activation energy barrier [36]. The steadiness in the catalyst
performance is highly influenced by the assistance of catalyst support because of the
diverse association between the catalyst particles and supports [43]. High conductivity,
specific surface area, resistance against corrosion and capability to create anchoring sites
with metal catalyst are considered as specific requirements for catalyst support [43, 44].
CNTs due to their wonderful electrical, physical and chemical properties are considered
to be promising catalyst support and cathode material.
5. Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) contain graphene sheet layers, with expansiveness in
nanometres and length in microns that are rolled-up into the shape of cylinders that are
132
often closed at both ends as shown in Fig. 1. These rolls are laid out in such a way so that
CNTs obtained are extensive in bundles along with their walls formed by hexagonal
carbon rings. The closures/ terminations of CNTs are domed structured that is shaped of
six-membered rings and capped by a five-membered ring. Variety of techniques can be
used for the synthesis of CNTs. In general, arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition
(CVD), and laser vaporization (laser ablation) are probably the most well-known
techniques [45, 46].
Fig. 1- Schematic representation of the roll-up of a graphene sheet to form a single-

walled carbon nanotube structure [47]
Generally, CNTs have two key classifications [48]. a) Single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs);
which typically contain single cylindrical graphene layer in the wall of the tube as shown
in Fig. 2, with diameters in the range of 0.4 to 2 nm and length up to 1.5 cm.
b) Multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs) are those which contain several layers of graphene
telescoped one over another with a spacing of approximately 0.34 nm in the middle of
them, while the diameters range is from 10 to 200 nm, and lengths up to hundreds of
microns (Fig. 2).
To date, CNTs in view of their exceptional physical and chemical properties are getting
tremendous ubiquity and these properties incorporate high specific surface area, porosity,
conductivity and tensile strength, in addition of biocompatibility and possibility to create
133
anchoring sites with catalytic nanoparticles etc. [44, 49]. Still, more researches are
required to be carried out by using CNTs as electrode materials in proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), and MFC [39, 50, 51].
Fig. 2-Molecular structures of SWCNTs and MWCNTs [52].
Fig. 3- Process illustration for the formation of by pure CNTs [53]
5.1. Synthesis of pristine CNTs

With the help of three techniques, to be specific, arc-discharge [53], laser ablation [54]
and chemical vapour deposition (CVD) diverse sorts of individual CNTs have been
delivered [55]. CNTs have been created with the help of arc-discharge and laser ablation
by vaporization of a solid carbon source and condensation of inert gases like argon or
helium (Fig. 3). In laser ablation, the energy of high temperature used for evaporation of
134
carbon sources is provided by laser energy whereas, in case of arc discharge, the energy
of a high-temperature plasma is discharged between two graphite electrodes [53, 54].
Laser ablation and arc discharge have genuine troubles for being used as cost-effective
CNT producing procedures because of the high temperature (3000 ℃) necessity for the
reaction environment. Hence, limiting the number of CNTs which can be synthesized
using these two processes when compared with CV [55].
5.2 Functionalization of CNTs

CNTs are set up of changing diameter, length, structure, and more importantly sometimes
contain contaminations of metal or carbonaceous deposits that impact their exceptional
properties. Thus, in order to eliminate these impurities, different routes of CNT
functionalization are required in order to the synthesis of other CNT-based hybrid
materials reasonable for a coveted application. Covalent attachment of functional groups
with various groups like polymers, biomolecules, and metal nanoparticles through a
chemical reaction, or adsorption or wrapping the CNTs helps in functionalizing the CNTs
[56]. By using covalent linkage, or direct methodology like creating or depositing these
metal nanoparticles (NPs) onto the CNT structure, these NPs get related easily with the
CNT structure [56, 57]. Vander Waals collaboration is critical in the direct procedure,
through which metal Ps get associated with CNTs by means of a reduction process in the
presence of CNTs where noble metals are used as the precursor. Heat, light, and reducing
agents are used in this process [57]. Metal NPs collaboration with CNTs by means of
covalent linkage can be accomplished through functional groups on NPs known as linkers
[58, 59]. These linkers may incite the advancement of covalent bonds with the functional
groups presentation on the CNT surface, or bond with frail intermolecular cooperation
particularly stacking, hydrophobic, and electrostatic associations. CNTs may likewise be
functionalized with polymer utilitarian gatherings that are physically adsorbed onto the
CNT surface, or covalently connected to its structure. The regularly used strategy of
polymer functionalization of CNTs is the solution casting techniques, where CNTs and
polymers are blended in a solvent, trailed by evaporation of the solvent to acquire the
polymer/CNT composite [59, 60]. However, these customary systems and low-tech
strategies of casting or dip-coating for the fabrication of conductive cross-linked polymer
lattice, show low command over the completed composite and material waste. New
procedures include the classification of layer-by-layer (LbL) methods that have been
comprehensively used for the synthesis of highly functional electrodes for batteries and
fuel cells [61-63]. Many assortments of LbL have been proposed among which spin-
spray layer-by-layer (SSLbL) presented by Merrill et al. has been remarkable [64]. Their
union system was later upgraded by Gittleson et al. as computerized and highly fast
assembly of polyelectrolyte/CNT films with the possibility of lessening the process
135
durations to even sub-seconds. Various other features of this system incorporate material
waste reduction, homogenization of thin film conductance, and nanolevel control over the
film advancement [65].
5.3 CNT-based Electrodes in MFCs

For a real MFC system, just a couple of attempts have been accounted on CNT-based
electrodes, Table 2 shows the applications for anode whereas Table 3 discusses cathode
applications.
Table.2 Summary of the various studies performed on CNT-based anodes in MFC

applications.
Anode Material Preparation Maximum Reference
Method power density
(mW/m2)
Ni foam with Chemical 42 [15]
PANI/CNTs polymerization
Carbon paper with Sn-Pt Not reported 1994 [42]
/MWCNT-COOH
Carbon cloth with Dipping and drying 65 [51]
MWCNTs
Carbon paper with Dipping 290 [68]
MWCNT-COOH
Polyester fabric with Dipping and drying 1098 [69]
SWCNTs
MWCNT/Silicon Vertically 19.36 [71]
aligned/PECVD
CNT+Mo2C +PTFE/ Pressure coating 1050 [72]
Carbon felt
3D conductive 1760 [73]
CNT/Carbon paper network/Dispersion
MWCNT+ Mo2C +Na Pressure coating 109.1 [74]
fion/Plain graphite
MWCNT/SSM NA/CVD 450 [75]
MWCNT+PANI/Graphite Electro deposition 257 [76]
felt
136
Table.3 List of various studies performed on CNT-based anodes in MFC applications.

Cathode material Preparation Maximum Reference
method power density
(mW/m2)
Carbon papers with Not reported 1342 [42]
Pt/MWCNTs and Sn-
Pt/MWCNTs 1430
Carbon cloth with Dipping and 65 [51]
Pt/MWCNTs drying
Carbon cloth with CoTMPP- Paste painting 751 [80]
FePc/ MWCNT-COOH
Carbon cloth with β- Spraying 98 [91]
MnO2/CNTs
Carbon paper with CNTs Not reported 8 [81]
CNT+Pt/Carbon paper Dip coating 169.7 [92]
Mn+PPy+CNT+Nafion/GCE Drop casting 213 [93]
MWCNT/Graphite felt Electrophoretic 214.7 [94]
deposition
CNT+PPy/Carbon paper NA 113.5 [95]
N–CNT/Carbon cloth CVD 135 [96]
5.3.1 CNT-based Anodes in MFCs

It has been accounted through literature that CNTs have a cell harmfulness that may
prompt expansion restraint and cell damage [66]. Subsequently, a few analysts have
changed the configuration of CNT-based anodes with the help of biocompatible polymers
that will help in decreasing the cell toxicity [15, 39]. They prepared anode materials
based on CNT/conductive polymer nanocomposites coated on nickel foam and carbon
paper. It was concluded that the additional CNTs along with the conductive polymers
have enhanced the power output as compared with the polymer only. These conductive
polymers include; namely polyaniline (PANI) and polypyrrole (PPy). However, low
conductivity and poor electron transfer properties of polymers limit their application in
MFCs. Most recently, Higgins et al. masterminded carbon felt impregnated with chitosan
(CHIT)/MWCNT platforms, which brought out open circuit voltage (OCV) of 0.600 V
and the Pmax of 4.75 W/m3 in contrast to that of plain carbon felt (3.5 W/m3). However,
the preparation strategy for CHIT/CNT nanocomposite was confounded and tedious [38].
137
A Sn-Pt/MWCNT-COOH coated carbon paper along with a novel electron mediator

without using any conductive polymers was developed by Sharma et al. Further, using
blend arrangement of Nafion solution and MWCNT-COOH suspension for coating
carbon paper had resulted in the development of these CNT-based anodes. The
noteworthy outcomes were obtained on using such CNT-based anodes in MFCs which
have produced six times higher Pmax than that of the control graphite anode [42].
However, certain limitations of Nafion i.e. it causes an increase in resistivity and a
decrease in catalytic activity have been reported by some researchers [20, 67].
By looking at the performance of MFCs on the application of MWCNT-coated carbon
cloth and plain carbon cloth as an anode, Tsai et al. presumed that the additional CNTs in
comparison to that of carbon cloth anodes lead to significant upgradation in the values of
Pmax, CE and COD removal efficiency [51]. Unfortunately, the thin films of CNTs on
carbon cloth were not stable at a higher flow rate and for long-term operation. In another
attempt, Sun et al., have examined a self-assembled CNT-based anode which was
developed by using novel layer-by-layer (LBL) method [68]. These kinds of anodes were
prepared by assembling negatively charged MWCNT-COOH and positively charged
polyethyleneimine (PEI) on carbon paper, which further resulted in increasing the value
of Pmax by 20% than that of obtained by utilizing plain carbon paper. However, the value
of OCV was adversely influenced on using these kinds of anodes.
More importantly, in recent years with the development of three-dimensional CNT-textile
anodes by a researcher group using the dipping and drying method had made these CNT
based electrodes more famous and useful [69]. Polyester fabric was dipped into a blend
solution of SWCNT suspension and SDBS solution, trailed by drying at 120oC. This
CNT-textile anode reactor demonstrated the Pmax 68% higher than that acquired from the
carbon cloth. However, enormous experimentations are required to carry out regarding
the catalytic activity of CNT-textile anode. Liang et al. had explored the impact of the
addition of MWCNT-COOH powders in anode chamber on MFC performance [70].
Results demonstrated that both the start-up time for biofilm development and the internal
resistance during 40 days of operation were decreased. However, no noteworthy
increment of the biomass in anodic biofilm was recognized from the examinations on
various doses of CNTs. Subsequently, more in-depth investigations on the measurement
of the electrochemical activity of the biomass per unit mass are quite important.
5.3.2 CNT-based Cathodes in MFCs

Basically, catalyst supports for MFCs are selected on the basis of their conductivity,
framework, specific surface area, and corrosion resistance properties [44, 49]. As of late,
diverse nanostructures developed from carbon materials with graphitic structure have
138
been likewise utilized for catalyst support applications [77, 78]. Carbon black, for
example, Vulcan XC-72 has been broadly utilized in a fuel cell as a catalyst support,
because of its high conductivity, adequate surface area, easy accessibility and minimal
cost [78, 79]. Recently, CNTs have been of great interest as a cathode material in fuel cell
applications because of their exceptional electrical, physical and substance properties [43,
50]. However, in spite of being the recent area of interest, still, their limited
investigations have been reported on the CNT-based cathode for MFCs [42, 80, 81].
Some researchers have compared performances of catalyst supports such as CNTs and
carbon black utilized in fuel cell applications [82, 83]. In 2006, Xin exhibited that
MWCNTs showed 30% more resistance towards corrosion as compared to Vulcan XC-
72, achieving solidness of the PEMFC [84]. In another study, Matsumoto et al. reported
that a better PEMFC performance can be obtained by using Pt/CNTs as compared to
commercial Pt/carbon black with reducing 60% Pt loading per cathode area [83]. Sharma
et al. have developed a new configuration of the catalyst by depositing Pt and Pt alloy
catalysts on MWCNTs and further coating them on carbon paper. Cathode reactor of Sn-
Pt/MWCNT has provided higher Pmax as compared to other reactors of Ru-Pt/MWCNT
and Pt/MWCNT [42]. However, in the same study, application of nafion as a binder has
shown the ability to isolate MWCNTs from the catalyst layers in the MWCNT
suspension [85]. Furthermore, nafion could cause an expansion in resistivity and an
abatement in catalytic activity [67].
In 2008, a new category of anode materials which consists of MWCNT-coated carbon
cloth was prepared by a group of researchers. Accordingly, Pt catalysts were coated
straightforwardly onto the MWCNT-coated carbon cloth cathode. Shockingly, no major
difference in the value of Pmax and COD removal efficiency was obtained when
MWCNT-coated carbon cloth reactors with or without Pt catalysts were operated. This
might be because of weak collaboration between the Pt and MWCNT-coated carbon
cloth, which have the potential to cause the disengagement of Pt catalysts from the
MWCNTs [51]. In a recent study, SWCNT and MWCNT modified cathodes
with/without Pt catalyst were fabricated by Wang et al. using some new methods [86].
Further, these cathodes were developed and produced by filtration of the CNT suspension
by employing PTFE membrane. Microwave method operated at 250W and 140oC for the
90s was used for coating of Pt catalysts on the surface of CNTs. As indicated by their
Pmax and OCV outcomes, MFCs could be positioned as follows Pt/SWCNT >
Pt/MWCNT > SWCNT cathode. Beside this, on the application of Pt/SWCNT based
cathode reactor, about three times lower internal resistance was obtained as that acquired
from Pt/MWCNT reactor. Indeed, even the performance of SWCNT cathode reactors in
contrast to those from carbon cloth indicates incredible MFC response. Chemical
139
deposition and microbial adherence on the cathode surfaces have caused a steady decline
in SWCNT performance, as they knock down the charge transfer and catalytic activity of
the reactor. Interestingly, it is known that tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin (TMPP) and
phthalocyanine (Pc) with Fe or Co acts as fine ORR catalysts and can be also explored as
alternatives to Pt [87-89]. Deng et al. were the first to use CoTMPP and FePc for
deposition on MWCNT-COOH which can be further utilized as MFC cathodes. These
types of developed catalysts showed higher catalytic activity than that of CoTMPP-
FePc/graphite [80]. Results on the application of these cathodes for MFCs application
had demonstrated that the value Pmax obtained was 1.5 times higher than that of obtained
on using commercial Pt-carbon cloth cathodes. But still, the performance of CoTMPP-
FePc/MWCNT-COOH on carbon cloth could be further improved by employing air
splashing in place of paste painting. Additionally, the deposition method of CoTMPP-
FePc on MWCNT-COOH was found to be convoluted and tedious. On the further
extension of the study, Yuan et al. have used a catalyst of FePc as a support on MWCNT-
NH2 and MWCNT-COOH. MFCs could be ranked as follows in terms of Pmax value:
FePc/MWCNT-NH2 > FePc/MWCNT-COOH > FePc/MWCNT [90]. In one of the
alternative studies regarding catalyst by Lu et al. and Zhang et al. shown a new
possibility about utilizing the MnO2/CNT-coated carbon support as the cathode of MFCs
[81, 91]. Lu et al. compared three types of MnO2 namely α-MnO2, β-MnO2, γ-MnO2/CNT
spray-coated carbon cloths on the basis of MFC performance [91]. Based on their results,
the highest Pmax, OCV and COD removal efficiency was obtained by β-MnO2/CNT
cathode reactors among other MnO2/CNT reactors. Unfortunately, the Pmax value
obtained by the β-MnO2/CNT reactor was 1.56 times lesser than that obtained by
commercial-Pt carbon cloth. With likewise catalyst, Zhang et al. also affirmed that CNTs
were perfect catalyst support material for MnO2 in which MnO2/CNT acted as a good
substitute for the Pt/carbon black in MFC applications [81]. As such, further studies are
required to be carried out so that highly improved, efficient, cost-effective and easily
prepared CNT-modified electrodes can be developed.
Conclusion
Outlining of the electrode in light of the savvy innovation is the best test in assembling of
MFCs. Surface zone, morphology, biocompatibility, conductivity and stability are the
most imperative properties on which MFCs performance depends upon. CNTs and CNT
composites because of their unique properties have been explored to develop anodes and
cathodes, and several electrode modification methods have been developed so that power
generation can be improved. To date, various changes are in progress, for example,
surface treatment, coating with nanomaterials and composites. The power generation and
140
electrode cost have not reached the level for commercial use. Additionally, investigation
on more successful electrode materials and optimization of the configuration are expected
to address these challenges.
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Chapter 7
Use of Carbon-Nanotube Based Materials in

Hakan Burhan1, Gazi Yilmaz1, Ahmet Zeytun1, Harbi Calimli1,2, Fatih Sen1*
1
Sen Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Dumlupınar , University, 43100 Kütahya,
Turkey
2
Tuzluca Vocational High School, Igdir University, Igdir, Turkey
[email protected]
Abstract
Today, carbon nanotubes are extensively used for energy suppy in electrical devices due
to their specific mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Additionally, carbon
nanotubes are widely used in microbial fuel cells which provide zero carbon emission in
energy supply. Carbon nanotube-based materials have good electrochemical properties
for the microbial fuel cells. Also, the use of carbon nanotube-based composites in the
design of microbial fuel cells is very important in a large area of application from
medical devices to scaled power generation. For this purpose, in this chapter, microbial
fuel cells formed by carbon nanotube-based composites were evaluated by using
microbial fuel cells and the effects of microbial fuel cells.
Keywords
Carbon-Based Materials, Electrochemistry, Fuel Cells, Nanomaterial, Nanotechnology
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................152
2. Design of carbon nanotube-based electrodes ......................................154
2.1 Fabrication of pristine carbon nanotubes ........................................154
2.2 Functionalization of carbon nanotubes ............................................155
2.3 The use of carbon nanotube-based materials...................................156
2.3.1 Carbon nanotube-based thin films ...................................................156
2.3.2 Carbon nanotubes–based monolith structures .................................158
151
2.3.2.1 Carbon nanotubes aerogel..............................................................158

2.3.2.2 Carbon nanotubes foam .................................................................158
3. Anode modification................................................................................159
3.1 Bacteria/electrode interaction ..........................................................160
3.2 Carbon nanotube-based anode materials .........................................160
3.2.1 Metal/carbon nanotubes ...................................................................160
3.3 Carbon nanotube-based anode assembly .........................................161
4. Cathode modification ............................................................................161
5. Challenges and promises .......................................................................162
Conclusions .......................................................................................................163
References .........................................................................................................163
1. Introduction
Since Iijima and his colleagues [1] discovered the carbon nanotubes in 1991, they have
attracted considerable interest due to their unique characteristics. The general structure of
the carbon nanotube is such that it has a narrow, long, and cylindrical carbon atom at
each end [2–3]. These tubular structures are often multi-walled (MWCNT) and single-
tube or single-walled (SWCNT) and have a very high degree of electrical conductivity
[4], thermal conductivity [5], high tensile strength [6], and elastic modulus. Materials
treated with carbon nanotubes gain unique properties and therefore, are highly preferred
as the basic building blocks. Carbon nanotube-based materials have unique properties
such as magnetic, adsorption, large surface area, and biocompatibility. Thus, carbon
nanotube-based materials are extensively used in the design of materials. These structures
can be used in many areas including tissue engineering [7], energy collection materials
[8–9], biosensors [10–14], biological distribution systems [15–17], and microelectronics
[18–20]. Among these applications, microbial fuel cells are also very important and they
use microorganisms in their platform. Microorganisms used in microbial fuel cell
produce electricity due to their capability of exocellular electron transfer, so they are
known as exoelectrogen [21]. To generate electricity in microbial fuel cells, some organic
substances, such as lactase, glucose, and acetate are oxidized with the help of an
electrocatalyst. Reduction of the organic substance (e-transmitter) to the carbon dioxide
occurs by metabolic events and bacterial respiration. Upon the electrons transferred on
the surface of an anode, they pass to an external surface to generate electricity. Finally, in
152
the electrolyte, the electrons pass through a membrane and come together with protons
that pass from the anode to the cathode, and a cathode is collected at the tip, whereby
water from the oxygen (e-receiver) is formed. Due to the possibility of using different
bacterial sources in energy recovery applications, microbial fuel cells can be used in
small power sources [22–25], biomass [26–30], hydrogen production [31–35], biosensor
studies [36–40], and chemical synthesis systems [41–42].
Fig. 1. (Right) In the general working principle of microbial fuel cells; It is catalyzed by
the biofilm (bacterial community) that produce protons and carbon dioxide from the
oxidations of organic molecules; as a result, the electrons are passed to the anode. It is
shown in the figure that it is substantially reduced by the use of metal catalysts in
conventional microbial fuel cells to generate oxygen water in the cathode. In general, a
membrane (green) can be used to increase the filtration of the protons between the
cathode and the anode parts, but in laminar flow microbial fuel cells, the membranes are
removed because the cations move at high speed and relative flow rates cause low
convector. In a multilayered biofilm, the electrons for the outer layers are carried by
their conducting batteries, mainly known as nanowires. At the same time, electrons are
transferred to the surface of anode thank to contact directly or electron shuttles (on the
left side).
Among the materials that can be used for microbial fuel cells, carbon nanotube-based
materials are very important. Especially, 10 years ago, carbon nanotube-based
composites and carbon nanotubes were used as components of microbial fuel cells. The
resulting nano-engineering materials, which help the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in
the cathode and the bacterial population in the anode, are aimed to develop the microbial
153
fuel cells in these two ways. We should note that in this classification, only the
biocathodes and bacterial communities act as electron acceptors [43–45]. Besides,
Antolini et al. [46] have investigated microbial fuel cells composite applications
containing polymer/carbon, carbon/metal, polymer/metal composites, while another
article deals with a broader approach to electrode materials [47]. While emphasizing the
importance of their work, the study included carbon nanotubes in microbial fuel cells and
stated that they would benefit both nanomaterial researchers and the microbial fuel cell
research community due to the high demand for new carbon nanotube-based chemicals to
produce bioenergy. In this chapter, we start by monitoring the carbon nanotubes that are
initially functional and continue with the methods that must be applied for the preparation
of carbon nanotube-based microbial fuel cell electrodes and then, the synthesis process of
the carbon nanotubes. In the next step, we evaluated the impact of nanomaterials on
microbial fuel cell and finally, we discussed the problems and possibilities of microbial
fuel cell’s scaling and commercialization with the help of carbon nanotubes.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2. In the arc discharge shown in Figure 2, the energy present in a plasma having
high temperature released from the electrodes as a result of evaporation in compressed
of carbon nanotubes. (b) Laser energy is produced by Laser ablation having high
temperature and convert a carbon source upon the carbon vapor occurs in a helium and
argon stream. (c) In chemical vapor deposition, the gaseous hydrocarbon is crushed into
hydrogen and carbon and deposited on the catalyst bed as carbon nanotubes and
introduced into the furnace.
2. Design of carbon nanotube-based electrodes
2.1 Fabrication of pristine carbon nanotubes

The individual carbon nanotubes can be produced in high volumes using these three
methods, laser ablation [48], arc–discharge [49] and chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
[50]. Laser ablation and arc discharge produce high-quality carbon nanotubes by
compressing an inert gas, such as helium or argon and by drying a solid carbon source
154
(Figure 2). The high temperature in laser ablation is achieved by laser energy [48–49];
hence, the drying of the carbon source is supplied, and the energy present on plasma is
discharged between the anode and the cathode. In the studies which aim to produce cost-
effective carbon nanotubes, the efficiency is low due to high temperatures. Therefore, arc
discharge and laser ablation are disruptive. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 2, high-quality
carbon nanotubes in chemical vapour deposition can be produced in the result of the
reaction occurred among catalyst and hydrocarbon feedstock [51].
2.2 Functionalization of carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes differ in length, structure, diameter, etc. The carbonaceous by-products
and metal impurities are generally obtained with their impurities. Therefore, some
functionalization pathways are needed to eliminate impurities and to offer a way to
synthesize carbon nanotubes containing hybrid materials to design some applications.
Carbon nanotubes are functionalized by covalent bonding formed from a chemical
reaction or by adsorption or coagulation of carbon nanotubes with different groups, such
as polymers, metal nanoparticles [52–61], and biomolecules metal nanoparticles [62].
The preformed nanoparticles (NPs) can be enlarged in addition to the carbon nanotubes
structure which is the direct processor that can be linked to the carbon nanotubes forms
by covalent and weaker bonds as the indirect approach [62–63]. In the procedure, a
reduction process is carried out using carbon nanotubes where containing noble metals as
precursors, and metal nanoparticles are adhered by Van der Waals interaction. This
process is supported by light, reducing agents, and heat [63–64]. The carbon nanotubes
interact with metal nanoparticles using the covalent connection path. These binders
provide the formation of covalent bonds with weak intercellular bonds, such as
hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, and functional groups on the carbon nanotubes
surface. Carbon nanotubes can also be functionalized by covalently bonded polymer
functional groups or by adsorption on the surface of the carbon nanotubes. Carbon
nanotubes and polymers will be mixed in a solvent to obtain polymers/carbon nanotube
composite, and solvent-based solution casting techniques, which are very common, are
used for the polymerization process of the carbon nanotubes [65–66]. Furthermore, other
than these conventional techniques, the manufacture of conductive crosslinked polymer
materials, low-tech dip coating or casting methods show low control over surface-coated
on the surface of the composite material. Current studies commonly utilize layer-layer
(LBL) assembly techniques in the producing of electrodes having functional groups for
fuel cells and batteries [67–69]. These recommendations were then reported by Gittleson
et al. [70], and it was possible to install polyelectrolyte/carbon nanotube films
automatically and very quickly, as in 13 seconds, thanks to reducing the cycle time to less
155
than seconds. Other properties for nano level control are film growth, material waste cost,
and thin film conductivity.
2.3 The use of carbon nanotube-based materials

Carbon nanotubes have been produced for aerogels, foams, wafers, arrays, sheets, yarns,
and sponges with macroscopic structure. Each of these structures offers substantially
different properties, functionality, and physical parameters from the functionalized or
crafted carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes have a broad usage area, such as energy
conversion and storage systems in devices. Additionally, they are used in the forming 2D
thin films decorated on a conductive surface and a 3D monolith [71].
2.3.1 Carbon nanotube-based thin films

In a chemical vapour deposition-baked substrate, such as silicon oxide, the carbon
nanotube thin films can be modified or modified directly with functional groups usually
at a temperature of 500 to 1200 °C. Catalyst nanoparticles, thanks to the help of chemical
vapour deposition parameters and the surface properties of the substrate, make the
surface of materials functionalized due to having a network that allows the properties of
materials to be controlled by a network regarding density, porosity, and alignment. To
summarize, previously prepared carbon nanotubes can be collected or coated on a desired
substrate at the ambient condition to produce a thin film to use as electrodes [72].
This process is usually conducted using an organic solvent containing a surfactant and
comprises a multi-step wet-chemical process involving acid treatment of intact carbon
nanotubes. This method can be classified regarding commercial values where growths on
the surface of carbon nanotubes are taken as a scale, but if left in the stored thin film, the
electrical conductivity of carbon nanotube networks is adversely affected by the use of
harsh chemicals and surfactants. Many autoclavable and chemically resistant polymers
are profoundly retarded for laboratory and production of microbial fuel cells [73–74].
However, some of the carbon nanotube film production techniques mentioned above
cannot be used directly. For this reason, these considerations require the shaping of the
carbon nanotube web on the polymer substrate according to the requirements of the
microbial fuel cell containing carbon nanotube thin film printing methods on a receiving
substrate (Figure 3). From a general point of view, carbon nanotube thin film transfer,
including wet and dry processes, is divided into two sections. These techniques are
supported by factors such as pressure, heat, laser, etc., to remove impurities and improve
the process activity of the desired model. Negligible substrate or substrate bearing carbon
nanotubes, and the dry transfer in the carbon nanotubes are generally controlled by the
energy produced from the substrates present in the experiments [75–87]. PDMS is an
156
Figure 3(a). Lin and his colleagues used an acrylic substrate to provide adhesive transfer
of carbon nanotubes from the surface of the silicon substrate. (b)Transfer pressure; It
exposes carbon nanotube film by spraying and submerging on a glass surface with
PDMS stamp. After this step, the PMLS is peeled, and the temperature and pressure are
applied to transfer it in a substep. (c) A polymer containing carbon nanotube as a carrier
is loaded upon the microwave -assisted transfer applies for the enlargement of silicon.
The resulting pattern comprising carbon nanotubes is heated by microwave (d). A laser
impact energy is conducted for the evaporation of some impurities for carbon nanotube
present on the first substrate. (e) The liquid-liquid interface transfer is performed by
resting the carbon nanotube with an aqueous solution and an organic solution, and then
a film has appeared at the liquid interface. To adhere to the thin film to the surface, a
substrate present in the mixture is drawn from bottom to top.
157
appropriate material to apply for transferring of film from the initial and the desired
substrate. The PDMS undergoes soft lithographic processing to transfer a carbon
nanotube network pattern specified by the configuration of the microbial fuel cells
compartments. Also, the potential for the energy of microbial fuel cells is lower than the
polymers used in its design and manufacture. The more precise and difficult part of the
fabrication of the thin film is a wet transfer using many commercially available carbon
nanotube solutions. This process is simultaneously applied with thermal heating to
eliminate surfactants in the solution [71].
2.3.2 Carbon nanotubes–based monolith structures

Current developments have shown that 3D monolithic structures have a high conductivity
for freestanding electrodes in terms of exposing the surface of the carbon nanotubes to
the adsorption of chemical groups. While the variation of 3D materials was improved
using carbon nanotubes, these materials can be separated into three sections, which are
the synthesis of foams [87], aerogels [88], and sponges [89]. They are identified by the
3D assembly of interconnected carbon nanotubes with hierarchical and open pores [90].
2.3.2.1 Carbon nanotubes aerogel

There are many techniques adopted for the synthesis of multifunctional and hybrid
carbon nanotube aerogels (Figure 4). A liquid containing graphene or carbon nanotubes is
extracted from the gel structure at critical point liquid used to produce the desired
colloidal particles. This is one of the most commonly used processes. Jung et al. [91],
thus, synthesizes single-walled carbon nanotube (CN) aerogels in which the
homogeneous distribution that has a solid phase with a dilute concentration is taken first.
Subsequently, the drying of the supercritical solvent is conducted to get an aerogel
structure. A process which has three stages was applied to form aerogels. In the first step,
a solution containing carbon nanotubes in a gel is created with the help of the crosslinker,
in the second step, the thermal annealing of the aerogel is carried out, and in the final
step, electrical and mechanical properties are enhanced [92].
2.3.2.2 Carbon nanotubes foam

The metal foams can be produced directly on the chemical vapor deposition techniques
followed by the creation of 3-dimensional monolith structures of carbon nanotube foams,
separating a substrate in a formed metal from carbon-nanotube having a 3D structure.
Carbon nanotube-graphene foam was synthesized by Dong et al. [93–95] by a two-step
chemical vapor deposition procedure. Firstly, graphene was obtained using nickel foam,
and then, this graphene was kept at 750 oC for 40 minutes to reach the desired size.
158
Finally, the resulting pattern was incubated overnight in hydrochloric acid (HCl) to
remove the substrate from the metal foam. The obtained pattern exhibits
superhydrophobic properties.
Figure 4 shows the carbon nanotube-based aerogel synthesis process schematically. (a)
A new method of synthesis conducted according to mentioned above is used to increase
the concentration of colloids for obtaining gel to extract the solvent produced with
supercritical drying. (b) formation of a composite containing metal oxide of aerogels or
CN synthesized with the sol-gel method. (c) It is an aerogel synthesis method on carbon
nanotubes grown in microfibrous carbon paper.
3. Anode modification
An anode compartment plays an important role in microbial fuel cells because microbial
fuel cell acts as an electron generator in power generation. In this section,
bacterial/electrode communication, which is the basis for understanding the anode
development pathways, was detected. We then, provide an overview of the anode
materials used to improve the overall performance of microbial fuel cells [71].
159
3.1 Bacteria/electrode interaction

The self-reproducible polymeric materials used on the electrode surface are called as
biofilms. The complex nature of the biofilms, metabolic activity [96], formation, growth,
and environmental effects [97] was examined in different aspects. The backbone of the
bacterial/electrode interaction that develops with sequential steps is the bacterial biofilms.
Production of three-dimensional carbon nanotubes starts with the adhesion of bacteria
and a monolayer form. Followed by the formation of a multi-layered structure, a mature
polymeric biofilm having a 3D structure is formed. This biofilm formation process takes
place in two stages as starting and ending maturation of biofilm. The electrode surfaces
are optimized for the maturation of the electrodes. For this purpose, the electrode surfaces
are made suitable for the adhesion of the bacteria before the biofilm maturation. In the
case of a low bacterial density on the electrode surface during the application of this
process, the microbial fuel cell performs a low energy production. Namely, low energy
efficiency is produced as a result of a low electrocatalytic activity between electrodes and
bacteria. In the second phase of this function, a high level of catalytic activity takes place
as a result of the mass transfer of bacteria by the electrode and the transmission of the
electron on the 3D structured biofilm. There are three transitions of electron transport in
the multilayered structure of the anode as shown in Figure 1. (i) The structures that
provide the transport of electrons occur as a result of reduction and oxidation by the
bacteria, (ii) bacterial cell membranes in the outer structure of the c-type cytochromes
and the charged enzyme forming from redox reaction, (iii) electron transfer using a self-
generated electrical conductive battery called a bacterial nanowire [71].
3.2 Carbon nanotube-based anode materials

Usually, natural polymeric matrices, such as carbon nanotubes, gelatin [98], collagen
[99], alginate [100] or chitosan [101], can be synthesized with synthetic polymers such as
polycarbosilane [102], polyurethane [103], polycarbonate [104], PLGA [14], PMMA
[105] or by metal oxide/catalyst nanoparticles.
3.2.1 Metal/carbon nanotubes

The fixation of metallic nanoparticles on carbon nanotubes can be used as skeletons for
electronics [106], fuel cells [107–113] and sensors [114]. Metal oxides including TiO2,
SnO2, MgO2 for integration into carbon nanotubes or carbon nanotube/polymer hybrid
materials should have structural stability, low cost, and abundant availability. The
structure of the microbial fuel cell anodes using carbon nanotube-based materials
decorated with metal oxide particles shows better performance compared to bare carbon
nanotubes [115–116]. This nanohybrid material has better performance than carbon
160
nanotube and TiO2 based electrodes. The nanoparticles of tin oxide (SnO2) bonded to
carbon nanotubes were also applied to the microbial fuel cells as an electrode material.
3.3 Carbon nanotube-based anode assembly

The performance of microbial fuel cell is primarily regulated by the chemical properties
of carbon nanotube-based materials. As described in the following sections, the microbial
fuel cell anodes are constructed as self-assembled carbon nanotubes, carbon nanotube-
based monoliths/free-standing structures alone. Carbon nanotube alignment is regulated
during the expression of carbon nanotubes thin films, such as porosity and layer
resistance, which significantly affect electrode biocompatibility. For example, porosity
allows the distribution of bacteria to the biofilm layers. In this context, a membrane-free
microbial fuel cell using a modified anode according to conventional gold and nickel
electrodes is proven to be a high-strength energy harvesting machine that reaches 6 and
20 times higher current and power density. For the first time for power generation on a
sustainable chip with a microbial fuel cell, these findings have enabled applications in
electronics [71]. The stay of bacteria within the carbon nanotube network affects the pore
size of biofilm formation, cell viability and various surface alignments of carbon
nanotubes. Ren-sputtered (SSLbL) carbon nanotube films on the gold substrate, randomly
aligned carbon nanotubes (RACNTs), vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNTs) or
carbon nanotube forests, and high-pore characteristics were added in the study by Ren et
al. [117] As mentioned by Ren et al., the vertically aligned carbon nanotube results in the
formation of fine biofilm. On the contrary, randomly aligned carbon nanotube opens
thicker biofilms for the easy localization of bacteria within the randomly aligned carbon
nanotube network, and thus, higher electricity production can be achieved. The potential
for increasing contact-based electron transfer occurs and expands the scope of the
bacterial biomass feed support significantly. To create a 3D conductor network, the
carbon nanotubes are connected to form a network and determine the volume fraction in a
solution. The resulting entangled conductor, carbon nanotube network, is mounted on a
carbon-based anode. A membrane is used which adversely affects the sustainability of
energy production, power output, and equipment costs [71].
4. Cathode modification
The power generation cycle in a microbial fuel cell is completed as a result of the
generation of water. The oxygen reduction reaction kinetics is very slow. This slow
reaction is a significant problem for industrial application of lithium-air batteries and
acidic and alkaline fuel cells. The integration of enzymes into microbial fuel cell cathodes
is discussed and shows outstanding performance against oxygen reduction reaction, and
161
viability requiring bacterial metabolism [71]. To evaluate the catalytic activity of the
cathode, two general oxygen reduction pathways (H2O) are frequently studied: direct
reduction to H2O by four-electron path and indirect reduction by 2-electron pathways in
which hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is the intermediate product and higher energy
conversion to the first pathway. Efficacy is the main criteria to decide which pathway to
prefer. Catalytic activities for oxygen reduction reaction in carbon materials are linked to
the presence of quinone functional groups attributed to the reduction mechanism on the
surface of carbon nanotubes. On complexly designed nano-surfaces, the oxygen reduction
reaction mechanism varies greatly depending on the type of carbonaceous material and
chemical functional groups leading to the formation of a mixture of H2O2, OH-. Rao et al.
[118] examined the structure of the oxygen reduction reaction regions on vertically
aligned carbon nanotubes supplemented. Developments in microbial fuel cell cathode
modification have a wide range of use in many materials. The oxidation of carbon
nanotubes with oxygen-carrying functions added to the carbon nanotube structure allows
the carbon nanotubes to be more readily bonded to other materials, creating a surface
problem. The oxidative treatment is accomplished by boiling the carbon nanotubes in
solution, which is a mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3). Different
substrates such as carbon mat, glassy carbon electrode, and metal coated silicon wafers
can then be coated with functionalized carbon nanotubes and used as the microbial fuel
cell cathode. Zhu et al. [119] studied acid-treated multi-walled carbon nanotubes which
were electrophoretically deposited on the graphite felt to be used in the precipitated
microbial fuel cell, and a power density of about 60 % higher than that of the naked
graphite felt cathode is reached. Functionalized carbon nanotubes tend to remain
homogeneous over a more extended period compared to pristine (untreated) carbon
nanotubes dispersed in ethanol. Physical adsorption of polymers establishes those types
of materials. In situ polymerization is a highly flexible way to inoculate polymers to
high-density carbon nanotubes and is provided by initiators in the surface of oxidized
carbon nanotubes. The monomers are polymerized to macromolecules and bonded to
carbon nanotube surfaces. This method allows the use of the commercial polymer while
the steric effect of the macromolecules and the polymer chains are inhibited by low
reactivity to anchor the carbon nanotube surface.
5. Challenges and promises

Carbon nanotube provides excellent growth in nano-engineering materials, energy
storage/conversion devices, and production and synthesis techniques for application-
oriented nanocomposites. Instead of laser-ablation and arc-discharge techniques,
chemical vapor deposition method facilitates time and costs in laboratory-scale
162
investigations on carbon nanotube-based composites. The studies in the carbon nanotube

industry have reduced the price of multi-walled carbon nanotubes from 45,000 to 100 $/
kg [120] and if this trend continues, for nano-engineered carbon nanotube materials for
commercial use, it is only a matter of time to replace other carbonaceous or valuable
materials. The microbial fuel cells need to be scaled, and these systems have been tried to
grow and stack in both laboratory and pilot scale tests. Scaling techniques require quick,
easy and cost-effective production ways to make bio-source energy recovery more
attractive to the industry. In this chapter, we use the carbon nanotube and carbon
nanotube composites which have unique properties and turn them into the modification of
microbial fuel cell electrodes. The techniques discussed in this article relate to electrode
modification of microbial fuel cells. Carbon nanotube composite membranes can replace
with ordinary membranes. Carbon nanotube-based membranes are examined for their
ionic selectivity and exchangeability and evaluated against high-yield Nafion 117 and
anion exchange membranes. Venkatesan et al. [121] reported that the chitosan
synthesized by multi-walled carbon nanotube was used as a separator in a patch mode in
which the serial was added, and research in this area should be continued. The final step
in the rapid and easy modification of carbon nanotube-based microbial fuel cells is the
electrode preparation methods. As regards the reduction mechanism in the cathode, the
device must limit the power output and depends on the anode performance. The study of
biocompatible and efficient microbial anodes is expected to address ongoing problems in
slow oxygen reduction reaction kinetics. The rate of growth in nano-engineering material
for energy storage will record great improvement in all microbial fuel cells fields.
Conclusions
As a result, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanotube-based materials are extensively used
in microbial fuel cells which provide zero emission in energy supply. They have good
electrochemical properties for the microbial fuel cells. Furthermore, the use of carbon
nanotube-based composites is very important in a large area of application from medical
devices to scaled power generation. For this reason, in this chapter, microbial fuel cells
formed by carbon nanotube-based composites were evaluated by using microbial fuel
cells and the effects of microbial fuel cells.
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Chapter 8
Biofuel Production from Food Processing Waste
Nivedita Sharma*, Kanika Sharma, Neha Kaushal and Ranjana Sharma

1
Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Basic Sciences, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University
of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni (Solan) Himachal Pradesh-173230, India
*[email protected]
Abstract
Food waste is simply disposed off in land fillings/incinerators worldwide without making
much use of it. However this food waste is rich in many nutrients and by employing
suitable technology, it can be converted to value added products like biofuel. This type of
food waste management not only resolves the serious pollution problem but also helps to
reduce partially the dependency of the energy sector on crude oil. The important aspects
like a critical evaluation of types of food waste, current food waste scenario and its
strategic way of management and bioconversion to biofuel have thoroughly been
explored in this chapter to discover the utility of this waste in real terms.
Keywords
Food Processing Waste, Biofuel, Fermentation, Saccharification, Renewable Energy
List of abbreviations
EJ: Exajoule
GHGs: Greenhouse gases
FAME: Fatty acid methyl ester
FFA: Free fatty acids
WCO: Waste cooking oil
CNG: Compressed natural gas
LBM: Liquefied biomethane
LNG Liquefied natural gas
C/N ratio: Carbon/Nitrogen ratio
Mo: Molar
177
ASTM: American society for testing and materials

ABE: Acetone-butanol-ethanol
SHF: Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
SSF: Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
FW: Food waste
AD: Anaerobic digestion
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................178
2. Biofuels and their generations ..............................................................179
2.2 Liquid biofuels .................................................................................187
2.2.1 Bioethanol ........................................................................................187
2.2.2 Biobutanol........................................................................................193
2.2.3 Biodiesel 194
2.2.4 Biomethanol .....................................................................................199
2.3 Gaseous biofuels ..............................................................................202
2.3.1 Biomethane ......................................................................................202
2.3.2 Biohydrogen ....................................................................................204
2.3.3 Biohythane .......................................................................................207
Conclusions .......................................................................................................207
References .........................................................................................................208
1. Introduction
The fast economic growth and industrialization in the world are characterized by a
significant gap between energy demand and supply. The significant increase in world
population and economic growth in emerging economies have substantially resulted in
increased energy consumption. This high energy demand is further expected to develop
more rapidly in the coming years which will have an intense impact on the global energy
market. Considering this, different biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are being
used as a replacement for current fuels such as diesel and gasoline in many countries.
Thus biofuels can be used as a renewable alternative energy source [1,2]. Approximately
178
1.3 billion tons of food waste which consits of one-third of the worldwide food produced
is discarded around the world without any further use and due to rapid economic
expansion and continuous population growth in developing Asian countries, generated
food waste is increasing consistently. For instance, 1300 million tonnes of food waste is
generated worldwide and 82.8 million tonnes of food waste is produced by China alone.
[1,2,3].
Table1: Usual food waste produced in different countries [6,7,8]

Waste (KT) World Asia Australia Cambodia China Indonesia Japan Malaysia Vietnam
Cereal 95,245 52,374 1,380 506.1 18,990 4,588 413.4 183.4 2,706
Rice 26,738 22,668 0.4 506.0 6,046 3,307 139.4 50.2 2,47
Sugar 459.9 188.9 93.6 - 0.4 - 20.8 - -
Pulses 2,735 1,134 36.0 0.9 142.3 38.0 7.1 - 8.6
Oil crops 18,424 13,590 3.9 3.8 9,017 2,238 69.6 1.4 30.5
Beans 1,049 447.3 1.1 0.9 49.1 37.2 6.5 - 5.2
Onions 5,891 3,887 14.6 - 2,107 99.9 68.1 - 22.7
Peas 412.7 145.1 7.2 - 39.9 - 0.4 - -
Tomatoes 12,874 7,415 - - 3,181 85.3 100.7 1.6 -
Potatoes 62,229 12,912 23.6 - 7,501 250.0 177 - 83.3
Fruits 53,796 28,238 30.9 30.5 8,323 2,706 749 89.1 531.0
Apples 5,742 4,116 5.9 - 3,192 3.1 84.6 - 5.1
Banana 13,532 8,544 5.4 7.8 949.3 637.4 213.0 56.1 137
Coconut 3,038 2,488 - - 20.5 2,066 - 1.3 0.9
Pineapple 1,829 579 - 2.2 97.7 - 15.4 - 50
Coffee 105.0 33.3 - - 0.033 20.9 - 0.6 -
Milk 16,560 10,887 - 1.6 1,447 45 - 3.8 9.5
Cream 33.9 0.1 - - 0.1 - - - -
Butter 84.0 1.7 - - - - - - -
Animal fats 174.1 1.8 - - 0.1 - - - -
Meat 1,184 183.2 - - - - 107.2 - -
Offal 63.0 19.6 5.7 - - - - - -
Poultry meat 97.5 61.2 - - - - 34.5 - -
Annual
waste 0.184 - 0.277 0.173 0.061 0.130 0.129 0.113 0.130
production
KT: Kilotons;
In order to maintain the current levels of energy use, there is a pressing need to increase
the use of renewable energy and natural resources more efficiently. Bioenergy obtained
from biomass resources such as crops, trees, food or agricultural waste can be a key to
these problems and may be used to generate heat, electricity or transport fuels with a
lower level of greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuel sources [1,2]. A biofuel is an
outcome of ultimate fermentation of carbohydrates using aerobic/ anaerobic
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microorganisms instead of a conventional fossil fuel synthesized from geological

upheavals such as petroleum and coal, from primitive biological matter. People are
turning to the novel and new methods of energy production, as the need for alternatives to
fossil fuels becomes more requisite. The carbon dioxide emitted by the biofuel
approximately correlated to the amount absorbed by the biomass during the growth
period which is driven by photosynthesis with sunlight being the ideal source of energy
leading to the minimal carbon footprint. Liquid biofuels viz. bioethanol, biodiesel,
methanol, ethers and biobutanol with properties similar to diesel fuels or gasoline are
different forms that can be produced from these renewable resources. The biomass of
food processing residues (Table 1) alone constitutes about 30 EJ/year energy i.e. an
abundant alternative source of organic raw material to petroleum, and a significant
amount of the global primary energy demand of more than 400 EJ/year could be covered
by utilizing dedicated agricultural crops in addition to the waste/residues of different sorts
[5].
2. Biofuels and their generations

People are turning to the novel and new methods of energy production, as the need for
alternatives to fossil fuels becomes more requisite. Many types of liquid fuels along with
gaseous fuels such as hydrogen and methane can be extracted and developed from a wide
variety of biomass. The main use of biofuels now-days is to provide power to vehicles
but these can be used to fuel cells or fuel engines for the generation of electricity. Some
of the major producers and users of biofuels are Europe, Asia and America [3,9].
BIOFUEL
2nd Generation (Food

4th Generation
1st Generation (Food processing waste, 3rd Generation
(Electrofuel, solar
crops) Agricultural waste, (Algal)
fuel)
forest waste)
Figure 1. Different generations of Biofuel

There are four generations of biofuel, out of these, sugar, lipid or starch are the major
sources of carbon for production of first-generation biofuels (Fig. 2), while in second-
generation biofuel, carbon is obtained from cellulose, lignin or pectin substrates including
food processing waste, agricultural and forestry residues (Fig. 3). Third generation
180
biofuels are mainly produced from aquatic autotrophic organisms such as algae (Fig. 4)
and fourth generation biofuels include electro and solar fuels.
Sugarcane
Corn Cassava
Figure 2. 1st Generation biofuel [10]
Figure 3. 2nd Generation biofuel
Figure 4. 3rd generation biofuel

Biofuels offer many benefits such as local availability, easy accessibility, sustainability as
renewable fuels, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and security of supply [11]. The only
181
sustainable alternatives to transport fuels are liquid biofuels from non-food crops as well
as waste. Thermochemical and biological methods have been used to convert biomass
into liquid and gaseous fuels [12]. Biofuels fall into two categories: (1) Gaseous biofuels
(biomethane, biohydrogen and biohythane) and (2) Liquid biofuels (biodiesels,
bioethanol, biobutanol, biomethanol) (Fig. 5).
Biofuels
Gaseous Liquid
biofuels biofuels
Biomethane Biohydrogen Biodiesel Bioethanol
Biohythane Biobutanol Biomethanol
Figure 5. Types of biofuels

Organic waste released from different sources viz. domestic and commercial kitchens,
food-processing plants, restaurants and cafeterias is known as Food Waste (FW). Food
waste comprises of by-products emerging out from different food processing industries
which have low budgetary value than the price of collection and recovery and which have
not been reused for further purposes [13]. In accordance with FAO 2007, approximately
1.3-1.6 billion tonnes of food from food processing industries, kitchens, cafeterias and
restaurants are discarded. These food wastes include fruits, fresh vegetables, meat, dairy
products, bakery products, etc. which constitute about one third of the food prepared
worldwide for human usage out of which 95% of food waste is converted into methane,
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) by anaerobic digestion (AD) at
landfill sites and greatest loss is faced by low- income / developing countries during food
production. Also, the high energy value of food waste and carbon-rich feedstock are not
derived when food waste is buried at landfill sites [14,15].
With the continuous increase in population, the demand for energy is also increasing
constantly which cannot be fulfilled with non-renewable and limited energy sources such
as petroleum, natural gas and coal. According to Intergovernmental Panel on climate
change [14], it is becoming more and more important to search for new sustainable,
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renewable, environmentally friendly energy sources as incineration of fossil-fuel results

in 57% of the emissions to blame for global warming. Rapid economic development and
dwindling fossil fuel resources have attracted researchers to use food processing waste as
a renewable and sustainable resource of energy and fuel in industries as it is rich in
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and organic acids, etc. Food processing waste can be used
as a microbial feedstock, for production of methane, biohydrogen, bioethanol,
biopolymers, biodegradable plastics and enzymes, etc.
Food processing waste may be generated in solid, liquid or semi-solid form. Liquid waste
comprises of suspended solids, fats, oils, organic acids and inorganic matter (Fig.6). Solid
food wastes are rich in starch, lignin and cellulose. Food processing wastes such as stem,
straw, stalk, husk, shell, peel, pulp, leaves, stubble, etc. which come from cereals (rice,
wheat, maize or corn, sorghum, millet, barley), cotton, jute, groundnut, legumes (bean,
tomato, soy) tea, coffee, cacao, fruits (mango, banana, coco, cashew), cooking oil and
palm oil have substantial ability for transformation to alcohols or other renewable fuels
(Fig. 7). Horticulture industries generate a huge quantity of wastes are beneficially
containing a large number of polysaccharides for production of bioethanol [15].
Figure 6. Types of food waste

A large amount of waste is produced by food and vegetable industries such as peels,
seeds and pulps that corresponds to a global problem for the environment [16]. Wastes
generated by food processing industries contain 30-50% of input materials, which
generate a critical issue for food processing industries to manage such tonnes of
feedstock as waste every year. Conversion of these wastes into more resourceful and
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sustainable sources through modern eco-compatible technologies can be a remarkable

twist for removal of multiple sugars which can be converted into alcohol instead of
disposing of food waste in landfills by industries. However, the primary obstacle for the
adoption of food processing waste for biofuels production is the high moisture content.
[16].
Agricultural/ Domestic FW
horticultural
waste
Food processing
Bakery waste
Industrial waste
Vegetable
Cooking waste processing
waste
Post harvest
waste
Figure 7. Major chunks of food waste
There is an urgent need of appropriate management of food waste to convert it into

commercially useful products because the incineration of food waste with other
municipal wastes generates dioxins causing air pollution [18,19]. Food processing waste
is mainly composed of carbohydrate polymers, lignin, proteins, lipids and organic acids,
etc. (Table 2). For the production of different value-added products such as methane,
biohydrogen, bioethanol, etc., food waste has been used as a microbial feedstock because
the hydrolysis of carbohydrates present in food waste results in oligosaccharides and
monosaccharide which can be easily converted into biofuel through fermentation [20-30].
The value of biofuels ($200-400/ ton biomass) is higher than electricity ($60-150/ton
biomass) and animal feed ($70-200/ton biomass) (Figs. 8 and 9). Utilization of these
wastes could solve the disposal problem and reduce the cost of waste treatment (Fig. 10).
184
Figure 8. Tons of avoidable food processing waste [17]
Figure 9. Food processing industrial waste across worldwide

(Source: Report-Waste & resource action programme, UK [31])
185
Second Generation Biofuel
Thermochemical
biochemical process
Process
Size reduction Dryer
Pretreatment Grinder
Lignin, Cellulose,
Gasifier
Hemicellulose
Liquid
Syngas, tars, ash,
Solid Lignin simple
inorganics
sugars
Combustion
Fermentation Tar Cracker
(Heat)
Biogas Distillation Filteration
Ethanol/ Inorganics Syngas

Butanol
Compressor
Fisher Troph Reaction
C10 C8-C9
Chains Chains
Hydrocracker
Synthetic Diesel
Aviation Fuel
Figure 10. Production of biofuel
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2.2 Liquid biofuels

Liquid biofuels from biomass are great optional sources of energy to substitute traditional
liquid fuels (diesel and petrol) having similar qualities of gasoline, diesel or other
petroleum-derived fuels.
2.2.1 Bioethanol
Ethanol is one of the essential renewable and sustainable fuels and due to potential and
wider applications in industries, increasing pollution produced by use of fossil fuels, its
demand has increased globally. Therefore, production of bioethanol from cheap
feedstock such as food processing waste is useful to reduce worldwide consumption of
dwindling fossil fuels [32]. Usually, bioethanol has been produced from starch-rich crops
belonging to direct food chain [33].
Development of technology for the production of bioethanol from waste materials
obtained from agricultural and food industries is a feasible alternative to minimize the
cost of ethanol production and aid to wipe out these wastes from the direct trade. Broad
range of food wastes from industries [34, 35, 36] which include banana peels waste [37],
waste potato peels waste [38], municipal solid waste [39], domestic food waste [40],
cassava grate waste [41], and many others can be used in production of bioethanol. Most
of these wastes contain 50 to 70% of carbohydrates. [42]. In the bakery industry, bread
waste can be used as a raw material for bioethanol production and its yield, depending on
the processing technology i.e. 350–366 g ethanol per kilogram of the resource. Its low
price, maximum accessibility and, gainful chemical composition facilitate its use.
Fruit waste is another inexpensive and easily suitable potential energy source for the
production of bioethanol. Carica papaya (pawpaw) and grapefruit waste with the highest
source of energy and invert sugar are available . for the production of bioethanol by
fermentation process with a yield of ethanol greater than 80% of the fermentable sugar
consumed [43]. The waste from bananas (Musa paradisiaca), commonly discarded as
waste represent a potential energy feedstock which may be especially suited for ethanol
production. Apple (Malus pumila) occupies a prominent position in India and apple
processing industries are one of the superior industries of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, and Uttaranchal. These industries produce juices, concentrates, wines, cider,
etc. After the extraction of the juice, apple pomace remains unconsumed which contains
peels, seeds and other waste solid parts [44] and contributes about 20–35% of the total
fruit production. Apple pomace is a waste and its disposal is challenging.
‘Biodegradation’ and ‘Bioconversion’ of this waste will not only solve the serious
pollution problem but at the same time, it could be utilized to meet partially the global
challenge of the modern world i.e. fuel depletion. Bioconversion of sugars produced from
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complex cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin present in this postharvest waste will provide
the commercially high-value compounds of high utility viz. ethanol, enzymes and single
cell protein [44]. By employing an appropriate technology it can be utilized efficiently for
bioethanol production and thereby reducing the environmental pollution as well as
generating clean technology. Pathania et al., [45] described the utilization of this waste
for multiple carbohydrase productions from Rhizopus delemar F2 under solid state
fermentation and consequently ethanol production.
Many studies have been performed for the exploration of suitable methods with high
efficiency to produce ethanol from food processing waste [46]. Table 2 displays the
findings obtained on the processes and yields associated with producing ethanol from
different types of food wastes such as lignocellulosic waste, municipal waste, food
processing waste such as banana peel, apple pomace, bakeries, cheese whey, etc. (Fig.
11). Commercial bioethanol can be produced from many types of food processing wastes
such as sugarcane, corn, wheat, potatoes, apple pomace, banana peels, dairy by-products,
bakeries waste etc. Lignocellulose is a complex carbohydrate polymer of cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin (Table 2). Cellulose is linear and crystalline. It is a
homopolymer of repeating sugar units of glucose linked by b-1,4glycosidic bonds.
Lignocellulose is hydrophobic with complex structure.
Table 2. Chemical composition of agricultural food waste

Substrate Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Ash (%)
Wheat straw 34-46 20-30 8-15 10.1

Rice straw 32-47 18-27 5-23 12.4
Corn straw 42.6 21.0 8.5 4.3
Bagasse 35-50 25-35 18.4 2.4
Food waste residues are processed for bioethanol production through three major
operations (Fig. 9):
i. pretreatment for delignification is necessary to release cellulose and hemicellulose
before hydrolysis;
ii. hydrolysis of complex sugars (cellulose and hemicellulose) to produce
fermentable sugars including glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose, galactose and
fermentation of reducing sugars.
iii. Lignin (non-carbohydrate components) also have value
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Pretreatment methods refer to the solubilization and separation of components of

biomass thus making the remaining biomass more accessible for further processes (Table
3, Fig. 11). The pretreatment method is utilized for breaking the matrix made up of
cellulose and lignin for making biomass more vulnerable for enzymatic attack thus results
in the production of a large number of monomeric sugars [47,48]. The goals of an
effectual pretreatment process are:
i. Direct formation of sugars by hydrolysis
ii. Deterioration of resulted sugars
iii. Decrease formation of inhibitory products
iv. By decreasing the need for energy to reduce operational costs.
Physical Physicochemical Chemical Biological

pretreatment pretreatment pretreatment pretreatment
• Mechanical • Steam • Acid • Bacterial
size reduction explosion or • Alkali • Fungal
• Pyrolysis autohydrolysis • Wet oxidation
• Microwave • Liquid hot • Organosolv
oven water method
• Ammonia fiber
explosion
• CO2 explosion
Figure 11. Different pretreatment methods for degradation of agricultural food waste
Table 3. Exploitation of industrial food processing waste for sugar productions

Waste Source Pretreatment method
Chemical- acidic
Apple pomace Physical-autoclave
Orange peels Physical- microwave, drying
Citrus peels Physico-chemical (Sequential extraction)
Banana peels Physico-chemical (Sequential extraction)
Peanut cakes Chemical (Alkali)
Agro-waste materials Physical, chemical, physicochemical and biological
Soy Hull Chemical (Acidic- 0.1M HCl)
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Harsh pre-treatment before enzymatic hydrolysis is not essential as autoclaving of food

waste can be done to improve purity and yield of products which result in fragmentary
degradation of sugars [22,49,50]. Moreover, fresh and wet food wastes are more potent
than rewetted dried food waste as reduced specific surface area of dried substrate lowers
the reaction effectiveness [51]. The acidic condition is needed to prevent microbial
contamination and putrefaction [26, 52]. As such, acid-tolerant ethanol producing
microorganisms such as Zymomonas mobilis, have utilized for the fermentation of food
waste [53, 54].
Saccharification
A key step for ethanol fermentation is basically saccharification because the amount of
reducing sugars produced in turn will affect the ethanol yield. The depolymerization of
enzymes like amylase, cellulase, xylanase, pectinase, etc. plays a vital role in solubilizing
the complex carbohydrates to simple fermentable sugars [55,56,57]. The highest glucose
concentration of about 65 g reducing sugar /100 g food waste was obtained with α-
amylase [58]. In a study of Hong and Yoon [59], a mixture of commercial enzymes
consisting of glucoamylase, α-amylase, and protease resulted in 60 g reducing sugars
/100 g food waste.
Use of enzymatic saccharification is not only an eco-friendly approach but also
commercially more viable over alkali or acid hydrolysis because of favourable and
optimally low reaction conditions viz. temperature, pH etc. and minimization of inhibitor
generations, toxicity and correlation of equipment, etc. However, cellulase and xylanase
enzymes are highly substrate specific enzymes that are used for enzymatic hydrolysis
[60,61]. Here the bonds of cellulose and hemicellulose are cleaved by cellulase and
hemicellulase respectively into simple sugars. Many factors that control the outputs of
monomeric sugars from lignocelluloses include pH, temperature, mixing rate and all
other factors of enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic material. Some factors that
influence outputs are cellulase enzyme loading, substrate concentration and surfactant
supplement [62].
Fermentation
The saccharified/ hydrolyzed biomass is used for fermentation by many microorganisms
but the industrial utilization of agricultural lignocelluloses for bioethanol production
(Table 4, Fig. 3) is impeded by the scarcity of ideal microorganisms which can
expeditiously ferment both pentose and hexose sugars [63]. The lignocellulosic
hydrolysate fermentation is normally employed by two different approaches i.e. i)
separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) and ii) simultaneous saccharification and
190
fermentation (SSF) (Table 5). The SSF is important for the production of bioethanol
because it improves the yield of ethanol and removes the end product inhibitors [68,69].
Table 4. Production of ethanol from FW [64]
Waste Method Vessel type Pretreatment Microorganism Duration(h) Reference
Bakery
Simultaneous 14L fermenter - As specified 14 [52]
waste
Repeated batch
FW 1L fermenter. - As specified 264 [65]
Simultaneous
Mandarin
500 ml vol Explosion,
waste, banana Simultaneous As specified 24 [66]
flask Steam drying
peel
FW Separate 500 ml flask - As specified 16 [39]
Flask with
FW Simultaneous - As specified 48 [67]
100g FW
Separate 0.45L spraying of
FW As specified 15 [49]
Continuous fermenter LAB
Flask with
FW Simultaneous - As specified 67.6 [53]
100g FW
Continuous Fermenter spraying of

FW As specified 25 [22]
Simultaneous (4.3Kg) LAB
FW Simultaneous Fermenter (1L) - As specified 48 [19]
Repeated batch 250 ml flask150

FW - As specified 14 [19]
Simultaneous ml working vol.
Table 5. Comparison between the two main fermentation processes

Fermentation process Features and advantages Limitations
Separate hydrolysis and • Separate steps minimize • Feedback inhibition.
fermentation interaction between the steps • Contamination during
at optimized conditions fermentation
Simultaneous • Low costs • To devise precision between
saccharification • Simplified cost effective hydrolysis and fermentation
and fermentation process with high yield of temperature.
alcohol
191
Co-culture of ethanologens or fermenting microorganisms is commonly utilized to

ferment cellulose into bioethanol. Some native or wild-type fermenting microorganisms
used in the fermentation are S. cerevisiae, Escherichia coli, Zymomonas mobilis, Pichia
stipitis, Candida shehatae, Pachy solentannophilus, Candida brassicae and Mucor
indicus etc. Ethanol production from food processing waste material is a widely explored
alternative fuel. Cleaner and greener production of compounds like ethanol is important
for sustainable growth. These environment eco-friendly processes can be made more
economical by optimizing the process parameters and finding more effective techniques
for the conversion of these agricultural and other low-cost raw materials into usable
products (Fig 12).
Figure 12. The process of ethanol production from FW
As compared to batch culture, Yan [70] found that by using fed-batch configuration,
saccharification and consecutive fermentation of ethanol were both enhanced e.g. the
yield of glucose bioconversion was found to be 92% compared to the theoretical value.
Hence, SSF can be excluded from the low danger of catabolite repression. This associates
fermentation of ethanol and hydrolysis of enzymes into a sole operation for holding the
concentration of glucose produced by enzymatic reaction at a low level so as to eliminate
inhibition due to hydrolysis of enzymes [72]. This mixed process can be executed in a
192
single tank with more ethanol production and less consumption of energy in a short time
of processing using a small quantity of enzyme [71]. For successful completion of the
SSF process fermentation conditions should be optimized critically because the
fermenting microorganisms and enzymes can have various optimum temperatures and pH
[59]. Koike et al. [27] have reported ethanol production from non-diluted FW i.e. garbage
in a continuous SSF operation with 17.7g/L ethanol production. Ma and coworkers have
[73] evaluated the performance of the SSF process using Zymomonas mobilis (acid
tolerant) from kitchen garbage without sterilization. The results obtained showed 15.4 g
sugar/100 g of garbage and 0.49 g ethanol/g of sugar in 14 hours, yielding 10.08 g/L
ethanol.
2.2.2 Biobutanol
Biobutanol is a second generation transport alcoholic fuel which has an advantage over
ethanol as biobased butanol fuel because of more energy density, less volatility, adequate
hygroscopicity. Biobutanol contains a series of straight-chain alcohols with each
molecule of butanol (C4H10O) containing four carbon atoms as compared to two carbon
atoms present in ethanol [74] (Table 6, Fig. 13). Biobutanol can be produced from
cellulosic raw materials, cereal crops, sugar cane and sugar beet, etc. Production of n-
butanol from food processing waste is an encouraging choice for market processes due to
its low cost. The acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) processes generally produce n-butanol
with 15g/L concentration because of the toxicity of n-butanol effects the development of
cell membranes and regular physiological functions of microbial cells [75]. Genetic and
metabolic engineering has been used to construct Escherichia coli and S. cerevisiae
strains for the improvement of n- butanol yield [76,77].
Figure 13. General metabolic pathway of biobutanol production
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Table 6: First generation biobutanol from food source [64]

First generation Fermentation Clostridium species Yields Productivity Product
feedstock conditions ToC (gL-1 h-1) distribution
and pH
gL-1 gg-1
Casava starch 37 and 5 C. beijerincki 6.66 0.18 0.96 Butanol

Glucose 37 and over 4 C. acetobutylicum 0.13 Butanol
CLCC8012
Casava flour 37 and pH C. acetobutylicum DP 574.3 0.76 ABE
controlled 217
Oil palm sap 37 and 6 C. acetobutylicum DSM 14.4 0.35 Butanol
1731
Maize meal 37 and 6 C. beijerincki BA101 26 Acetone
and
Butanol
2.2.3 Biodiesel
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defined ‘‘Biodiesel’’ as a
mono-alkyl fatty acyl ester originated from inexhaustible feedstocks (i.e. vegetable oils)
[78]. Biodiesel is water-insoluble light-to dark-yellow coloured with stable reactivity fine
liquid. It has a turning point between 145–175˚C, a boiling point above 200˚C, 195–
325˚C range of distillation and less than 5 vapour pressure (mm Hg at 22˚C). [78].
Biodiesel being recyclable fuel is very useful as replacement of diesel and petroleum.
Biodiesel can be characterized as ‘carbon neutral’ due to nil net release of carbon
production by the fuel in the mode of carbon dioxide and thus has a great advantage.
Chemically reacting lipids such as vegetable oil, soybean oil and animal fat having
alcohol producing fatty acid esters are typically used for making biodiesel. Crops
containing oil (palm, rapeseed or soyabean) are the most favourable for the production of
biodiesel by using base-catalyzed transesterification which only requires low temperature
and pressure and gives 98% conversion yield [79]. To treat waste cooking oil (WCO),
one of the alternate is by converting it into biodiesel which is also an eco-friendly and
economically viable process. WCO is an inexpensive waste which can be utilized for
production of biodiesel hence saving the treatment and disposal cost of waste. Other than
this, it decreases or minimizes the requirement of land for the production of biodiesel
crops. But, as compared to refined and crude vegetable oils, waste cooking oils (used
frying oils) have different properties. The optimal requirements for the production of
biodiesel (concentration of catalyst and methanol/oils ratio) are incongruous. These
conditions are strongly dependent on the properties of WCO. Transesterification reaction
194
catalyzes a chemical reaction that involves the conversion of alcohol/oil/vegetable oil

into biodiesel and glycerol. To analyze and establish substitute energy sources for
degradation of non-recyclable energy sources, biodiesel as a fuel has been utilized [80].
Due to the detrimental effects on the environment from discharge through combustion of
conventional fossil fuels and a decrease in the production of domestic oil, interest in
biodiesel is growing among the people [81].
Biodiesel generated from a renewable lipid feedstock i.e. animal fat or vegetable oil
consists mainly of the combination of fatty acid alkyl esters i.e. carbon chain length C14-
C22. Due to low cost and easy availability, methanol is most commonly used in
biodiesel production. Other alcohols such as butyl and isopropanol may also be used for
this purpose. Biodiesel made from renewable resources and waste lipid, which is a low-
emission diesel substitute fuel. Transesterification is the most common way to produce
biodiesel (Fig. 14), especially alkali-catalyzed transesterification [81]. FAME from
animal fats and vegetable oils had shown that these can be utilized without modifications
in conventional diesel engines for biodiesel production due to their volatility, enhanced
viscosity, combustion nature towards triacylglycerols [82]. Most common animal fat
origins are lard, poultry fat, fish oils and beef tallow. Yellow greases can be a
combination of animal fats and vegetable oils. Lard means hog fat whereas chicken fat
indicates poultry while tallow is beef fat produced by the slaughterhouse. Rendered
animal fats also other interesting raw materials for the production of biodiesel in the
industry and these are subsequently present in large amounts at relatively low rates in
areas with intensive livestock.
Transesterification catalyzed by homogeneous alkali is the most commonly used
industrial process for the production of biodiesel [82,84,85]. This investigation exists just
because the base-catalyzed reaction is resulting in a fuel-grade biodiesel which is more
rapid than the acid one under mild conditions [86] ending in a fuel-grade biodiesel.
Biodiesel, as an alternative fuel has shown to have great potential and may be produced
from FW by transesterification of microbial oils by various oleaginous microorganisms
or either by direct transesterification or using alkaline or acid catalysts (Fig. 14).
Globally, biodiesel is generated by transesterification of alcohol in the presence of a
catalyst. This transesterification process involves the conversion of oil (triglycerides) to
biodiesel (methyl esters) and glycerol [87]. Biodiesel is non-toxic, biodegradable,
produce little sulphur when burned and has an aromatic-free emission profile. By means
of recycling spent fats and oils, it can even benefit the environment [88]. Waste cooking
oil (WCO) consists of residues from restaurants, kitchens, food industries and even
animal and human wastes which are not only harmful to the human health but cause
pollution in the environment. The twin problems of environmental pollution and energy
195
shortage can be reduced by the formulation of biodiesel from FW as a partial alternative

for petroleum diesel. Cutting of forests will affect plants and animals ecological
communities and thus the utilization of WCO as a biodiesel feedstock/biomass is
important to address issues of blockages in water drainage systems and water pollution
(Table 7). However, there is still an impact on the environment due to the enhanced
production of WCO in homes and restaurants [89].
Triacylglyceride
(TAG)
(a) H2O, -OH (c) R-OH, -OH OR H+
(b) H2O, H+
Glycerol Biodiesel
Soaps
H2O H2O
(e) -OH (d) R-OH, H+
Free fatty acids
Figure 14. Reactions involved in conventional biodiesel production: (a) alkali-catalyzed

transesterification (expected route); (b) acid-catalyzed hydrolysis; (c) alkali=catalyzed
hydrolysis; (d) acid-base neutralization; (e) acid-catalyzed esterification (expected route)
196
Table 7. Comparison between characteristics of commercial diesel fuel and diesel from
WCO [89]
Fuel property Commercial diesel fuel Biodiesel from WCO
Flash point 144 212
Pour point 254-260 262
Ash content 0.009 0.003
Carbon residue 0.35-0.39 0.38
Octane number 42 54
Raw substrates for production of biomass are based on plant lipids, such as coconut oil,
corn oil, soybean oil, palm oil, olive oil, margarine, grape seed oil and canola oil or lipids
from an animal, such as ghee, butter, fish oil and Kermanshah oil [90].
Properties of Biodiesel
Biodiesel is most preferable over diesel obtained from petroleum because it is eco-
friendly, renewable, biodegradable and non-toxic. It has high lubricity and produces low
emissions, aromatic as well as sulphur contents in addition to showing good ignition
properties [91,92]. Furthermore, the WCO is cost effective compared to fresh vegetable
oil (Table 8).
Table 8. Production of biodiesel and fatty acids from FW [64]

Waste Microrganisms Pretreatment Time Yield Yield (g References
required (g cell/g lipid/ g cell)
waste)
Waste Aspergillus Filteration 8 1.15 0.64 [91]
cooking niger NRRI363
oil
FW Schizochytrium Fungal 4 - 0.321 [92]
mangrovei hydrolysis
FW Chlorella Fungal 4 - 0.208 [92]
pyrenoidosa hydrolysis,
autolysis
Pretreatment of waste cooking oil

The WCO in the production of biodiesel has some major drawbacks i.e. the occupancy of
free fatty acids (FFA), impurities and water [93] which can lead to hydrolysis and
197
saponification [94] reactions which decrease the yield of biodiesel. To eliminate this error
various techniques have been proposed as follows:
 Esterification of acids with sulphuric acid and methanol,
 Esterification using ion- exchange resins,
 Soap separation through decanter proceeded by neutralisation with alkalis,
 Esterification of acids and FFA distillation with polar liquids extraction
 Heating over 100˚C to eliminate water from WCO
 Vacuum distillation (0.05 bar)
Moreover, phospholipids, drooping solids and impurities can be removed by
centrifugation, washed off using hot water or filtration through paper [95,96].
Trans-esterification reaction
For biodiesel production, transesterification using alcohol of vegetable/agricultural oils is
the main method (Fig. 15). There are two methods of trans-esterification as follows:
(a) without catalyst
(b) with catalyst
The yield and rate of biodiesel production can be enhanced by using various types of
catalysts. This transesterification process is changeable and the equilibrium can be shifted
to the product side due to excess alcohol. Several different alcohols i.e. methanol,
ethanol, propanol, and butanol, can be used in this reaction [97]. The methanol
application is more feasible because of its low-cost and physical as well as chemical
advantages, such as being polar and having the shortest alcohol chain [96].
Figure 15. General Transestrification reaction equation
The major factors in biodiesel production are temperature, agitation, the ratio of alcohol
and oil and reactants purity. Conventionally, alkaline and acidic catalysts are used mostly
for transesterification [97]. The transesterification process is very important not only in
198
the improvement of yield but also in recovery, environmental hazard safety, availability
of feedstock and conservation of resources (Fig 16).
Figure 16. Conventional process of Biodiesel production
2.2.4 Biomethanol
Methanol is also known as “wood alcohol.” Generally, methanol is easier to find than
ethanol. Feasible methods of methanol production are presently not economically usable.
Methanol is produced from biogas or synthetic gas and evaluated as a fuel for internal
combustion engines.
Characteristics: Methanol burns with an unseen flame and is toxic. It has a high octane
rating like ethanol and can be used as an ignition booster in a diesel engine.
About 2.2 litres methanol can be obtained from 1 litre of gasoline. The supply of oxygen
and hydrogen in most of the processes enhances the yield of methanol derived from
biomass and produces synthetic gas (H2 plus CO) from biomass [68].
199
Agricultural food waste biomass is first converted into bio-oil by fast pyrolysis, after that
the bio-oil is converted into hydrogen by catalytic steam reforming [98, 99]. The yield or
production of hydrogen that can be produced from biomass is relatively low i.e. 16–18%
of dry weight of biomass [100]. Only the bio-oil fraction derived from carbohydrate
generated from biomass undergoes reformation (Table 9). Nowadays, methanol is
processed from natural gas while it can also be produced via partial oxidation of biomass
[102]. Coal and biomass have been used as possible fuels for methanol synthesis and
production of syngas [103]. Sufficient amount of hydrogen is added to the gas to be
synthesized and that converts the carbon biomass into methanol carbon [104]. The
methanol can be partially produced from the waste of lignocellulosic material with the
estimated yield as 185 kg of methanol per metric ton of solid waste [105,106].
Agriculture methanol (biomethanol) is currently more expensive than synthetic methanol
from natural gas and ethanol from ethylene [107]. Table 4 lists the main production
facilities of methanol and biomethanol.
Table 9. A comparison between biomethanol and methanol

Biomethanol Methanol
Synthesis through catalysis from H2 Catalytic synthesis from CO and H2
and CO
Products in gaseous form from Petroleum gas

gasification of biomass
Synthetic gas from coal and biomass Natural gas
Distillation of liquid from wood Distillation of liquid from coal
pyrolysis pyrolysis
The concurrent bio-methanol production (generated from the hydrogenation of CO2

formed during the fermentation), similar to bio-ethanol production (Fig. 17), seems more
cost effective and promising in areas where hydro-electricity is available at very cheap
cost i.e. ~0.01$ Kwh and where lignocellulosic wastes are easily available in huge
amount [107].
200
Drying and crushing into

Carbohydrates powder
Gasification and partial

Mixture of gases: Oxygen, oxidation of oxygen and
Carbon monoxide, Carbon water
dioxide and water
Temperatute: 1200K
Catalytic synthesis:
CO + 2H2 CH3OH Biomethanol
Pressure: 4-8 Mpa
Figure 17. Biomethanol from carbohydrates by gasification and partial oxidation with O2
and H2O.
The energy value of agricultural residues generated worldwide and the forest products
industry amounts to more than one-third of the total commercial primary energy use at
present as well [108]. Supply of bio-energy may be divided into two main categories:
(1) organic domestic waste from the households of food and materials origin,
(2) plantations of energy crops.
Biomass energy from both crops and residues can lead to modern energy transporter
[109]. Biomass seems to be a promising feedstock for the main three reasons:
 First, it appears to have beneficial environmental properties resulting in zero net
production of carbon dioxide and very less content of sulfur.
 Second, it is a renewable in nature i.e. can be easily sustainably produced in the
future.
201
 Third, it seems to be cost-effective unless the prices of fossil fuel increase in the
future [110].
Lignocellulosic bio-methanol have fewer emissions due to the carbon content of the
alcohol sequestered in the developing of bio-feedstock which is being re-emitted into the
atmosphere [111].
2.3 Gaseous biofuels
2.3.1 Biomethane
Biogas a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide gas is produced through a natural
process that breaks down organic material in an oxygen-free environment by anaerobic
digestion. Anaerobic digester plays an important role as a renewable energy source that
helps dairies to generate and capture biogas. Most dairies utilizing anaerobic digesters for
production of energy store the biogas and incinerate it as renewable electricity for
operations on-farm. Anaerobic digesters can also be used to exclude pathogens, control
flies and removing odours.
To collect and transport biomethane, high pressures can be used to compress the gas
(CBM) similar to compressed natural gas (CNG), and also very low temperatures can be
utilized to generate liquefied biomethane (LBM) similar to liquefied natural gas (LNG).
There are three levels for biomethane production. Through upgrading biogas By removal
of(1) moisture, (2) hydrogen sulfide, and (3) carbon dioxide. The easy way to take off
moisture is by refrigeration whereas H2S can be removed by
• injecting air into the digester biogas holder
• biological removal on a filter bed
• adding iron chloride into the digester influent
• reacting with hydroxide (iron sponge) or iron oxide
• water scrubbing
• sodium hydroxide or lime scrubbing
• use of an activated-carbon sieve
To scavenge CO2 and traces of H2S from biogas of dairy manure the following
processes,.shown according to their present availability are considered:
• Water scrubbing
202
• Pressure swing adsorption

Chemical scrubbing with amines
• Membrane separation
• Chemical glycols scrubbing (e.g. Selexol™)
• Other methods
Some methods are mostly employed for dairy farm operations, because of economic ease,
simple operation and possible environmental effects. A layout for a small dairy biogas
upgrading plant simply comprises of the following:
• Water scrubber having one or two columns to exclude carbon dioxide
• Iron sponge unit to exclude hydrogen sulfide
• Compressors and storage units
• Final compressor for producing CBM, if desired
• Refrigeration unit to remove water
The reduction of waste generated through biomethanation of FW has received enormous
importance. Biomethanation is a low-cost process, generates less residual waste and is a
renewable source of energy hence it could play an important role in waste management
[112]. As a surplus to producing biogas, biomethanation also leads to a nutrient-rich
digestate which may be utilized as a soil conditioner or fertilizer. The optimal amount of
methane can only be achieved when microorganisms interact with each other [113].
Misbalance between microbes can lead to process failure and in the reduction of methane
production [114], due to the concentration of intermediate products that retards
methanogens.
Anaerobic digestion of food processing waste is a well-established method for production
of biogases i.e. mainly CO2 and methane. By 2022, the global installed capacity for
power generation is estimated to be 29.5 GW from biogas production [115]. The
generation of methane involves four stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and
methanogenesis [83,116,117,118]. The inclusion of food waste is beneficial for methane
yield [119,120,121], while the use of food waste as the sole substrate in digestion
processes is unsuitable [82,122]. Use of mixed feedstocks can be beneficial as it increases
biogas production, enhance degradation rate and digester capacity [123,124]. The
beneficial effects of co-digestion are directly related to balanced availability of macro-
and micronutrients required by the microbial community, optimal moisture content,
buffer capacity and dilution of inhibitory or toxic compounds. Ebner et al. [124] found
203
that co-digestion increases the rate of hydrolysis when food waste and manure were co-
digested in biomethane potential assay. Methane (50-70%) is the prominent biogas which
can be utilized as a source of light energy, water pumps, cooking and electric generators
[125]. Benefits of generating biogas from anaerobic digestion in comparison to other
waste treatment processes include effective removal of pathogens, less odour leakage and
low sludge production from biomass compared to aerobic treatment processes [126]. In
India, biomethane production from cattle dung is a well-developed, adopted technology
and government had taken considerable steps for the adaptation of biogas technology
[127].
2.3.2 Biohydrogen
Hydrogen has been globally recognized as an eco-friendly and renewable energy
resource. Hence, it is an ideal substitute to fossil fuels, as it has the greater energy density
i.e. 142 kJ/g out of all the known fuels, and generates sole by-product i.e. in the form of
water during combustion [128]. H2 can be generated in two processes i.e. light dependent
and light independent bioprocesses: the light dependent process involves photo-
fermentation and biophotolysis, while the light-independent reactions involve dark
fermentation and bio-electrochemical system) [129]. Integrated photo- dark fermentation
process using food processing wastes proves to be a worthwhile technology in terms of
economy for production of hydrogen.
Substrate composition
Hydrogen production was observed to be higher than that of protein and fat-based waste
i.e. 20 times more which is the potential of carbohydrate-based waste [130]. Kim et al.
[131] observed that the biohydrogen yield was cultivated around 0.5 mol H2/mol hexose
at lower than 20 C/N ratio, whereas H2 yield decreases at higher C/N ratio due to the
increased production of propionate, valerate and lactate.
Pre-treatments
Typically consortium of cultures has been utilized for production of H2 from waste
sources. However, hydrogenotrophic bacteria utilize hydrogen produced by Clostridium
and Enterobacter [132]. FW may be utilized as a source of H2-producing microflora and
seed biomass is used to suppress hydrogen-consumers by pretreating with heat [133]
(Table 10).
Kim et al. [134] have adopted various pre-treatments to choose microorganisms for
hydrogen production. Among untreated FW, lactic acid bacteria species are the most
abundant whereas, in the pre-treated FW, hydrogen-producing bacteria are dominant.
204
 Treatment of heat is effective for increasing hydrogen and butyrate production

whereas it suppresses lactate production.
 Treatment of heat increases price in a large-scale process. Luo et al. [135] have
studied various pre-treatment processes of inoculums and showed that
pretreatment is not very important as it would only have cut-short the effects on
the production of hydrogen [136].
Table 10. Production of Hydrogen from FW [64]

Duration
Type of waste Type of vessel Pretreatment Microorganism Ref
(day)
Food waste Fermenter (3.8 L) - As specified 7 [10]
FW with sludge Fermenter/flask (200 ml) - As specified 3 [78]
FW Fermenter/flask (500 ml) - As specified 6 [79]
FW Fermenter (3 L) - As specified 5 [80]
FW Fermenter/flask (500 ml) - As specified 2 [18]

heat pretreatment
FW Fermenter (7.5 L) As specified 3 [26]
(90oC 20 min)
As specified
FW Fermenter (4.5 L) - - [82]
As specified
FW Fermenter (1 L) - 2 [83]
Hydrolysis of carbon sources plays a crucial role in the production of H2 because the
carbon and nutrient sources in fats and lipid are not bio-accessible that are present in
wastewater and dairy waste for H2 producing microorganisms [137,138]. Feng et al.
[139] have reported bio-hydrogen production using anaerobic bacteria from apple
pomace and river sludge. They have generated maximum bio-hydrogen along with other
beneficial by-products such as ethanol, butyric acid and acetic acid. Carbohydrate-rich
starch and/or cellulose are present in agricultural and food industry wastes which are
easier to process for carbohydrate and hydrogen gas formation [140].
Anaerobic fermentation is an energy-saving and eco-friendly process for bioethanol
production (Fig. 18). The FW through anaerobic acidification methods generates different
organic acids, CO2, H2 and other intermediates. This process may be used to treat huge
quantities of organic waste because the reactions involved in the production of hydrogen
205
are fast in the absence of solar radiation. Biohydrogen is used as an alternate compressed
gas to gasoline because it produces 2.8 times higher energy i.e. approximately 142.35
kJ/g and also 2.1 times more than methane. Carbohydrate-rich FW is suitable for
biohydrogen production. Hydrogen may be produced using electrolysis of water only in
areas where low-cost electricity is usually available.
Figure 18. Flowsheet of biohydrogen production from FW

Hence, the utilization of bacteria has a greater impact on indirect conversion of renewable
biomass and water into hydrogen. Hydrogen production using microorganisms is
through: i) culturing bacteria under anaerobic light conditions i.e. photosynthetic bacteria,
and ii) chemotrophic bacteria [141]. Shimizu et al. [142] studied hydrogen production
206
from FW in the absence of microorganisms. Factors affecting hydrogen production are

types of pre-treatment, materials and process configuration. The flowsheet of production
of hydrogen from FW is shown in Fig. 18.
It has been found that waste from carbohydrate produces 20 times more hydrogen
compared to protein-based or fat-based waste. Hence, the carbohydrate-based waste can
be the ideal raw material for hydrogen production [143]. In the case of microorganisms,
Clostridium sporogenes generate more hydrogen (1.61–2.36 mol/mol glucose) compared
to other anaerobic bacteria, such as Enterobacter and Bacillus [144].
Many researchers have reported the use of consortium of microbial cultures to form
hydrogen from food waste. However, hydrogenotrophic bacteria generated hydrogen
from Clostridium and Enterobacter have been often used [145]. FW can also be an
enriched source of hydrogen-producing microorganisms.
2.3.3 Biohythane
Hythaneis is the blend of biogases containing methane and 10-12% hydrogen by volume.
Hythane produced from food processing waste through anaerobic digestion process has
been recognized as a cost-effective biogas energy. The beneficial advantage over
biohythane process includes high energy yield and low-cost input. Biohythane is usually
produced from two-phase processes [146] i.e. first phase is hydrogenogenic phase, in
which process parameters (pH of 5.5–6.5, thermophilic conditions) favouring the growth
of hydrogenogenic bacteria are controlled and neutral pH (7.0–7.5) and mesophilic
condition are employed in the second phase i.e. methanogenic stage [147]. The two-stage
processes for bio-hythane production using palm oil effluent [148], fruit vegetable waste
[149], and starch wastewater [150] have been found successful.
Conclusions
Food waste is a zero-value and non-consumable resource despite its high potential to be
bioconverted into value-added products like biofuel. The strategic scientific management
of huge waste generated globally by employing suitable technology will not only combat
serious environmental issues but will also add to compensate for the ever-increasing need
for energy. Thus, it is time to focus research on evolving various commercially viable
inexpensive techniques for efficient recycling of wastes to different types of fuels viz.
ethanol, hydrogen, methane, diesel etc.
207
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Chapter 9
Microbial Desalination Cell: An Integrated

Technology for Desalination, Wastewater Treatment
and Renewable Energy Generation
V.R.V. Ashwaniy1, M. Perumalsamy1*

1
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli-
620015, India
* [email protected]
Abstract
Conversion of seawater to potable water is necessary to meet the demands of future
generations. The energy-intensive and un-sustainable desalination technologies led to the
development of bio-electrochemical systems called microbial desalination cells (MDCs).
MDC configuration has been developed for a decade to overcome the challenges faced in
operation and other phenomena. This chapter is aimed to discuss MDCs based on
different types of cathodes chemical, air, and bio-cathode and their applications. The
technical challenges such as pH imbalance in the anode, membrane fouling, electrode
material selection and ohmic resistance are also included.
Keywords
Microbial Desalination Cell, Chemical Cathode, Air Cathode, Bio-Cathode
List of abbreviations
MDC-Microbial desalination cell
RO-reverse osmosis
GHG-green house gas
CEM-cation exchange membrane
AEM-anion exchange membrane
rMDC-recirculation microbial desalination cell
c-SMDC-S-separator coupled stacked circulation microbial desalination cell
M-MDC-multistage microbial desalination cell
221
PMDC-photosynthetic microbial desalination cell

CoTMPP-cobalt tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin
HRT-hydraulic retention time
PS-photosystems
NADP-nicotinamine adenine dinucleotide phosphate
MEDC-microbial electrolysis and desalination cell
MEDCC-microbial electrolysis desalination and chemical production cell
SMDC-submersible microbial desalination cell
CSTR- continuous stirred tank reactor
C-SMDC-non-separator coupled circulation stacked microbial desalination cell
UMDC-up flow microbial desalination cell
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................223
1.1 Microbial desalination cell and its evolution...................................223
1.2 Microbial desalination cell construction and general
principle ...........................................................................................224
2. Different types of MDC based on cathode electron acceptor ............229
2.1 MDC with the chemical cathode .....................................................229
2.2 Microbial desalination cell with the Air cathode ............................230
2.3 Microbial desalination cell with bio-cathode ..................................232
3. Applications of microbial desalination cell .........................................234
3.1 Water softening ................................................................................235
3.2 Production of chemicals and gases ..................................................235
3.3 Remediation of contaminated water and nutrients recovery ...........236
4. Parameters affecting the performance of microbial desalination cell in
desalination .......................................................................................................236
4.1 Mode of microbial desalination cell operation ................................237
4.2 Substrate concentration....................................................................237
4.3 Salt concentration ............................................................................238
222
4.4 pH imbalance ...................................................................................238

4.5 External resistance ...........................................................................239
5. Challenges and future prospects ..........................................................239
Conclusion.........................................................................................................241
References .........................................................................................................242
1. Introduction
Clean water represents 3% of the total water resources on earth of which only 1% is
accessible and the rest 2% is locked under glaciers and icecaps. However, urbanization,
industrial and population growth resulted in water deterioration and shortage. Hence there
is a need to develop new sources of water to meet the increase in water demand. The
water desalination technology is identified as a potential technology to overcome the
water shortage problem, i.e., conversion of sea water into potable water, yet the present
traditional techniques such as thermal desalination and reverse osmosis are energy
consuming [1, 2]. For example, the pressure required for desalination of seawater by
reverse osmosis process ranges from 55 to 82 bars and the energy consumption for the
typical size of seawater reverse osmosis (RO) unit of 24000 m3/day ranges from 4 to 6
kWh/m3. More than 60% of the world’s desalination plants utilise fossil fuels as the
source for multi-stage flash distillation [3]. Thus, the present desalination processes
contribute to the degradation of the environment by the emission of excessive heat,
greenhouse gas (GHG) and high concentration of brine. Hence the challenges in the
traditional process led to the development of a cheap, efficient and environmentally
friendly method called microbial desalination cell technology for desalination of
seawater.
1.1 Microbial desalination cell and its evolution

The new type of bio-electrochemical systems (BES) called microbial desalination cell
(MDC) was developed by the integration of microbial fuel cell (MFC) and electro-
dialysis cell for desalination and wastewater treatment in a single reactor [4, 5]. The MFC
consists of the anode for treating domestic and industrial wastewaters and the cathode
separated by membranes such as cation exchange membranes (CEMs), anion exchange
membrane (AEMs), bipolar membranes, and ultrafiltration. Insertion of the desalination
chamber separated by AEM and CEM in the MFC led to the development of MDC. Cao
et al. proposed a first small-scale setup of microbial desalination reactor with a salt water
chamber volume of 3 mL [4]. It was further increased to 250 L to use at large scale by
223
Zuo et al. [6]. Effective selection of cathode electron accepter plays the vital role in the
desalination process and bioelectricity generation. Many researchers utilized a chemical
cathode called potassium ferricyanide during initial studies of microbial desalination cell.
To overcome the toxic, expensive and non-sustainability nature of a chemical cathode,
Mehanna et al., [1] used an air cathode and obtained substantial (43–67%) desalination of
water using equal volumes of anode and salt solution. Expensive catalyst usage and high
energy requirement to maintain dissolved oxygen led to the development of using aerobic
microbes called bio-cathodes. Wen et al. suggested the use of an aerobic bio-cathode
consisting of carbon felt and bacterial catalyst during their study that produced 609 mV
of bioelectricity with bio-cathode which was 136 mV higher than that of the air cathode.
The sustainable and effective desalination performance of the bio-cathode proved to be a
promising technology when compared with the air cathode without catalyst and
ferricyanide [7]. Another study reported utilizing algae, Chlorella vulgaris as algae bio-
cathode. The passive bio-cathodes performed better than the air cathode in desalination,
COD removal and produced high-value products from biomass. [8]. Thereafter many
studies concentrated on using bio-cathodes because of their sustainability and cost-
effectiveness.
1.2 Microbial desalination cell construction and general principle

The basic configuration of MDC comprised of three compartments (anode, desalination
chamber, and cathode) separated by using AEM and CEM and clamped by gaskets to
inhibit the water flow between compartments. Fig 1 depicts the schematic representation
of a MDC. The compartments are usually made with materials such as polymethyl
methacrylate, borosil glass, plexi glass, polycarbonate, acrylic plates, etc. An AEM made
of polystyrene cross-linked with divinylbenzene with quaternary ammonia as functional
group separates the anode and middle desalination chamber. The CEM made of
polystyrene gel cross-linked with divinylbenzene with sulphonic acid separates
desalination chamber and cathode. The basic materials such as carbon felt, carbon cloth,
carbon brush, graphite granule, graphite fiber granules, graphite rod, carbon fiber felt are
generally used as electrodes in a MDC. The reactor can be operated in open circuit and
also as a closed circuit by connecting an external resistance.
In the anode compartment, the multiplication of exoelectrogens form bio-films on the
electrode material and breaks the organic matter into protons, electrons, and other by-
products. The electrons produced by the oxidation of organic matter at the anode are
transferred to the solid electrode and migrate to the cathode compartment through the
external circuit. In the cathode chamber, the electrons and protons combine with the
oxygen (terminal electron acceptor) and form clean water. The difference in potential
224
created across the electrodes of cathode and anode chambers generates electricity. The
continuous oxidation of organic matter by exoelectrogens in the anaerobic environment
leads to wastewater treatment. The desalination process is achieved by movement of ions
such as anions (Cl-, NO3-, and SO42-) and cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+) across the AEM and
CEM respectively. The transfer occurs to maintain electro-neutrality condition due to the
release of electrons by the bioelectrochemical oxidation process at the anode that causes
the transfer of anions. Similarly, the reduction reaction occurs at the cathode since
oxygen accepts electrons and initiates the movement of cations into the cathode chamber.
[4]. Thus the bio-electrochemical effect on MDC leads to simultaneous wastewater
treatment, desalination, and electricity generation. The rate of desalination is the key
factor in MDC function and depends on the initial salt concentration of the sample to be
desalinated. The reaction taking place at anode and cathode chamber is given below:
At the anode:
(CH2O) n + nH2O → nCO2 + 4ne− + 4nH+. Eq.1.
At the cathode:
O2 + 4ne− + 4nH+ → 2H2O. Eq.2.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of Microbial Desalination Cell
225
Continuous research on MDC led to the development of different kinds of bio-

electrochemical systems for integrated desalination and wastewater treatment. Table 1
represents the various design configurations with their advantages, special features and
challenges to be tackled for a significant impact on the performance and efficiency
(adapted from references 2, 9, 10)
Table1. Different configurations of MDC (adapted from 2, 9, 10)
MDC Advantages Challenges Special features Ref

configurat
ion
Air High reduction potential Rise in anolyte pH Cathode exposed to [1]
cathode in the cathode chamber with time decreasing O2 as a terminal [11]
MDC electron acceptor [12]
Bio- Self-generating and A small reduction of Enhanced reduction [6]
cathode sustainable. cell potential during reactions with the [7]
MDC Enhanced desalination the batch mode of help of microbes
with reduced start-up operation.
time.
Stack Improved charge Increase in number Alternating IEMs [11]
structure transfer efficiency, of desalination (AEMs and CEMs) [13]
MDC Increased energy chambers resulted in [14]
recovery and improved declined current and
desalination rate. total desalination
rate
Recirculati Increased separation of – Sequential [5]
on MDC ion pairs from salt water recirculation of [15]
(rMDC) and power efficiency. electrolyte i.e. anolyte
Reduction in the pH and catholyte across
imbalance. the chambers and low
concentration of
buffer used.
Capacitive Reduction in the pH The effect of Incorporating [16]
adsorption imbalance. increased ion capacitive [17]
capability No ion migration concentration on deionization, double
MDC problem. Increased anode biofilm layer capacitor on the
(cMDC) desalination rate. activity and surface of the
community on the electrode, acid-
electrode was not producing chamber
studied and bipolar
membrane.
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Upflow Increased desalination Decrease in pH at a The tubular reactor [18]

MDC efficiency and power higher TDS removal containing two
density. Efficient fluid rate compartments and
mixing with the separated by IEMs.
chamber. Continuous operation
Easier to scale up. with improved
performance in
desalination and
current production.
Osmotic Improved desalination In-depth research is Forward Osmosis [13]
MDC efficiency and important to membrane replaced [19]
performance. overcome AEM, potassium [20]
Enhanced substrate challenges such as ferricyanide used as a
removal from system scale-up, FO catalyst, increase
wastewater. membrane fouling, water flux to dilute
reduced energy saltwater
consumption
Bipolar High perm-selectivity. . Membrane requires Four-chambered [1]
membrane Enhanced desalination the additional Bipolar MDC is [13]
MDC efficiency and long time voltage since that formed by placing the
duration of bipolar produced by the cell bipolar membrane
membranes. is not sufficient to placed next to Anode
Low water splitting the potentials Chamber; t anion and
voltage and electric needed to operate cation selective layers
resistance. the membrane. laminated together to
make a Bipolar
membrane.
Decoupled Easy to scale up – Electrodes are made [21]
MDC Easy to control liquid from stainless steel
volume ratios mesh wrapped with
Easy to repair and carbon cloth, anode
replace damaged parts and cathode units
placed directly in salt
solution.
Separator Check-in pH imbalance - Glass fibre attached to [22]
coupled and water-facing one side
stacked improved Coulombic of the cathode and
circulation efficiency. acts as a separator
MDC (c- No biofouling and
SMDC-S) smooth operation of the
system for a longer
period.
227
Ion- Stabilised ohmic – Desalination chamber [22]

exchange resistance packed with mixed
resin Reduced energy anions and cations
coupled consumption exchange resins.
MDC Enhances charge transfer
efficiency and
desalination rate.
Microbial Higher desalination rate – Involved an acid [14]
electrolysi and low pH fluctuation production chamber [23]
s and a bipolar [24]
desalinatio membrane
n and
chemical
production
Submerged No bacterial leakage into The whole process MDC integrated with [25]
microbial groundwater. ended up with the denitrification system
desalination No additional energy depletion of nitrate forms submerged
- treatment for nitrate and ionic strength of microbial
denitrificati groundwater. desalination-
on cell The nitrogen species denitrification cell.
in the cathodic Removal of nitrate
effluent required ions from
further treatment groundwater are for
prior to discharge. electricity generation
Adapted external
nitrification of
anodic effluent was
beneficial to the
current generation
and nitrate removal
rate but total
nitrogen removal
not possible.
228
Multi- Simultaneous enhanced Partial desalination Two alternating anode [7]

stage treatment and self-driven (43.4–75.7%). and and biocathode
microbial desalination of real relatively low chambers, with AEM
desalinatio domestic wastewater. current and and CEM at opposite
n cell Enhanced nitrogen desalination positions as in the
(M-MDC) removal due to efficiency. conventional MDC.
coefficient biological Aeration of A concentrate
nitrification/denitrificati biocathode increases chamber with
on and electrical the cost and energy. deionized water with
migration. mixed ion exchange
Increased organics resins.
removal due to multi-
stage anaerobic/ oxic
conditions of the anode
and cathode.
Photosynth Beneficial use of algae – Microbial solar [8]
etic as a passive biocathode desalination cells [26]
microbial by in- situ oxygen supported by a
desalinatio generation and COD photosynthetic
n cells removal. Enhanced microorganism, i.e.,
(PMDCs) desalination and microalgae
electricity production (Chlorella Vulgaris
compared to chemical sp.), as a biocatalyst
cathode in the biocathode.
2. Different types of MDC based on cathode electron acceptor

The desalination performance and bioelectricity generation of MDC greatly depend on
the cathode and its potential to carry out reduction reaction enabling product formation.
The rate of the reaction depends on the desired product formation at the cathode chamber
by accepting electrons from the oxidation process at the anode via an external circuit. The
different types of cathodes include chemical, air and bio-cathodes.
2.1 MDC with the chemical cathode

The chemical cathode such as ferricyanide is the commonly used catholyte as the electron
acceptor in MDC studies. Fig 2 represents the schematic working mechanism of the
chemical cathode. Ferricyanide reduces to ferrocyanide by accepting electrons from the
anode. The reaction mechanism is as follows:
[Fe (CN) 6]3- + e- [Fe (CN) 6]4- Eq. 3
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Figure 2. Schematic representation of MDC with the chemical cathode

Cao et al. [4] used ferricyanide as the catholyte because of its high cathodic potential and
faster reduction kinetics. However, the significant disadvantage of using chemical
catholyte is that it requires continuous replacement, expensive and toxic to the
environment. Moreover, it is not sustainable for large-scale operation. Ferricyanides can
be used for water softening process in MDC as tested by Brastad et al. [27]. In a study,
MDC with KFe(CN)6 catholyte produced 1,532 ± 14 mW/m3 for the first hour and
decreased to 379 mW/m3 after 10 h, while MDC with marine algae catholyte generated
384 ± 5 mW/m3 during the first hour of operation. However, the stable voltage produced
in algae catholyte was greater than for the chemical catholyte. Efficient desalination
occurred by using algae catholyte when compared with chemical catholyte with lower
power generation [28].
2.2 Microbial desalination cell with the Air cathode

The shortcomings of the chemical cathode led to the development of air cathodes. The air
cathode can be defined as a cathode that utilizes oxygen as terminal electron acceptor. Pt,
cobalt tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin (CoTMPP) and activated carbon are different types
of air cathodes [29, 30]. Fig 3 illustrates the schematic diagram of MDC working with an
air cathode. The oxygen combines with protons in the cathode chamber, and electrons
generated by oxidation process from the anode chamber leads to the formation of clean
water as shown in eq.2.
230
Figure 3. Schematic representation of MDC with air cathode
Oxygen is primarily used because of its high availability and high reduction potential.
[31]. It is not toxic when compared with chemical catholytes. The significant
disadvantage is that under ambient conditions, air cathodes undergo slow redox kinetics.
To minimize the activation overpotential linked with oxygen reduction, expensive
catalysts s (e.g. platinum) required. Another disadvantage is the utilization of mechanical
equipment to maintain the necessary optimal dissolved oxygen concentration [16]. Thus,
the high energy requirement increases the capital cost of the reactor. In another
perspective, the reduction of oxygen to water requires four electrons which are not
achieved. The decrease in oxygen at times forms hydrogen peroxide thus rendering only a
two electron transfer reaction. Hydrogen peroxide is considered a strong oxidizer and
results in electron or membrane degradation. It also acts as a disinfectant and inhibits the
biofilm formation on the electrode.
Mehanna et al. [1] used air cathode and anolyte containing 2 g/L acetate in cubical
shaped chambers, achieved desalination efficiency up to 63% and found superior to using
ferricyanide as catholyte. Upflow microbial desalination cell with an air cathode
containing platinum wire operated in a continuous mode reported to remove salt
efficiently. The results showed that at a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 4 days, more
than 99% of NaCl removal from the initial salt concentration of 30 g TDS/L and current
production of approximately 62 mA can be achieved. At 1 or 4 days HRT, the charge
231
transfer efficiencies were 98.6% or 81% [18]. Zuo et al. fabricated a modularized
filtration air cathode MDC (FMDC) using nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes and Pt-
carbon as filtration material and cathode. Salt removal efficiency and COD removal
efficiencies were 93.6% and 97.3% respectively when real wastewater was circulated
from anode to cathode and finally to the middle membrane stack. [32].
2.3 Microbial desalination cell with bio-cathode

The new research paved the way for the exploitation of microorganisms and their usage
in the cathode chamber. Bio-cathodes called biological cathodes can be defined as
microbial population present over the surface of the cheap electrode material or in the
electrolyte that catalyzes the cathodic reaction. Microalgae and cyanobacteria are
considered as potential bio-cathodes. Algal MDC is a new approach for environmentally
sustainable desalination and bioelectricity generation method. Fig 4 portrays a schematic
working model of MDC with a bio-cathode. Fig 5 denotes the fabricated image of a bio-
cathode MDC [35]. The Oxygenic photosynthesis is carried out in algae that eliminate the
mechanical aeration usage. Oxygenic photosynthesis requires three membrane-bound
proteins such as Photosystems PSI, PSII, and cytochrome b6F complex for in electron
transport from water to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Plastoquinones and plastocyanins are small mobile molecules that help in the
transportation of electrons between protein complexes thus leading to the photosynthetic
energy conversion. [33].The advantages of bio-cathode include 1) enhanced desalination
of water, 2) sustainable and self-generating by the production of oxygen in the cathode
chamber and 3) reduction in start-up time [11]. Various by-products can also be obtained
from the bio-cathode such as biofuels from algal biomass.
Figure 4. Schematic representation of MDC with biocathode
232
Figure 5. Fabricated image of Bio-cathode Microbial Desalination Cell [36]
The algae in the presence of light consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen and other
by-products that help in the formation and growth of new cells. The oxygen produced
combines with protons in the cathode chamber and with electrons from the oxidation
process at the anode forms the clean water. The general mechanism using algae as bio-
cathode is as follows:
Carbon dioxide + water + light energy → Carbohydrates + oxygen+ new cells
The reaction mechanism at the cathode is as shown in e.q.2.

Wen et al. [7] first proposed the use of the bacterial catalyst in the cathode chamber of
microbial desalination cells. The study produced maximum voltage, Columbic efficiency,
desalination performance for the bio-cathode when compared with the air cathode.
During the aerobic metabolic process, more hydrogen ions and electrons were consumed
and resulted in higher removal of salt and substrate. The photosynthetic microbial
desalination cell led to the utilization of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris as passive bio-
cathode. The study produced the power density of 151 mW/m3 and 40% desalination
performance with 0.9:1:0.5 volumetric ratios of the anode, desalination chamber, and
cathode. Bio-cathodes catalyzed by microbes produced steady output voltage when
compared with the chemical catholytes [8]. Zamanpour et al. also reported simultaneous
desalination and the power generation using microalgae Chlorella vulgaris as bio-cathode
and dairy wastewater in the anode chamber. The results showed that MDC with a salinity
of 35 g/L had a removal rate of 0.341 g/L/day which was 1.5 times greater than MDC
233
with the saline concentration of 15 g/L. Higher algal growth (38%) in 35 g/L saline water
proved that higher saline concentration positively increases the desalination performance.
[34]. Microalgae Scenedesmus abundans also had the positive effect of desalination
coupled with petroleum wastewater treatment and bioelectricity generation. [35].
Although MDCs with the chemical and air cathodes have their respective advantages;
MDCs with bio-cathodes are found to be sustainable and efficient in enhancing the
desalination process. Table 2 summarises the different types of cathodes used in MDCs
along with their advantages and disadvantages.
Table2. Summary of different types of MDC cathodes

MDC Materials used Advantages Disadvantages
Configurations
Chemical • Ferricyanide • High cathodic • The need for
cathode MDC • Phosphate buffer potential continuous
solution • Faster reduction replacement
kinetics • Expensive
• Toxic to the
environment
Air cathode • Oxygen with • Easy availability • Utilization of
MDC Platinum catalyst • High reduction expensive catalyst,
• Cobalt potential • High energy
tetramethoxyphenylp • Not Toxic requirement
orphyrin (CoTMPP) • Formation of
• Activated carbon hydrogen peroxide
Bio-cathode • Microalgae such as • Enhanced • Maintenance of
MDC Chlorella vulgaris, desalination of essential growth
Scenedesmus water conditions
abundans etc • Sustainable and
• Cyanobacteria self-generating
• Reduction in
start-up time
3. Applications of microbial desalination cell

The important application of MDC is desalination. Further, it carries out the following
diversified applications instead of desalination.
234
3.1 Water softening

The available groundwater is probably hard due to the presence of positively charged
multivalent ions such as calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+). [36]. The most
commonly used method for water softening is ion exchange. The major disadvantage of
the process is a generation of large amount of concentrated solutions of acids and salts
that cause a problem during the regeneration process. [37][38].The other frequently used
softening process accepted by US EPA is chemical precipitation, i.e., lime softening. [39]
Other softening methods include carbon nanotubes, nanofiltration, capacitive
deionization, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis which involve energy and are cost
intensive. [40]
Kristein et al. [27] reported the first bench scale laboratory experiment to study the
effectiveness of using MDC in the water softening process. It was found that MDC
removed more than 90% of hardness in tested samples and also 89% of the arsenic, 97%
of the copper, 99% of the mercury, and 95% of the nickel at the testing concentrations in
a synthetic solution. Since it is the first study on water softening, it has some drawbacks
to be considered such as membrane fouling, scaling, retention period and economics of
the study. The enzymatic mode of MDC was developed for water softening process. [41].
Enzymatic oxidation of glucose by glucose dehydrogenase generates bioelectricity and
removes 46% of hardness. The removal efficiency was decreased by the composition of
hard waters. The performance of the enzymatic MDC can be enhanced by improving the
current generation and bio-anode stability. Hemalatha et al. also proposed MDC as an
alternative technique for ground and surface water treatment. [42].
3.2 Production of chemicals and gases

Integrated BES system called microbial electrolysis and desalination cell (MEDC) helps
in the production of hydrogen, desalination of sea water and wastewater treatment in a
single reactor. Lab scale study achieved 1.6 ml/h of hydrogen production from the
cathode chamber with the application of 0.8V potential difference and concurrently
desalinated 10 g/L NaCl in the middle chamber with removal efficiency of 98.8% [43]. A
new set up called microbial electrolysis desalination and chemical production cell
(MEDCC) was developed from MEDC by the insertion of acid production chamber and a
bipolar membrane. The MEDCC simultaneously produced HCl and NaOH in the cell
along with desalination rates of 46-86% within 18 h using 10 g NaCl/L in the middle
chamber with 1.0 V applied voltage [24]. Stack construction of MEDCC enhanced the
desalination rates and chemical production when compared with MEDCC. Desalination
rate of 0.58 ± 0.02 mmol/h was achieved in the four desalination chamber MEDCC with
the AEM and CEM stack structure, which was 43% higher than MEDCC. Maximum acid
235
and alkali production rates were 46 and 8% higher than MEDCC respectively [23].
Although system scaling up poses an important challenge, MEDCC concept effectively
recovers high-value chemicals.
3.3 Remediation of contaminated water and nutrients recovery

In general, groundwater remediation employs active or passive methods to remove
contaminants. Groundwater possess a high concentration of nitrates due to improper
discharge of untreated wastewater with increased use of fertilizers [44]
Zhang et al. developed a novel technique called microbial desalination denitrification cell
(SMDCC) to in-situ removal of nitrate from groundwater and simultaneous energy
production and wastewater treatment. The SMDCC with 12 h wastewater retention time
and 10 Ω external resistances produced 3.4 A/m2 of current density and removed 90.5%
nitrate from groundwater [25]. Another study concentrated on the development of an
innovative method to remove ammonia in a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) by
submersible desalination cell (SMDC) to recover ammonia. In the batch experiment, the
average ammonia recovery rate of 80 g-N/m2/d and the maximum power density of 0.71±
0.5 W/m2 generated at 2.85 A/m2 during 30 days of operating time was achieved. The
mechanisms responsible for the ammonia transportation in this study were due to current
driven NH4 + migration and free NH3 diffusion. [45]. A microbial nutrient recovery cell
has been developed to purify wastewater and the recovery of nutrient ions by taking the
advantage of energy present in the wastewater. The removal efficiencies were > 82% for
COD, >96% for NH4+-N, and >64% for PO43−-P in all the operational cycles. [46]. Thus,
the above novel and cost-efficient techniques were beneficial in nutrients recovery and
renewable energy production.
4. Parameters affecting the performance of microbial desalination cell in

desalination
Effective performance of a process or technology can be made only by means of
controlling certain factors. The performance of MDC reactor is essentially influenced by
several factors such as reactor configurations, mode of operation, operational conditions,
volumetric ratios of chambers, substrate concentration, bacteriological media, initial salt
concentration, conductivity, charge transfer efficiency, internal and external resistances,
electrode materials, membrane and intermembrane distance, resin packing, hydraulic
retention time, pH imbalance and electrolyte recirculation rate. The important parameters
are discussed below in detail.
236
4.1 Mode of microbial desalination cell operation

Different modes of MDC operation such as batch, cyclic batch and continuous mode
affect MDC performance and stability. For example, four microbial desalination cells
operated under continuous flow conditions showed total NaCl removal efficiency of 97 ±
1% at an HRT for 2 days. The continuous flow study eliminated substantial pH change
and hence increased the desalination rate when compared with the single reactor. [47]. In
UMDC continuous mode of operation, uniform substrate distribution enhanced current
distribution thus increasing desalination efficiency [48] and produced the maximum
power density of 30.8 W/m3 in the study carried out by Jacobson et al. [18]. In batch
mode, the increase in internal resistance due to low electrolyte conductivity decreased
MDC performance [49]. Atieh Ebrahimi et al. compared batch and continuously operated
MDC in terms of power generation and salt removal efficiency. The batch MDC
generated the maximum power density of 13.9 W/m3 and salt removal rate of 68.1%
whereas continuously operated MDC produced the maximum power density of 15.9
W/m3 and average salt removal of 80%. [12].
4.2 Substrate concentration

The substrate as the fuel of microbial desalination cell affects the performance of MDCs.
Anolyte and catholyte are the sources of the nutrient, organic matter and reservoir for ion
species. [8] Different substrates such as acetate [1, 4], phosphate buffer solution [5],
cellulose degrading rumen microbial consortium [26], synthetic wastewater containing
acetate [18], wastewater [12, 51], and dewatered sludge [52] have been used by many
researchers in their studies to enhance the exoelectrogenic bacteria activity in the anode
chamber. Meanwhile, ferricyanide [4], PBS with NaCl [53], bio-cathode inoculation from
the topsoil with the solution [52], Chlorella vulgaris as biocathode [8], Scenedesmus
abundance as biocathode [35] and many more have been used as catholyte substrates.
These studies have revealed that concentration losses due to the nutrient gradient in the
substrate which significantly influenced the MDC performance and efficiency. In a study,
MDCs were acclimated to different acetate concentrations (1-2 g/L) in a fed-batch cycle.
In lower substrate concentration, 43% reduction in NaCl conductivity was observed.
Current density with 1 g/L of acetate was high (2.80 Am2) when compared with 2 g/L
(less than 1.00 Am2). Higher substrate concentration reported inhibiting the anode
performance [1]. Luo et al. [15] observed that the power output from the MDC was four
times higher than the control MFC without desalination function when wastewater was
used as a sole substrate. Increase in conductivity by 2.5 times and stability in anolyte pH
maintained the microbial activity in the anode.
237
4.3 Salt concentration

Generally, desalination efficiency depends on the effect of initial salt concentration. The
desalination performance is basically measured as conductivity change in the desalination
chamber. The desalination efficiency increases with increase in salinity of saline solution
i.e., a higher concentration between the desalination chamber and electrode containing
chamber. Due to increased internal resistance and lower electrical conductivity, low salt
concentration leads to lower desalination efficiency. Yang et al. [54] compared the results
of MDCs having different initial salt concentrations and MFC with no desalination
chamber. When the initial NaCl concentration was increased from 5 to 30 g/L, the current
and power density generation increased from 2.82 mA and 158.2 mW/m2 to 3.17 mA and
204.5 mW/m2 respectively in MDC whereas the internal resistances decreased from
2432.0 to 2328.4Ω. The junctional potential i.e., the passage of ions across AEM and
CEM increased in MDC with the increase in initial NaCl concentration. In a study
conducted by Mehanna et al., [1], the desalination performance of osmotic MDC and
control MDC for three different initial saline concentrations (2, 10 and 20 g/L) were
investigated. Control MDC showed lower removal efficiency when compared with
osmotic MDC at all the variable salinities. The changes occurred due to the difference in
osmotic pressure that contributed to the desalination of water.
4.4 pH imbalance
In MDC operation, pH variation is considered as a universal phenomenon. The reaction
between protons released by the oxidation of bio-pollutants and the anions in the
desalination chamber results in a pH drop (acidic) over a period. Meanwhile, an oxygen
reduction reaction in the cathode chamber leads to accumulation of hydroxide ions thus
increasing pH within the cathode chamber. [4, 18, 55]. Researchers tackled the pH
imbalance based on different perspectives such as adding acids or bases [4, 18, 14] or
increasing the anolyte volume [4]. Alternatively, the recirculation of the solutions
between anode and cathode to avoid the inhibition of bacterial metabolism was found to
be a promising method. Maximum power density was 931 ± 29 mW/m2 with a 50 mM
phosphate buffer solution (PBS) and 776 ± 30 mW/m2 with 25 mM PBS with
recirculation process. The power densities obtained were higher than those achieved
without recirculation. [5]. The above recirculation technique was found to eliminate the
pH imbalances effectively. Youpeng Qu et al. [47] reported that hydraulic flow through
the desalination cells, i.e., anode solution from the first reactor flowed into the cathode
and then to the anode of the next reactor, connected can avoid pH fluctuations. But, the
transfer of organic matter and microbes during recirculation stimulated the growth of
biofilm on the cathode thus reducing the catalytic activity. The new concept called
238
separator coupled circulation stacked microbial desalination cell (c-SMDC-S) to avoid

the bio-film growth in the cathode and increase desalination efficiency. The performance
of c-SMDC-S was compared with other configurations such as non-separator coupled
circulation stacked microbial desalination cell (c-SMDC) and the regular SMDC. It was
found that the operation lasted for two months with mild pH variation of 6.8 to 7.9 with
desalination efficiency of 65-37% [24] [23][21]. Another technology to overcome pH
fluctuation problem was addressed by microbial capacitive desalination cell (MCDC).
Insertion of specially designed membrane assembly consisting of cation exchange
membrane and layers of activated carbon cloth (ACC) in the set up effectively increased
the desalination efficiency, 7 to 25 times than the traditional capacitive deionization
process [16]. In another study, pH variation was decreased by 54% by dividing the
desalination chamber into upper and lower compartments. The upper part was used for
desalination, and lower compartment acted as a medium for proton transfer [56].
4.5 External resistance

External resistance is one of the essential factors that affect the performance of microbial
desalination cells. The circuit is usually closed through external resistance. The external
resistance controls the flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode affecting the cell
potential and current outputs of the microbial desalination cell according to Ohm’s Law
(V=I Rext). The approximate total internal resistance of the cell can be obtained by the
polarisation curve with variable external resistances. [57]. Sevda et al. [55] reported that
COD removal and desalination efficiency were directly dependent on external resistance.
At very high resistance (5000-10000 Ω), the flow of electrons was less, and hence upflow
microbial desalination cell (UMDC) behaved near to open circuit thus leading to the
reduction in COD removal. Higher COD removal was obtained when the reactor was
operated at the high resistance (100-1000 Ω) and higher desalination efficiency obtained
under lower resistance (0.1 to 1 Ω). Chen et al. [14] proposed that low external
resistance (<10 Ω) could cause the unstable behaviour of exoelectrogenic bacteria and a
decrease in production of electrons. Maximum power production was recorded at 10 Ω in
this study. With the above results, conclusions can be drawn that important factors such
as desalination rate, current generation, power density, COD removal depend on external
resistance.
5. Challenges and future prospects

Despite many advantages such as lower energy or chemical consumption and the added
benefit of wastewater treatment, bioelectricity production, and production of high-value
by-products, MDC suffers few limitations. It is crucial to overcoming the barriers of
239
MDC to use as a pre-treatment process for the energy-intensive technologies. The

important restriction is the constructive reactor design. The innovation in reactor
configuration, selection of prominent materials, and thorough knowledge about
biochemical mechanisms ensure the high level of mutual benefits such as power
amplification and reduction in capital cost of desalination. The MDCs power densities
can be enhanced by reducing the electrochemical losses such as ohmic losses, activation
overpotential, and mass transfer limitations. The losses at the cathode can also be
minimized by low electrode spacing, large anode surface area (m2/m3), and usage of the
efficient chemical catalyst. Anolyte and catholyte pH should be taken care of, as the pH
fluctuations inhibit the biofilm formation and growth. Chloride ions alter crossing AEM
combine with protons in the anode to form hydrochloric acid and thus make the medium
acidic. Meanwhile, sodium ions combine with hydroxide ions forming sodium hydroxide
in the cathode chamber thus increasing the alkalinity in the cathode chamber. Hence
extensive buffering is essential to avoid the pH changes.
Another drawback is the increase in ohmic resistance which occurs due to a decrease in
conductivity and salinity, limiting the desalination performance and bioelectricity
production. The above scenario is particularly seen in low salinity solutions. The
sustainability of MDC operation is affected majorly by another parameter called
membrane fouling/biofouling. Deposition of soluble cations such as Mg2+ and Ca2+ cause
scaling phenomenon resulting in amplification of MDC’s external resistance.
Additionally, the ions react with natural organic matter in water and form scales on the
membrane. [58, 59]. Hence, modification in the ion exchange membrane is essential to
overcome the scaling problems.
Another issue to be sorted out is scale-up of MDC. The liquid volume ranges from
hundreds to thousands. A large-scale MDC holding 105 L liquid volume was tested and
found to produce bio-electricity of 2000 mA and the removal of 9.2 kg/m3/d salt. [60].
The system efficiency was mainly affected by fluctuations in environmental conditions
such as temperature, pH, membrane fouling, etc. and also the scale-up faced difficulty
due to the usage of a significant amount of pH buffers in the reactor.
MDC can be used as a pre-treatment for the RO process, or it can be used as a stand-
alone process for treatment of brackish water. MDC technology can also be used as a
water softening process for sustainable treatment of wastewater. Use of MDC as a pre-
treatment to RO can decrease the impact of membrane-related issues and other
operational costs. Hence significant research is necessary to understand the loopholes of
technology to improve the overall system’s efficiency.
240
Conclusion
The general concepts about various aspects of MDC have been discussed in this chapter.
In-depth researches on MDCs have led to the development of various reactor
configurations and utilization of different forms of cathodes. Finally, the photosynthetic
MDC is declared as an efficient technology utilizing biological cathodes such as
microalgae. Usage of bio-cathodes increased because of their sustainable nature,
increased desalination efficiency, reduction in start-up time and production of valuable
biomass. The ability of bio-cathodes can be improved with the recent molecular biology
and bioinformatics techniques. Identification of better bacterial and algal species can
improve the overall efficiency of bio-cathode microbial desalination cells.
Other than desalination process, MDC plays a vital role in other valuable applications
such as water softening process, production of chemicals, acids and bases, hydrogen gas
production, remediation of contaminated water and also helps in recovery of nutrients.
A process is considered efficient only after controlling defined operational parameters.
The continuous mode of MDC operation, selection of effective anode and cathode
substrates, pH balance, initial salt concentration, usage of lower external resistance are
some of the important changes that can be done to enhance the working of MDC process.
MDC technology came into existence less than a decade and had multiple outcomes from
a single reactor. Further development in reactor configurations, selection of better
electrode materials, and optimization of other operational parameters can extensively
increase the integrated process of desalination performance, wastewater treatment, and
electricity generation.
Hence MDC is found to be a new, green, environmentally friendly, efficient and
sustainable technology.
241
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248
Chapter 10
Biofuels from Food Processing Wastes
Rouf Ahmad Dar*1, Mudasir Yaqoob2, Manisha Parmar1, Urmila Gupta Phutela3
1
Department of Microbiology, Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana-141004, Punjab, India
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-
141004, Punjab, India
3
Department of Renewable Energy Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-
141004, Punjab, India
[email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
Food processing wastes (FPWs) are produced in large quantity. The issue of waste is
increasing unabatingly and is posing a threat to the environment. The management of
these wastes is needed. FPWs are managed through various approaches; however, the
biofuel production is the most feasible solution and alluring the researchers across the
globe as it furnishes a substantial alternative to conventional fuels, thus reducing the
greenhouse emissions significantly. It is a worthwhile means of utilizing food processing
wastes compared to other valorisation processes. This chapter reviews the status of FPWs
across the globe, biofuel production from food processing wastes, factors affecting and
strategies for enhancing biofuel production from food processing wastes.
Keywords
Food Processing Wastes, Biofuel, Conventional Fuels, Greenhouse Emissions,
Environment
Contents
1. Background ............................................................................................250
2. Status of production of food processing wastes across the globe ......251
2.1 Food processing waste .....................................................................251
2.2 Sources .............................................................................................252
2.2.1 Meat industry ...................................................................................252
2.2.2 Seafood wastes.................................................................................252
2.2.3 Dairy sources ...................................................................................253
249
2.2.4 Fruit and vegetable processing ........................................................253

2.2.5 Pulses and oil seed industry .............................................................253
2.2.6 Miscellaneous sources .....................................................................253
2.3 Production across the globe .............................................................253
3. Characterization and composition of food processing wastes ...........256
3.1 Proximate properties ........................................................................256
3.2 Ultimate properties ..........................................................................258
4. Management and value-added products from food
processing wastes..............................................................................................259
5. Energy generation technologies ............................................................261
5.1 Thermochemical Processes: ............................................................261
5.2 Biochemical/Biological conversion processes: ...............................262
6. Food processing wastes as a bioenergy source ....................................264
6.1 Bioethanol ........................................................................................264
6.2 Biobutanol........................................................................................265
6.3 Biogas ..............................................................................................266
6.4 Biohydrogen ....................................................................................266
6.5 Biodiesel ..........................................................................................267
7. Factors affecting biofuel production from food processing wastes ..267
7.1 Factors affecting biodiesel production ............................................267
7.2 Factors affecting biohydrogen production.......................................269
7.3 Factors affecting bioethanol production ..........................................270
8. Strategies for enhancing food processing waste-based biofuel
production .........................................................................................................270
Conclusion.........................................................................................................272
References .........................................................................................................272
1. Background
Food processing waste (FPW) is obtained from different food processing industries as the
last product which has not been recycled and is abandoned as waste. The food processing
250
industries are one of the principal industries of the present times. These supply a large
number of products ranging from industrial to human use. The food wastage occurs
significantly almost at every step in the processing industries. However, the wastage at
consumer and supply chain levels, the degradability of crop and food products, are
responsible for the production of substantial quantities of wastes from food processing
industries [1]. It not only involves the monetary loss [2] but also has an immense
influence on climate change. This wastage costs approximately 2600 billion USD
annually, which is almost comparable to the gross domestic product (GDP) of France or
the UK [3]. The wastage in the USA at the consumer level is 10 times more food per
capita compared to that in Southeast Asia. On the other hand, approximately 0.925 billion
people endure hunger. This raises the questions related to food security and imposes a big
challenge on food security, which will be increasing with the passage of time. As per the
McKinsey consulting report, if the wastage at consumer is curbed by 30%, it would save
approximately 0.100 billion acres of cropland by 2030 [4].
The main priorities of food waste management are to prevent food waste and recovery of
food to feed needy people. However, about 95% of the food waste is dumped at landfill
sites [5]. The incessant increase in population demands the increased production of food.
This increase in population had increased the price of oil which in turn has increased the
food production cost. These things have made it imperative to look for the advanced
approaches to food processing waste management [6]. FPWs contain carbohydrates, oils,
fats, proteins and organic acids [5,7]. FPWs are the potential substrates for the production
of different types of value-added biochemicals, biofuels, feed and enzymes etc. [8].
Production of biofuels from wastes is of more significance than other valorization
processes [5] as it significantly can influence the food prices by alleviating the
dependency on conventional fuels. Besides this, biofuels being renewable, biodegradable
in nature and emitting acceptable quality gases make them more demanding as compared
to other value-added products. Thus, this chapter is focused on various aspects of FPWs
like status of FPWs across globe, characterization, management, energy generation
technologies and valorisation to various kinds of biofuels. Apart from this, we focused on
various factors affecting biofuel generation and possible strategies for its enhancement.
2. Status of production of food processing wastes across the globe
2.1 Food processing waste

Waste is presently a major concern worldwide, more importantly in the developing
countries (China, India, etc.) and in Europe. Wastes can be classified into industrial,
sanitary, agricultural and solid urban residues based on their origin. Wastes generated by
251
food processing companies are a good example of a pre-consumer type of waste,

produced on a large scale globally [5].
FPWs are defined as residuals which remain after processing a primary product. Food
industries generate large proportions of solid and liquid wastes, resulting from the
preparation, production and consumption of food; due to losses during processing; non-
appropriate transport systems; contamination problems during storage and inappropriate
packaging [9]. FPWs include vegetable and fruit peels, pits, seeds, cheese whey, blood,
bone, process water, tofu whey, wastewater treatment sludge and so on. These wastes
consisting of worthwhile nutrients represent valuable biomass. Food effluents are rich in
biodegradable components with high chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological
oxygen demand (BOD) contents. If FPWs are left untreated and unmanaged, their
uncontrolled decomposition will pollute the environment due to the release of toxic
materials and methane [10].
2.2 Sources
The sources of food residuals are determined by the products being processed. The
wastes produced generally include liquid and solid constituents. The product-specific
waste from the food industry is characterized by its high proportion of organic material.
This can range from tea leaves, potato and orange peels to old bread [11]. The various
sources generating food processing wastes are as follows:
2.2.1 Meat industry

The bulk of the waste in the meat industry is generated during slaughtering [11]. The
liquid and solid wastes generated include grease, oils and fats, cooking waste, hair and
feathers from butchering or slaughtering sites [12]. Depending on the type of the animal
being slaughtered, 40-50% of the animal weight remains as by-products that are often
undervalued as these are not utilized in food due to their chemical or physical
characteristics. These by-products can be categorized into edible or non-edible as hides
and bones belong to the non-edible by-products and blood to the edible category [13].
2.2.2 Seafood wastes

Seafood production is a diverse and large industry. Disposal of seafood waste depends on
species, processing method and plant location. The solid by-products produced during
fish processing consist of scarps, heads, rejected fish, offal, skin, bones and tail [14]. The
amount varies between 30-65% in case of fish canning and 50-75% in the case of fish
filleting, smoking and salting.
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2.2.3 Dairy sources

As such the dairy industry is not associated with severe environmental problems; it must
still continually consider its environmental interaction, as dairy pollutants are mainly of
organic in nature. Manufacturing of dairy products produces different types of solid and
liquid wastes as well as some by-products. These may contain off-specification goods,
damaged or out-dated products, solids, cheese, whey, curd, and milk sludge including
lactose, proteins, fats etc. making their exploitation necessary [15].
2.2.4 Fruit and vegetable processing

During fruit processing, 30-50% of the by-products are produced depending upon the
type of fruit being processed [14]. These by-products can be distinguished as (a) pre-
processing by-products including stems, stalks and rotten fruits from sorting processes,
and (b) by-products from processing such as pulp, seeds, peels and pomace. The main
constituents of the wastewater of fruit and vegetable processing plants contain sugars,
starches, pectin, vitamins and other components of the cell wall.
2.2.5 Pulses and oil seed industry

A number of waste streams are generated during the processing of oil seeds. Emission in
the air also takes place like grain dust, hexane solvent loss, odour during the meal drying
and deodorization. The wastes from this industry are generated in the major processes
like milling, extraction, deodorizing, caustic refining, acidulating, packaging, tank car
washing, margarine production, bleaching winterizing, mayonnaise production and salad
dressing [16]. Grain dust is generated from a range of sources during milling and
handling of oilseeds.
Separation and dehulling of cotyledons during milling operation of pulses involve the use
of strong abrasive forces. This creates `broken grains and powder products. The
commercial pulse milling process generates almost 75% of finished products and 25% of
by-products like powder (up to 12%); husk (up to 14%); broken (up to 13%),
unprocessed and shriveled seeds.
2.2.6 Miscellaneous sources

The other miscellaneous sources of food processing waste may include wastewater from
juice, soda or fruit bottling; breweries, bakeries, distilleries and sugar processing units.
2.3 Production across the globe

Food processing and agriculture are the two vital components for the well being of
society. The production of fruits, vegetables, cattle, grains, fish etc; the transportation and
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storage of the farm products to processing plants; and the production of food in ready-to-
use forms improve and sustain the quality of human life. This intern increases the
incidence of waste produced during each method of processing.
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations [17],
generally 1/3rd of the food produced across the globe for human consumption is wasted. It
amounts roughly 310 billion dollars for the developing countries and US$ 680 billion for
the industrialized countries. It has been estimated that almost 30% of the cereals; 40-50%
root crops, fruits and vegetables; 20% of the oil seeds, meat and dairy products and 35%
of the fish get wasted every year. Wastage worldwide is shown in Fig.1.
In 2015, the price of the food wasted from U.S. homes, manufacturers and consumer-
facing businesses was estimated at approximately 218 billion U.S. dollars. There has
been almost a loss of 8.8% of cereals, 38.8% of roots and tubers, 16.8% of oilseeds and
pulses, 24.7% of fruits and vegetables, 9.2 % of meat, 17.7% of fish and seafoods and 5.2
% of dairy products during their production and processing in North America and
Oceania [18]. There is almost a loss of 6% of the food during processing in Latin
America and the Caribbean in the year 2015
According to the data from Stenmark et al. [19], the European Union contributes most of
the food waste from households (47 million tonnes) and the processing sector (17 million
tonnes). These two sectors contribute about 72% of EU food waste, even though there is
large uncertainty around the estimate for the processing sector. Of the remaining 28 per
cent of food waste, 11 million tonnes (12%) comes from food service, 9 million tonnes
(10%) comes from production and 5 million tonnes (5%) comes from wholesale and
retail sectors.
40
Loss during production
35
and processing
30 Waste by retailers and
consumers
25
20
15
10
0
Cereals Roots and Oilseeds fruits and Meat Fish and Dairy
Tubers and Pulses vegetables Seafoods foods
Fig .1. The share of food loss and waste worldwide (the Year 2015), Adapted from [20]
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In Switzerland, there is almost 61% of food waste generated in the agricultural sector,
22% in the processing industry, 13% in the catering industry and 4% in the large
supermarket chains. Potato-processing industry has the highest rate at around 190,000
tonnes of losses. The lowest proportion of losses is in the cereals and baking industry
(21,000 tonnes) [21].
India processes only 2% of its produce although it being the second largest producer of
cereals and fruits, third in marine production and also one of the leading countries in
terms of livestock in the world. According to the United Nations development
programme, up to 40% of the food produced in India is wasted. According to the
agriculture ministry, Govt. of India, Rs. 50,000 crore worth of food produced is wasted
every year in the country. India loses more than $9 billion in food waste. Much of that is
led by fruit and vegetable produce, oil seeds and fisheries [22] as shown in the Figure. 2.
Fig. 2. Data: Ministry of food processing Industries, 2015 [22]

Food losses in industrialized countries are as high as in developing countries, but in
developing countries, more than 40% of the food losses occur at post-harvest and
processing levels, while in industrialized countries, more than 40% of the food losses
occur at retail and consumer levels. Knowing of waste volumes produced is important, as
substrate availability is a major constraint in waste conversion processes. However, the
amount of food processing waste generated is increasing every year as food production
increases to support the growing population [23].
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3. Characterization and composition of food processing wastes

The FPWs, in general, are characterized by high chemical oxygen demand (COD) and
biological oxygen demand (BOD) along with many other recoverable nutrients like
potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus [24]. Macronutrients include proteins, carbohydrates
and lipids. Micronutrients consist of minerals like sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc,
iron, manganese and sulfur. In addition, certain chemical and physical properties like
total solids, pH, and ash content are also present in the solid and liquid streams. The
wastewater from the food production industries is considered nontoxic because it
contains little hazardous and non-biodegradable compounds [23]
The different types of wastes generated by food manufacturing operations reflect diverse
types of processes and ingredients being carried out; for example washing of root
vegetables, like sugar beet, give rise to elevated levels of total soluble solids (TSS) in the
effluent. Additional processing of vegetables, involving dicing and/or peeling can give
rise to the elevated dissolved solids (e.g. sugar in fruit processing). Joshi et al. [25]
reported that wastes from vegetable industries like tomatoes, peas and carrots contain
elevated BOD levels and are rich sources of many nutrients like fibers, minerals,
vitamins, etc.
Brewing and cereal processing create carbohydrate-rich effluent. The processing of
legumes creates an effluent rich in proteins. Effluents from oilseed processing contain
fats as suspended matter. Milk processing creates liquid wastes with a varying quantity
of dissolved protein, lactose and suspended fat. The poultry and meat processing
industries generate effluents rich in both fat and proteins. In most of the examples, there
are also some particulate wastes, (1 mm in size), in addition to the fine suspended matter.
3.1 Proximate properties

The proximate properties involve the set of methods related to the nutritional value of
food or feed. The proximate analysis estimates the percentage of the main components of
food waste, like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, moisture, etc.
Commonly, fruit plus vegetable wastes contain water (80–90%) and little amount of fat
and proteins [26]. All the byproducts generated during the processing retain the same
chemical properties as that of the raw material. The different compositions of some food
wastes are listed in Table 1.
Potato peel contains 64.5% carbohydrates, 3.4% sugars 11.2% moisture, proteins 13.5%
and 7.6% ash [27]. However, the composition may vary from different geographical
locations, growing conditions, potato varieties and additional parameters. Currently, its
maximum part is used to feed livestock [28]. Cassiva pomace contains a maximum of
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water and non-soluble dietary fiber while as cassava peels contain high crude fiber
content (10–30% dry matter basis) and a low protein content of about less than 6% on dry
matter basis. They also contain natural anti-nutritional factors, decreasing the availability
of phosphorous in the non-ruminants [29]. Pulses are considered as the chief sources of
proteins. These also contain dietary fibers, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins [30].
Husks are important sources of tannins and insoluble dietary fibers (75–87%) [31].
Table.1. The composition of different vegetable wastes
S Carbohydrates Protein Fats Moisture Fiber

Food waste Ref.
no. % % % % %
1 Orange peel - 8.72 1.57 4.15 63.45 [32]
2 Carrot pomace - 10.06 1.75 4.61 69.85 [32]
3 Green pea peels - 13.27 1.34 4.28 71.25 [32]
4 Potato peel 64.5% 13.5 - 11.2 dw - [27]
5 Cassava pomace - 1-4 - 75-85 35 [33]
6 Poultry - 27.1 55.3 - 4.1% [34]

processing
7 Rice bran 49.04 9.28 2.90 13.32 20.63 [35]
8 Palm kernel 8.01 6.30 5.62 15.35 61.02 [35]
9 Shrimp residue - 49 4.9 - 18.2 [36]
10 Funnel 61.77 16.07 9.85 61.77 [37]
11 Husk tomato 70.94 13.23 - 80.50 9.85 [37]
In the poultry processing plant, the effluents normal percentage of fat, protein, ash, and
fiber on a dry-weight basis are 55.3, 27.1, 6.1, and 4.1% respectively [34]. Fat is the
major component, averaging 55.3% of the particulate matter in wastewater streams.
Proteins are the second most predominant constituent. Major sources of proteins in
poultry processing waste include blood and muscle tissues. Crude proteins mostly
constitute more than 75% of feathers [38]. There are generally two important sources of
inorganic materials which result in ash. The first is the dirt and manure detached from
birds within the feather and scalder picking operations [34], while the second is the
wastewater produced from the cleaning of the live haul area. Fiber is the minimum in the
dry matter. Fiber content within particulates is mostly from manure, ingesta, and extra
plant-containing materials detached from birds throughout the slaughtering process. The
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main fiber sources in the feed are remnants of plant cells that are resistant to hydrolysis
by enzymes in the alimentary tract. These include hemicelluloses, cellulose, lignin and
pectin [39].
3.2 Ultimate properties

The ultimate properties of food processing waste involve the percentage of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. The presences of halogens are also included due
to the concern over the production of chlorinated compounds during incineration. The
ultimate properties are usually used to distinguish the chemical composition of the waste
and to get the proper mix of the processing waste to attain a proper C/N ratio for
biological decomposition processes. The carbon/nitrogen ratios represent the accessibility
of organic substrate in relation to the availability of the main nutrients. For the
metabolism by microorganisms, these require the micro, macro, and trace elements as the
primary nutrients. Phosphorus compounds are present in wastewater in the form of
organophosphorus derivatives, water-soluble phosphates and soluble orthophosphate.
Table 2. Characteristics of some food wastes
TN SS BOD COD
Food Waste pH Ref.
(mg/L) (g/L) (g O2/L) (g O2/L)
Olive oil waste 1.2-1.5 3-5 65.0 43.0 100
Apples - 5.9 0.45 9.6 18.70
[41]
Carrots - 8.7 4.12 1.35 2.30
Tomatoes - 7.9 0.95 1.02 1.50
Cattle - 6.7-9.3 - 0.90-4.62 3.0-12.87
Hog 14.3 7.3 - 1.95 3.015
[42]
Cheese industry whey - 5.2 0.188-2.330 0.19-6.22 0.377-2.214
Milk industry - 7.1-8.1 0.36-0.92 0.71-1.41 -
Wheat - 3.35 - - 90.75 [43]
Potato - 3.69 - - 48.95 [44]
# TN=Total nitrogen; SS= Suspended solids; BOD= Biological oxygen demand and COD=Chemical oxygen
demand
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Fruits residues have elevated levels of carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio in comparison to

vegetable wastes. Vegetables (V) and fruits (F) show uniqueness in terms of sulphur and
carbon/nitrogen contents. All the F&V samples don’t show optimal sulphur and nitrogen
content as feedstock for anaerobic digestion. The optimal ratio for C/N should be less
than 25 and the optimal ratio of nitrogen/sulphur (N/S) must be 15-20 [40]. Nutrients
such as potassium, magnesium, sodium, calcium, and the major micro and trace elements
must be present in adequate amounts for aerobic/anaerobic digestion.
Potatoes represent a separate category that reported 21.8% of total solids, 17.4% of
volatile solids on a wet basis, and a C/N ratio of 23. The seafood and meat processing
waste streams are rich sources of nitrogen. Also, the detergents used for the cleaning
operations provide phosphorous to the waste streams. The characteristics of various food
wastes are summarized in Table 2.
4. Management and value-added products from food processing wastes

Food industries generate large proportions of wastes, both liquid and solids, which are
produced during the preparation, production and consumption of food. These wastes
create rising pollution and disposal problems and thereof a loss of precious nutrients and
biomass [45]. All industrial processings give rise to residue materials which cannot be
generally used at the point of source and are usually released into the environment. The
environmental legislation has considerably contributed to the beginning of sustainable
waste management practices globally. In view of the challenges in certain areas of the
food processing industry, efforts are being made to optimize to deal out with technologies
that can help in the reduction of waste. FPWs can be converted into useful products of
high value as a by-product, for use as feed or food after biological treatment and even as
raw materials for other industries,
The instability of the waste due to its high water content enables the pathogenic
microorganisms to grow on it. The high-fat content in case of the meat industry is prone
to oxidation and therefore escalates the spoilage due to the enzymatic activity [11]. The
conventional valorization methods like composting; anaerobic digestion; incineration and
utilizing food processing residues for animal feed and fertilizer are in use since decades.
Over some years, new management practices have evolved that invoke the utilization and
recovery of valuable components from the food wastes.
The vegetable and fruit processing wastes have remained underutilized in spite of being
potential resources of carbohydrates and phenolics. Extraction of polysaccharides like
cellulose, arabinans and pectins, processing of dietary fibre, production of sugars, and
phenolics are presently the chief ways to upgrade these residues.
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The cheese industry involves the utilization of whey, lactose and the different types of
proteins present in the waste streams. Seafoods is rich sources of minerals and omega-3
fatty acids. Some of the food processing wastes and their utilization are presented in
Table 3.
Table. 3. Food wastes, their byproducts and utilization.

Vegetable Part used Resources Utilized Ref.
Tomato crushed and Dried Lycopene, beta-caretone, hydroxycinnamic [46,47]
seeds and skins of acid derivatives, flavonols (quercetin
the fruit derivatives), flavanones and naringenin
chalcone.
Carrot Pomace Beta-carotene, Coumarins and [48]
hydroxycinnamates and
Red beet Pomace and peel Betelians, betacyanins, betaxanthins, [47]
coumaric acid, cyclodopa glucoside
derivatives and ferulic acid
Potato Peel chlorogenic, gallic, protocatechuic and [49]
caffeic acids. Antioxidents
Onion Scale tissues and Flavonoids (quercetin) and organosulphur [50,51]
External compounds
membranes
Lettuce Low-quality lettuce Caffeoylquinic acid; caffeoyl tartaric acid
heads, stems and derivatives; flavones and flavonols; [52]
External leaves chlorogenic acid and chicoric acid
Brassicaceae low-quality florets hydroxycinnamates (mainly sinapic acid [53]
stem, Leaves, derivatives), Isothiocyanates and
glycosylated flavonoids,
Apple juice Apple pomace, Flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, glycosides, [54]
processing apple press cake pectins, natural sweeteners, antioxidants,
essential oils and fibers
Grape Skin seeds pulp PUFA, polyphenols, dietary fibre, [55–57]
pomace and stalks flavonoids like catechin,
proanthiocyaninds and epicatechins
Fish Skin, scraps, bones, Gelatin, collagen omega-3 fatty acids, and [58]
processing head and tail essential oils
waste
Sugar beet Sugar beet pulp Ethanol, starch, oils, proteins, fibers, [59,60]
processing bioplastics, polyamides, poly lactic acids
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5. Energy generation technologies

The energy from the food processing wastes can be generated by followings modes:
• Thermochemical processes
• Biochemical/Biological processes
5.1 Thermochemical Processes:

Thermochemical conversion is a reasonable route to produce energy and other chemical
products from low-value biomass resources [61] which include incineration, gasification,
pyrolysis, liquefaction and hydrothermal carbonization (Fig. 3).
Incineration
Incineration has been used extensively to produce energy from waste materials, and thus
it decreases the amount of waste generation significantly [62]. It is a well-established
technology involving the combustion and conversion of wastes into heat and energy [63].
Incineration decreases the volume of wastes by 80% and hence proven to be fruitful for
the countries having insufficient territory for landfills.
The heat produced by incinerating food wastes can be utilized to run steam turbines for
generation of electricity or could be used to operate machines involved in food
processing. Food wastes usually have lower oxygen content but higher nitrogen, ash, and
energy contents than wood [64]. However, the high moisture content and the emission of
dioxins make some of the food processing wastes unsuitable for incineration [65].
Gasification
It is defined as the process of conversion of biomass at moderately high temperatures into
syngas (combustible gas mixtures) and tar by the simultaneous oxidation and pyrolysis
under inadequate oxygen supply [66,67]. Syngas consists of carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrogen (N2) and water vapours
(H2O). Syngas can be used to produce heat by its combustion [68].
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis refers to the conversion of biomass into syngas at higher temperatures (around
1000°C) in an inert atmosphere. It can also be defined as the thermal decomposition of
the organic matrix to produce solid, liquid and gaseous products [69,70]. The most
favourable temperature range for the formation of pyrolysis products is between 625 and
775K. Yield maximization of various pyrolysis products depends upon different
conditions like liquid products need low temperature, short gas residence time period and
low heating rate whereas charcoal needs low temperature as well as low heating rate
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process. However, fuel gas needs high temperature, low heating rate and long gas
residence time period [70,71].
Liquefaction
Liquefaction is defined as a thermochemical process operating at high pressure and low
temperature in the presence of a catalyst. The liquefaction produces a liquid product. The
process is not in demand because of the complicated fuel feeding systems and the
requirement of more expensive reactors compared to pyrolysis processes [72].
Hydrothermal carbonization
Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is the thermal conversion technology employed to
convert food processing wastes into a valuable, energy-rich resource. It is alluring the
attention of researchers to generate energy resource from wastes having high moisture
content (80–90%). It can be also defined as a process of conversion of food wastes into a
valuable, energy resource under endogenous pressures and moderately low temperature
(180–350 °C) [73–75]. Hydrothermal carbonization of various substrates including
lignocellulosic biomass has been studied recently [73,76,77]. It was confirmed that food
waste could be favourably treated by HTC ensuing in the production of hydrochar (high
energy product). Lin et al. [5] described the positive energy balances of hydrothermal
carbonization of food waste from local restaurants. In comparison to other conversion
methods, HTC has various advantages [78]. Furthermore, the operation of the process at
higher temperatures helps in the elimination of pathogens and inactivation of other
crucial organic contaminants. Thus, this process produces a sterilized, clean, easy to store
and transport energy-rich resource. The other advantages of this process are the recovery
of some useful chemicals and nutrients from the HTC process water for use/reuse and the
liquids containing nitrogen species for use as fertilizer [73,75,78].
5.2 Biochemical/Biological conversion processes:

The processes categorized under this category are anaerobic digestion, alcohol
fermentation and biodiesel formation (Fig. 3).
Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a process where microorganisms break down biodegradable
materials, such as food wastes, manure, and sewage sludge, in the absence of oxygen, to
produce biogas [79,80]. Biogas is primarily made of methane and carbon dioxide and can
be utilized as the source of energy like natural gas. The nutritious liquor and a solid
residue are the other products obtained from anaerobic digestion. This solid residue can
be used as a soil conditioner in order to minimize the need for chemical fertilizers and to
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alleviate erosion and nutrient run-off problems. The solid residue also helps in retention
of water by soil and enhances growth and yield of plants [81,82]. AD involves
hydrolysis, fermentation, acetogenesis, and finally methanogenesis. This process is being
carried out in digesters at the waste treatment sites like in case of dairy waste and
distillery effluent digestion [79]. It has been utilized to valorise fruit and vegetable
processing wastes [83], food processing wastewater [84], and slaughterhouse wastes [85].
This technology seems very suitable for the food processing wastes. The process is
beneficial as it generates renewable energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and
involves management and rerouting of waste [75,86]. Disposing of food and other
organic materials in landfills results in methane production, a potent greenhouse gas.
Methane escapes directly into the atmosphere, so diversion of food wastes from these
landfills to digesters decreases methane emissions from these sites. Codigestion is
another process related to anaerobic digestion. It refers to the digestion of more than one
substrate together to enhance performance and stability of the process. In this process, the
energy-rich organic waste materials can be added to a dairy or wastewater digester with
excess capacity to increase its digestion process. The anaerobic digestion can be
performed at both mesophilic (25-45°C) and thermophilic (55-70°C) temperatures.
However higher temperature enhances the extent as well as the rate of biogas production
but it demands greater control and sophisticated instrumentation. Operation of the process
at psychrophilic range (5-15°C) is a simple and low-cost option but it results in low
performance [80]. The implementation of the AD by food processing plants is fascinating
as it partly or fully meets the processing energy demands, reduces the common problems
of smell and vermin efficiently by building digesters on the sites where wastes are
generated and managed effectively. Besides, the advances in anaerobic digestion
technologies have made them more feasible for the processing of various food wastes
[79,87]. The production of methane by anaerobic digestion is an appropriate solution for
food processing waste management [88].
Alcohol fermentation
Fermentation is the age-old process familiar to humans. It is used to produce foods, feeds
and other well-known compounds by the utilization of microorganisms. The food
processing wastes can be used to produce bioethanol and biobutanol (the liquid biofuels).
These biofuels are the potential alternative sources of energy to replace petrol and diesel
(conventional liquid fuels). Alcoholic fermentation producing liquid biofuels is
advantageous as it can significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions [89].
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Biodiesel formation
Biodiesel, which is a potential alternative biofuel to conventional fuels can be generated
from food processing wastes either through direct transesterification (by using acid or
alkaline catalysts) or transesterification of microbial oils by different oleaginous
microorganisms. Commercially, it is generated by transesterification using an alcohol and
a catalyst. It consists of the conversion of triglycerides (oil) to methyl esters (biodiesel)
and a by-product (glycerol) [90]. Most of the biodiesel produced today use a base
catalysis reaction [91,92] which provides advantages of high conversion yields at low
temperatures and pressures and the minimal side reactions as well as reaction times
[93,94].
Fig. 3. Energy generation technologies
6. Food processing wastes as a bioenergy source
6.1 Bioethanol
Food processing wastes are potential sources of bioethanol production. The bioethanol is
produced through simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) or hydrolysis
and fermentation (SHF) processes from starchy wastes by Saccharomyces cerevisiae
[95]. Ethanol production from food processing wastes involves a different strategy
compared to other conversion methods. The hydrolysis of starch to sugars (glucose) is
enhanced by enzymes like α-amylase and glucoamylase. The food wastes from fruit,
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vegetable, and grain processing sectors and from cafeterias are rich in carbohydrates.
These can be utilized as a substrate for the production of bioethanol [79]. Sugar juice
obtained from food wastes like fruit pomace can be directly utilized to produce ethanol
[96]. However, the lignocellulosic and starchy food wastes need to be hydrolyzed to
fermentable sugars before fermentation. After hydrolysis, fermentation is carried out
either by yeast or bacteria (Zymomonas mobilis and Clostridium thermocellum). The
FPWs can be pretreated by various methods using acid, alkali, thermal and enzymatic
processes to breakdown the complex lignocellulosic framework [97,98]. These
pretreatments though assist and expedite the bioethanol production but the degradation of
soluble sugars (especially at harsh conditions) can result in the formation of various
inhibitors viz., furfural [99]. The bioethanol has been produced from different food
wastes such as banana peel [100], grape pomace [101], lactose-rich dairy waste
[102,103], whey permeate [104], potato peel waste [105,106], citrus waste [107,108],
cafeteria food waste [109], and kitchen waste [99]. The other substantial sources for
ethanol generation are wastewater from fruit, vegetable, and starch processing.
Ultrafiltration is an efficient approach to recover the solid residues in wastewater [110].
6.2 Biobutanol
Biobutanol fuel is one of the second generation alcoholic fuels. It can be utilized as a
transportation fuel. It is the higher member of straight chain alcohols, has four carbon
atoms rather than two as in ethanol [89]. The usage of biobutanol as a transportation fuel
is gaining interest because of its lower volatility and poor hydroscopic nature, better
corrosion resistance and higher energy density compared to ethanol [111,112]. Unlike
ethanol, it can be blended with gasoline [113]. It can be easily produced from food
processing wastes and cellulosic substrates. The conventional method for its production is
acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) fermentation process (an anaerobic process) by
Clostridia spp [114].
The food industry wastes and any carbohydrate-containing substrates especially having
high water content (such as whey) are suitable sources of biofuel production (biobutanol)
[115]. The starchy wastes from processing industries like inedible dough, bread and
butter liquid are suitable feedstocks for biobutanol (0.3 g butanol per g of food waste)
[116]. Huang et al [117] recommended that food processing waste as a better substrate
for butanol production using Clostridium beijerinckii. In comparison to expensive
glucose, the utilization of wastes as a substrate for butanol production is advantageous
because of their cost-effectiveness, more yield, and lesser residual sugars. Apart from
these merits, the process does not involve the use of hydrolytic enzymes. All the above-
265
mentioned merits make FPWs potential feedstocks for n-butanol production at

commercial scale.
6.3 Biogas
Biogas from food processing wastes is produced by the anaerobic digestion process.
Biogas is a concoction of CH4 (50-60%), CO2 (30-40%), H2 (1-5%), N2 (0.5%), CO, H2S
and water vapors (traces). Biogas is considered to be a propitious alternate source of
energy with many applications: heat or electricity generation; its liquefaction into
methanol and chemical feedstocks; similar to that of compressed natural gas (CNG) [72].
Anaerobic digestion has extensively been used for biogas (methane) production from
food processing wastes like wastewater from processing industries producing beer, fruit
jams and potatoes etc. [118]. The rate-limiting step in biogas formation is the hydrolysis
of the substrate, as some substrates like food processing wastes consisting of animal fats,
protein and lignocellulosic biomass are complex in nature [89,119]. These sort of wastes
demand a pretreatment step to accelerate the hydrolysis process. This results in the
production of simpler units (sugars, fatty acids, amino acids) from complex organic
materials. These are then converted to sufficient volatile fatty acids which are further
converted to acetate which is the basic material for the methanogenic bacteria to produce
methane [65]. The quality of biogas is predominantly regulated by C/N ratio of raw
material. Both higher and lower C/N ratios affect the methane production rate as nitrogen
uptake by methanogens increases with higher C/N ratio whilst lower C/N ratio results in
accretion of ammonia. Thus, selection of substance should be done carefully as substrates
with abundant degradable organic matter or volatile solids produce considerable biogas
as compared to other raw materials [120]. The other parameters influencing biogas
formation are temperature, inhibitors, pH, volatile solids, organic loading rate (OLR),
total solids, hydraulic retention time (HRT), internal pressure, particle size, and mixing.
6.4 Biohydrogen
The high calorific value, easy availability and environment-friendly nature make
biohydrogen a prospective biofuel [121,122]. It is carbon neutral and has a tendency to
replace the conventional fuels thus saving the depletion of oil reserves [123]. There are
various methods through which biohydrogen is produced. Fermentative H2 generation via
light dependent and dark fermentation processes is advantageous. Light-dependent
processes like photolysis and photo-fermentation are aerobic in nature while as the dark
fermentation occurs under anaerobic conditions [124]. The combined photo-dark
fermentations for food processing wastes have been economical [125]. The dark
fermentation among all these processes is comparatively favourable due to higher yield
and lesser production cost [126,127].
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The suitable materials for biohydrogen production should be rich in carbohydrate but be
nitrogen deficient. Among the various substrates assessed, food processing wastes being
comparatively cheaper and have been an ideal biodegradable organic matter for
biohydrogen production through dark fermentation [7,128]. The type of cultures whether
pure, co-culture or mixed also influence the biohydrogen yield [121]. Dong et al. [129]
and Logan et al. [130] obtained enhanced biohydrogen yield from 15 to 55 % from
wastes produced from potato processing industries. The various other wastes utilized for
biohydrogen generation are carrot, cabbage, lettuce and sugar beet wastes. De Gioannis et
al. [131] studied the H2 production from various types of cheese under different pH
values (6.5-7.5) and reported the highest yield of 170 ml H2/kg of total organic content
(TOC).
6.5 Biodiesel
Biodiesel according to American Society for Testing and Materials Standard (ASTM) is
defined as the monoalkyl esters of long chain fatty acids that are obtained from animal
fat, waste cooking oils and vegetable oils through a chemical reaction known as
transesterification. It has properties similar to diesel [132]. It can be easily blended with
diesel and engines do not need any modifications to utilize it. The major advantage of
biodiesel is that it has zero carbon emission [89]. Food-grade vegetable oils like soyabean
oil and rapeseed are currently used for the production of biodiesel in the U.S. and Europe.
The biodiesel production from such substrates is not economically viable as it is costly.
The substantial substrates for biodiesel production are animal fats, waste cooking oils,
and restaurant grease as these are also produced in higher quantity by food processing
industries [133]. The quantities of fatty residues generated by the catering industry, food
processing industry, wastewater treatment plants and autonomous sanitation are about 32,
29, 23, and 16% respectively [134].
7. Factors affecting biofuel production from food processing wastes
7.1 Factors affecting biodiesel production

Biodiesel is regarded as a potential alternative to petrodiesel fuel. In recent times,
biodiesel fuel production has gained interest due to its environmental benefits [135].
Vegetable oil is considered to be the best material to produce biodiesel [136]. But higher
viscosity of vegetable oil limits its direct application as fuel for diesel engines [137].
However, the viscosity of vegetable oils can be minimized by using different processes
namely blending, pyrolysis, micro-emulsification and transesterification. Of these
methods, transesterification is extensively employed for reducing viscosity and
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improving the fuel property [137]. There are various factors that influence this process
including alcohol to oil molar ratio, reaction time, reaction temperature, nature and the
amount of catalyst as well as the raw material composition [138].
The molar ratio of alcohol: One of the most influential factors affecting the conversion
efficiency, biodiesel yield as well as the production cost is the molar ratio of alcohol.
Transesterification is an equilibrium reaction, so in order to circumvent reversible
reactions and to cause the reaction to proceed forward, a surfeit of alcohol is required.
The stoichiometric molar ratio of alcohol to oil for transesterification is 3:1; higher molar
ratios enhance the miscibility and increase the contact between triglyceride and alcohol
molecules [139]. The increase in the concentration of alcohol favours the formation of
esters from fats in a short period. Hence, there is a direct relation of the yield of biodiesel
with the concentration of alcohol but only up to a specific concentration level, beyond
which the only cost of downstream processing increased [140]. The range of molar ratios
of 6:1-30:1 has been accepted universally. Among various alcohols used for
transesterification, methanol, due to its low cost, has been commonly used. The
volumetric ratio of methanol and ethanol to oil has a great effect on biodiesel yield.
Maximum biodiesel yield of 99.5% at 1:6 oil/methanol ratio was observed. In
comparison, biodiesel yield using methanol continuously increases with the increase in
methanol molar ratio [141].
Temperature: Temperature affects the yield of biodiesel by increasing the rate of reaction
and shortening the reaction time. However, at higher temperatures saponification of
triglycerides gets accelerated [142], which vaporizes methanol and reduces the biodiesel
yield [143]. Depending on the oils or fats used, the optimum temperature may vary from
50 to 60°C [144]. Eevera [145] concluded that the highest production of biodiesel can be
obtained at 50ºC. The yield started to decrease when the temperature goes beyond 55 °C,
which may be ascribed to the fact that methanol, with boiling point 64.7ºC, vaporizes at a
higher temperature and remains in this form leading to less conversion. Abbah [146]
found that conversion of biodiesel was less at 30°C but as temperature increases, there
was an increase in the conversion rate, but it decreases if the temperature increased
beyond 60°C. The maximum yield was obtained at 55°C. Hence, temperature determines
the rate of reaction and the ethyl esters production while keeping other factors (reaction
time, stirring speed, alcohol oil ratio, etc.) constant.
Reaction Time: Reaction time has a direct effect on fatty acid esters conversion, with
maximum ester conversion within less than 90 minutes. Prolonged reaction time results
in a reduction of biodiesel production as it favours reversible reaction and can result in
depletion of esters and soap production [144,147]. Naik et al. [148] obtained a higher
biodiesel yield from longer mixing time and concluded that the reaction time of 120
268
minutes gave better results than other reaction times used. However, no accretion in
conversion was observed with excessively higher reaction time as it favours hydrolysis of
esters. However, Banihani [149] conducted an experiment at different reaction times:
30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes while keeping other parameters constant and found that the
best results were obtained from 90-minute reaction duration and the yields were lower
when the reaction time was fixed at 120 min. This was due to the fact that when the
longer reaction time was used, the rate of soap formation increases.
Effect of Catalyst Concentration: Sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide is the most
frequently used catalyst for biodiesel production. The characteristics of raw material and
procedure applied for the transesterification have been the decisive factors for selecting
the kind and quantity of catalyst [144]. Hossain and Mazen [150] concluded that different
catalysts have a distinct effect on the production of biodiesel. In an experiment, where
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide were used as catalysts at a concentration
level of 0.5% NaOH gave better yield (71.2%) of biodiesel while KOH resulted in 68.9%
of biodiesel yield. It has been generally considered that with the increase in the quantity
of catalyst, the production of fatty acid alkyl esters also increased, as more active sites are
available by the addition of a substantial amount of catalyst [151]. On the other hand, a
limited quantity of catalyst resulted in the partial conversion of triglycerides into esters. A
study carried out by Dorado et al. [152] revealed that higher amount of catalyst in the
process results in the formation of soap which enhances the viscosity of the reacting
substances and lowers the rate of biodiesel production.
7.2 Factors affecting biohydrogen production

Generally, factors like hydrolysis and pretreatments methods are considered to affect
biohydrogen production from food waste.
Hydrolysis rate: Biohydrogen production is limited by the hydrolysis rate which in turn
is affected by the composition of food waste material. Bacteria ferment carbohydrates,
protein and lipids to volatile fatty acids which further get hydrolyzed by acetogenic
bacteria to acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen [153]. The hydrolysis of carbohydrate
occurs at a faster rate as compared to proteins and lipids. Carbohydrate-rich substrates
produce twenty times more biohydrogen than protein and fat-rich substrates [154]. Lipids
and fats result in flotation, clogging and mass transfer problems in an anaerobic
fermentor. High temperature counteracts clogging problems during anaerobic degradation
of lipid [155].
pH: The activity of enzymes and the rate of biohydrogen production are influenced by
pH. pH range of 6.3-7.8 is considered to be optimum for hydrogen-consuming bacteria
[156]. Yasin et al. [157] carried out the fermentation of food waste at 55 °C to examine
269
the effects of different pH (5.0, 5.5 and 6.0) values on biohydrogen production. It was
observed that maximum biohydrogen production was found at pH values of 5.5 and 6.0,
which showed that biohydrogen production from food waste was pH-dependent with
hydrogen yields of 79, 76 and 23 mmol H2/L-media/d for pH 5.5, 6.0 and 5.0,
respectively.
7.3 Factors affecting bioethanol production

Effect of Temperature: Temperature greatly affects the fermentation. The optimum
temperature for fermentation using yeast is 30°C. Similar results were obtained with
maximum bioethanol yield of 52% at 30°C. Temperature above optimum range can cause
thermal stress and reduces the reproduction rates of the yeast [158].
Effect of pH: The pH is an important factor that influences ethanol production. The pH
range of 4.0–5.0 is considered to be optimum for maximum bioethanol production.
During a study, the maximum ethanol production of 410 g kg−1 h−1was at pH 5.0, with a
conversion efficiency of 61.93% while ethanol production rate at pH4.0 was
310 g kg−1 h−1 [159].
Effect of immobilization: Cell immobilization improves the stability of the cells, the
ability to ferment and stress tolerance. It has been reported for improving ethanol yields.
At 30°C and pH 6.0, free cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae produce 86.90 g L-1 ethanol
after 48 h as compared to the immobilized cells produces 102.70 g L-1 ethanol under
similar conditions [160]. Kashid and Ghosalkar [161] observed that immobilization
positively affects the fermentative metabolism of Pichia, improving the ethanol yield
from 0.40 to 0.43 g/g and productivity from 0.31 to 0.51 g/L/h for acid treated corn cob
hydrolysate.
8. Strategies for enhancing food processing waste-based biofuel production

Common technologies employed to convert food-waste-to-energy includes biological e.g.
anaerobic digestion and fermentation, thermal and thermochemical technologies (e.g.
pyrolysis, gasification, incineration etc.) [75]. In order to improve biofuels production
from food waste, various other strategies have been explored.
Pretreatment of initial substrate: Pretreatment of the substrate is a common strategy
used to enhance biofuels production. O’Leary [162], used pre hydrolysed whey with β-
galactosidase for ethanol production of Kluyveromyces fragilis and Saccharomyces
cerevisia.
Use of strains with high ethanol tolerance: An important feature of ethanol-producing
yeast is ethanol tolerance. The concentration of ethanol above 8% (v/v) causes
270
hyperpolarization of phospholipid present in organelles and lipid bilayer of cell

membranes. Hyperpolarization increases the membrane fluidity and decreases the
integrity of the membrane [163]. Therefore, developing strains with high ethanol
tolerance is of great economic value to the industries. Thammasittirong et al. [163] have
reported increased tolerance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NR1 random UV-C
mutagenesis. UVNR56 mutant exhibited improved tolerance to ethanol and higher
viability, even when 15% (v/v) ethanol was present and showed a considerably higher
viability throughout the fermentation from molasses. A new method for isolating ethanol-
tolerant mutants of Escherichia coli KO11 uses a combination of solid and liquid
mediums. By repetitive subculturing and successive transfers in liquid and solid media, it
was possible to select a mutant that produces 60 g ethanol per litre from xylose in 72
hours [164].
High cell concentration: Higher cell density results in faster fermentation as compared to
those fermentations where lower biocatalyst concentrations are used [165]. Adding more
cells at the initial stages of fermentation is the most common method to achieve high cell
density; these cells can be further reused and recycled in the bioreactor. Flocculation
forms large complexes of yeast cells and is a usual way of immobilizing yeast cells. In a
study, flocculating yeast strain KF-7, while growing on molasses in a two-stage
continuous fermentation process resulted in a high ethanol concentration of 80 g/L [166].
Genetic engineering strategies: Use of genetic engineering strategies to produce
biodiesel from yeast, plant and algae is one of the latest approaches. The oil content of
the plant can be increased by genetically modifying the lipid biosynthetic pathway [167].
It has been observed that an increase in the activity of acetyl-CoA carboxylase increases
the lipid synthesis by enhancing the utilization of malonyl-CoA in the biosynthetic
pathway. Also, changing the composition of the fatty acid of plant seed oil improves the
biodiesel production. In an attempt to enhance the biodiesel production from Arabidopsis,
it was observed that overexpression of WRINKLED1 (WRI1) mRNA is directly
associated with the increase in seed oil. WRI1 regulates the seed storage metabolism and
its expression under the CMV 35S promoter increases the seed oil content and also
accumulate triacylglycerols in developing seedlings [168].
Various metabolic engineering methods have been used for constructing lactose-
consuming Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, using the lactose genes of the
yeast Kluyveromyces lactis, Escherichia coli and Aspergillus niger [169].
Hybrid processes for improving biofuels production: In the past few years, studies have
been carried out to produce hydrogen by integrating dark fermentation process (first
stage) and photo fermentative process (second stage) [170]. The volatile fatty acids
271
(major deterrent for the hydrogen production) formed in the first stage of the
fermentation can be used as a substrate in the second stage.
A two-stage process for improved hydrogen production was developed where
glucoamylse was first used to hydrolyse the food waste. The hydrolysate was then
further utilized as a substrate for batch fermentation and continuous fermentation
processes. The highest cumulative production of hydrogen was observed with a yield of
245.7 mL H2/g glucose in the batch system [171].
Similarly, studies have been carried out to produce hydrogen and methane from food
waste in a two-stage anaerobic digester. Both the fermentations were carried out in
continuously stirred tank fermentors and the effect of continuous circulation on the
efficiency and stability of processes was also investigated. Maximum H2 production
achieved was 3 L hydrogen per litre per day and maximum methane was 2.9 L methane
per litre per day and about 70% degradation of volatile fatty acids was also observed
[172].
Conclusion
Food processing wastes are produced at an alarming rate. The management of these
wastes is of utmost importance. Biofuel production from these wastes is the most feasible
option as it helps in alleviating the dependence on conventional fuels and also reduces
greenhouse emissions. The various approaches of biofuel production (like anaerobic
digestion, alcoholic fermentation and thermochemical conversion methods) from FPWs
are promising and well-consolidated methods. There is still the need to explore and
research the various aspects of valorisation of FPWs, the dissemination of knowledge to
common masses regarding the efficient utilization of food processing wastes. The
government and industries should join hands to give research wings from laboratories to
commercial scale.
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Chapter 11
Microbial Fuel Cell for the Treatment of Wastewater
Dibyajyoti Haldar1, Mriganka Sekhar Manna1, Dwaipayan Sen2, Tridib Kumar Bhowmick3,
Kalyan Gayen1*
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Agartala, Tripura-
799046, India
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Heritage Institute of Technology Kolkata, Kolkata-
700107, India
3
Department of Bioengineering, National Institute of Technology Agartala, Tripura-799046,
India
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
A microbial fuel cell is a potential alternative for the treatment of wastewater. In this
process of water treatment, a substantial amount of energy is produced. Microorganisms
are explicitly used in microbial fuel cells to generate electrons and protons that are
involved in electrochemical reactions for the treatment of wastewater for the generation
of power. Moreover, the efficiency of the treatment process and also the generation of
power largely depend on the nature of the substrates used as feed, types of the
microorganism used and the configurations of the cells. In view of an effective treatment
process, various types of wastewater originated from a number of different sources have
extensively been treated in microbial fuel cells using electrogenic microorganisms.
Environment-friendly features of microbial fuel cells result in a better technology
compared to the existing ones for the purpose. The present chapter of this book
comprehensively briefs on the reactions mechanisms involved in different aspects of the
technique and discusses extensively the essential changes in the treatment techniques of
wastewater from varied sources.
Keywords
Wastewater, Microbial Fuel Cell, Cathode, Anode, COD, Power Density
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................290
289
2. Reaction mechanism ..............................................................................291

2.1 Anodic reaction mechanism ............................................................293
2.2 Cathodic reaction mechanism ..........................................................294
3. Treatment of wastewater in microbial fuel cell ..................................296
3.1 Treatment of vegetable waste and a waste of food
processing ........................................................................................297
3.2 Treatment of wastewater from beverage distilleries .......................299
3.3 Dairy wastewater .............................................................................299
3.4 Pharmaceutical wastewater..............................................................299
3.5 Petrochemical wastewater ...............................................................300
3.6 Treatment of domestic wastewater ..................................................300
Conclusions .......................................................................................................300
References .........................................................................................................301
1. Introduction
In recent years, a rapid urbanization all across the globe demands continuous exploration
of fossil fuel reserves. The obvious issue with such increased use of fossil fuel attributes
to global warming because of emission of greenhouse gases, necessitates the search for
alternative energy resources with low carbon footprint [1-3]. In the last few decades,
venture on renewable sources towards an environment-friendly production of alternative
energy has been a top priority [4]. However, several technological improvements and
subsequent socio-economic developments lead to cause a severe anthropogenic impact on
global sustainability in terms of environmental pollution. As far as environmental
pollution is concerned, water has been one of the major issues directly correlated with
pollution as it is vulnerable to numerous pollutants originated from different sources [5].
Therefore, treatment of wastewater is of high importance prior to its reuses in industries,
agricultural field and for drinking purposes. Especially, drought-prone localities are
primarily using treated domestic and industrial wastewaters as potable water for various
practices, which mitigate the problem related to water scarcity along with disposal issue
of wastewater [6]. However, the presence of organic loads and toxic chemicals such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, phenol and heavy metals (for example mercury and cadmium) in
the industrial effluent becomes detrimental to soil fertility and crop production. So,
sustainable treatment of wastewater necessitates an understanding of the treatment
process feasibility prior to its reuse in agricultural lands and others applications.
290
Presently, biological treatment process using activated sludge is recognized as the most
conventional wastewater treatment scheme as it rapidly produces significant results,
though with an investment of high capital and operational cost [7]. However, other
methods such as adsorption, coagulation, ion exchange and membrane separation
processes are also well recognized for the purpose [8]. Further considering several pros
and cons, each of the methods is having limitations in regard to environmental
sustainability. The processes like adsorption and coagulation produce a lot of sludge
known as a secondary pollutant and global management of this secondary pollutant is one
of the typical downstream tasks to achieve. The ion exchange process is expensive while
the throughput of a membrane process is usually very low because of a secondary layer
formation over the membrane, coined as fouling of the membrane. Therefore, over the
years an urge towards a sustainable process development for the treatment of wastewater
has been a top research endeavor. One of the most promising and new technologies that
demand a critical analysis on the waste to energy concept is the microbial fuel cell, where
waste biomaterials are converted into renewable energy. The various issues and
mechanisms of the microbial fuel cell are comprehensively presented in this chapter for
the treatment of wastewater containing varied contaminations from different sources.
2. Reaction mechanism
In continuation of the uninterrupted search for a sustainable source of energy, Potter et al.
in the early 90s’ reported a technique for the conversion of organic waste into electrical
energy [9]. Since then, the microbial fuel cell has been demonstrated as a promising
biochemical concept towards the production of bioenergy from waste materials with the
help of microbial action. Microbes present in the microbial fuel cell are well capable of
converting organic substrates into CO2, water and energy [9]. The electrons produced
during the oxidation of biodegradable solid substrates are transferred to a positive
electrode (anode) during the electrolysis process. The movement of electrons towards the
anode primarily occurs in two mechanistic pathways. Firstly, electrons move through the
direct contact of the electrode with proteins like cytochrome C of the cell membrane of
microbes and secondly through the influence of any extraneous intermediates, which are
known as mediators (Fig. 1). Once the electrons are reached at the anode, these are
transferred through an external circuit to the negative electrode (cathode), where
available constituents of higher potential (electron acceptor) such as oxygen or metal ions
accept the electrons and get themselves reduced. Reduced constituents of wastewater
finally bind with the protons (H+) generated from the oxidation of the same biodegradable
substrate at the anode in the anodic chamber and pass through semi-permeable membrane
placed in between anode and cathode chambers of a fuel cell. The semi-permeable
291
membrane only allows H+ ions to pass. A detailed pictorial diagram of the conventional
microbial fuel cell is shown in Fig. 2. Microbial fuel cells in comparison to other existing
technologies offer few distinct advantages, which make this sustainable scheme more
potent towards energy generation directly from organic matter. The advantages are:
(a) The energy present in the substrate is easily converted into electrical energy with high
efficiency.
(b) The microbial fuel cell can be operated even at the locations with limited electrical
facilities as the process is carried out under ambient conditions.
(c) The biochemical process does not require high energy input if the cathode is already
aerated.
(d) Finally, the process can be readily applicable in the sector of bioenergy due to the less
production of sludge.
Fig. 1 Different mechanisms of electron transfer from bacteria to anode; (A) Electron (e-)
is directly transferred to the anode of the fuel cell through cytochrome C, (B) Electron
(e-) is directly transferred to the anode of the fuel cell through pili or nanowire of the
bacteria, (C) Electron (e-) is indirectly transferred to the anode of the fuel cell via the
external influence of mediator
292
Fig. 2 Pictorial diagram of microbial fuel cell
Now the electrical energy in the microbial fuel cell is primarily generated through the
movement of electrons as a result of oxidation and reduction reactions occurred at anode
and cathode respectively. Anode acts as an electron donor while cathode acts as an
electron acceptor. Substances such as oxygen, metals, nitrite, nitrate accepting the
electrons in the cathodic chamber are known as a terminal electron acceptor. The
performance of any microbial fuel cell largely depends on its structural configuration.
Fig. 3 depicts different configurations of microbial fuel cells based on the essential
mechanisms of electrochemical reactions already elaborated above.
2.1 Anodic reaction mechanism

Microorganisms remain in the anode chamber of the microbial fuel cell and they play an
important role in generating electrons that are passed through the external circuit to reach
the terminal electron acceptors (inorganic and organic contaminants) present in the
cathode chamber. The overall performance of microbial fuel cell largely depends on the
efficiency of a reaction mechanism that produces electrons in the anode chamber.
Consequently, optimum reaction conditions, suitable configuration and constituents
(different external agents) of the anode chamber are prerequisite for the performance of
microbial fuel cell [10, 11]. Employment of some mediators and modification of anode
become essentially important very often in this context. An efficient anode should have
the features of high electrical conductivity with low resistance, more surface area,
biocompatibility and high resistivity against strong chemical corrosion[11].
Carbonaceous materials being inexpensive, biocompatible and having good conductivity
293
are considered as one of the mostly used anode materials in a microbial fuel cell. A lot of
research investigations have been carried out with suitably modified configuration of the
anode to improve the performance of the system [12-14]. Modified carbon cloth anode
with formic acid is an example with increased efficiency of the overall process [15].
Moreover, an electrodeposition of metal oxide like, MnO2 improves the performance of
the microbial fuel cell by around 24% in comparison to the bared carbon anode [16].
Hence, the modification in the texture of the anode is very much necessary to enhance the
performance of microbial fuel cells in large-scale industrial applications. Although the
metals are much better conductors of electricity the smoother surface of the metals quite
often limits the adhesion of bacterial cells leading to the low power density compared to
carbon materials [13]. Therefore, the surface modification of the metallic anode is
accomplished through several physical and chemical processes [14]. On the contrary, the
formation of carboxyl group during the chemical treatment of bacterial cells in the fuel
cell generates a strong network of hydrogen bonds with the peptide present in the
bacterial cells, thereby improves the electron transfers from microorganisms to surface
modified anode surface. The use of different polymeric metal composites as the anode
material is another alternative to improve the performance of microbial fuel cells.
Polyaniline is widely used as polymeric metal alloy as it is highly able to restrict
deactivation of the anode by metabolic products produced by the microbial reactions
[17]. Zhang et al. has reported that the power density of 760 mW.m-2 is available from a
microbial fuel cell employing graphite/PTFE as a composite electrode and E. coli as the
bacterium [18]. The reaction mechanism for the generation of electrons from acetate rich
wastewater at anode chamber is given in Eq. 1
CH3COO − + 4H 2 O → 2HCO3− + 9H + + 8e _ (1)
2.2 Cathodic reaction mechanism

The negative electrode (cathode) accepts the electrons from the anode through the
external circuit and H+ ions through the proton exchange membrane (PEM). O2 is purged
to the cathode chamber externally. This O2 and others electron acceptors present in the
cathode chamber combined with electrons and H+ to be reduced to water. The reaction of
the formation of water is represented in Eq. 2.
O 2 + 4H + + 4e − → 2H 2 O (2)
294
Fig. 3 Different configurations of MFC; (A) H2 is produced in a separate bioreactor and

utilized in a fuel cell, (B) Microorganisms produce H2 from organic matter and H2
generates the electrons which leads to produce the electricity, (C) Microbiological
activity directly transfers electron to the anode of MFC.
The availability of oxygen and accessibility of protons through PEM largely impact on
the performance of the reactions in the cathode. Oxygen is mostly preferred as a terminal
electron acceptor in the cathode chamber as it is inexpensive, easily accessible and has
high oxidation potential [19]. Two configurations of cathodes namely air and aqueous
cathodes are mostly used in microbial fuel cells. Air cathodes are very often adopted in a
microbial fuel cell as the configuration involved is most inexpensive. Part of the cathode
is directly exposed to air for higher availability of O2. On the other hand, aqueous
cathodes are consisted of carbon cloth coated with a layer of catalyst and very often
295
immersed in an aqueous layer with limited oxygen accessibility [20]. Carbon cloth is the
supporting material for binding the binder in an air cathode. The binders like Nafion and
polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) are very commonly used to keep the catalyst intact on the
cathode plate. More power density is generally achieved when Nafion in comparison
with PTFE is used as a binder with other parameters remaining constant in a microbial
fuel cell. Nafion is put onto the cathode plate (carbon cloth) as a thick layer of biofilm
[21]. Biofouling of cathode is a serious threat to the performance of the microbial fuel
cell. With regard to the issue of biofouling, the use of metal composite electrode
containing the ingredient having anti-microbes property is the solution to the problem of
biofouling. One of the investigations on microbial fuel cell reports that the maximum
power density of ~1700 mW.m-2 has been achieved using a graphite carbon-based metal
composite catalyst (Fe3O4/GC) [22] as a cathode in a microbial fuel cell.
3. Treatment of wastewater in microbial fuel cell

A number of research investigations have been carried out on the application of microbial
fuel cell (MFC) in the treatment of different types of wastewater. The configuration of
MFC has been the most significant factor in extracting the maximum output in terms of
power density and organic removal efficiency. Microbial communities degrade organic
components present in the wastewater for an efficient removal of the contaminants.
MFCs are well recognized to be capable of removing a number of heavy metals, phenolic
compounds and petroleum products etc. The use of synthetic wastewater as the only
carbon source in the fuel cells is a common practice in the research on MFC over the
years. The results of the investigations predict that the technique can be employed for real
wastewater. Various synthetic monomers in the complex mixture of wastewater such as
carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acids have been investigated as substrates in the
MFC. Among the carbon sources as a synthetic substrate, glucose is the simplest
carbohydrate molecule which has been tested as a carbon source in MFC by a number of
investigators [23]. Thereafter, a continuous research activity has been accomplished
focusing on other carbohydrates and their derivatives. Catal et al. have achieved a
maximum power density of more than 2700 mWm-2 using glucuronic acid as a substrate
using a single chambered air cathode [24]. Another investigation has been carried out
using 30 g/L of glucose as substrate, S. cerevisiae as biocatalyst and KMnO4 as an
oxidizing agent in a four-layered chamber of MFC to produce electricity with ~2000
mWm-2 of power density [25]. Later on, poly-alcohols as carbon source and consortium
of microbes as biocatalysts in MFC were investigated for the generation of electricity. It
has been usually observed that the power density of the sugar alcohols was in the range of
1500-2600 W.m-2. Nitrogen of proteins has also been proved to be a good substrate for
296
power generation in MFC. Yang et al. have studied that serine among the amino acids,
produces a maximum power density of ~770 mW.m-2 and alanine produces minimum
power density (550 mWm-2) used as a nitrogenous substrate in a single chambered air
cathode [26]. Various organic acids like (formic acid, lactic acid and succinic acid) are
also capable of producing electricity from fuel cells. Acetate and butyrate are the most
common substrates due to their immense potential of generating electricity in microbial
fuel cells [27]. When various organic alcohols are tested as a substrate; ethanol has been
proved to be more potent compared to methanol. In an experiment using a microbial fuel
cell, the maximum power density of ~800 mW.m-2 was achieved using ethanol as
substrate [28]. After various synthetic substrates were examined for the power generation
in fuel cells the research community become interested in working with real wastewater
originated from a number of different sources such as; food waste, dairy waste, livestock
and even industrial waste characteristically containing a minimum amount of organic
components. The relative performance of MFCs for the treatment of different kinds of
wastewaters is illustrated in Table 1.
3.1 Treatment of vegetable waste and a waste of food processing

Vegetable wastes contain a substantial amount of carbohydrates and are found as solid
waste mostly at different dumping sites of the municipality. An attempt to generate
electricity through microbial fuel cell using vegetable waste as substrates results in a
power density of 57 mWm-2 along with a satisfactory amount of chemical oxygen
demand (COD) removal [29]. Waste waters from food processing industries have been
investigated in MFCs by a number of researchers [30, 31]. Sangeetha et al. have carried
out an experiment in dual-chambered MFC with food processing wastewater and
observed high percentage (86%) removal of COD but with a low power density of 124
mWm-2 [32]. Substantial amounts of carbohydrates are available in a large volume of
wastewater of starch processing industries. Lu et al. were been able to achieve a power
density of 240 mWm-2 from starch processing wastewater containing an initial COD of
4850 ppm [33]. More than 90% removal of COD of a protein content wastewater
containing 600 mg of COD per litre has been achieved in a double chamber fuel cell [34].
297
Table 1 Application of microbial fuel cells in different types of waste water

Waste water type Microbial Fuel Cell Performance Reference
Beverage distillery Two chambered MFC COD removal of 88% and power [53]
-2
made up of carbon density of 124 mWm observed
fiber paper as
electrodes
Manure wash Three compartment Maximum power density of 216 [54]
MFC with graphite mWm-2 achieved
fiber brush anode and
Pt coated carbon cloth
as cathode
Vegetable wastes Single chambered COD removal of 63% and power [29]
waster MFC with graphite density of 57 mWm-2 obtained
plates electrodes
Dairy waste water Two chambered MFC 90% of COD removal and power [55]
with graphite plates density of 621 mWm-2 of
electrodes maximum power density
obtained
Domestic waste water Upflow MFC with 78% of COD removal and [50]
carbon fiber brush maximum power density of 481
used as cathode and mWm-2 achieved
anode
Food processing Two chambered MFC 86% COD removal and [56]
waste water separated by PEM and maximum power density of 230
graphic sheets are mWm-2 realized
used as electrodes
Petroleum refinery Dual chambered MFC COD removal of 64% and [57]
waste water with carbon rod as maximum power density of 330
anode and graphite mWcm-3 obtained
flake as cathode
Pharmaceutical waste MFC constructed as 85% of COD removal and [58]
water single chambered open maximum power density of 206
air cathode with mWm-2 observed
graphite plate as
electrodes
Sewage waste water MFC with graphite Over 82% of COD removal [59]
rod electrodes and only around 7 mWm-2 of
power density obtained.
Waste water Single chambered COD removal more than 70% [60]
containing pesticides MFC with activated and maximum power density of
carbon as anode and 77% noted
carbon cloth as
cathode
298
3.2 Treatment of wastewater from beverage distilleries

Wastewaters from beverage industries are characterized by high COD and organics
mainly consisting of sugars and proteins which are non-toxic in nature. Cost effective
biological methods are commonly employed for the treatment of such wastewaters.
Microbial fuel cells with various configurations are an alternative technique for the
treatment of brewery wastewater as it contains a high load of COD [35, 36]. Single
chambered microbial fuel cell results in COD removal of 87% using brewery wastewater
containing COD load of ~2250 ppm. Moreover, a maximum power density of
530 mWm-2 is achievable using a phosphate buffer [37]. Wen et al. employed air cathode
microbial fuel cells using running raw brewery wastewater as substrate and achieved a
maximum power density of 670 mWm-2 [38]. Few attempts have also been made for the
generation of electricity using different wine samples as substrates in MFCs. Air cathode
has been employed for the generation of electricity from white and red wine samples.
White wines in comparison with red ones showed better efficiency in terms of power
density. The power density of 262 mWm-2 for white wine samples with higher removal of
COD [39] was achieved.
3.3 Dairy wastewater

Dairy wastewater is also a potent feedstock for use in MFC as it contains a huge load of
biodegradable organics [40]. Wastewater directly from the dairy field has been treated
with single chambered microbial fuel cells with graphite coated anode resulting in a
maximum power density of 20 Wm-3 [41]. The liquid fraction of whey processing of a
real dairy waste contains a substantial amount of carbohydrates, proteins fats, etc. and
that can be used as potent feedstock materials in different types of MFCs. Incubated
anode for quite a long duration has been observed to sufficiently remove COD and
produce a maximum power density of 1800 mWm-2 [42]. Tremouli et al. have carried out
an investigation using whey permeate as feedstock in two-chambered MFC and found
COD removal of around 95% [43].
3.4 Pharmaceutical wastewater

Wastewaters from pharmaceutical industries mostly contain toxic organic matters which
have been utilized as a substrate in MFCs in many of the investigations. Synthetic
antibiotic penicillin of 50 ppm with 1 g/L glucose was used as a substrate in microbial
cells employing air cathode and power density of more than 100 mWm-2 was achieved
[44]. Paracetamol containing wastewater is also investigated to produce a maximum of
~218 mWm-2 power density in another investigation [45]. During acid wash of the drugs,
various intermediate toxic chemicals are produced and have been investigated in
299
microbial fuel cells and a maximum power density of 22.3 mWm-2 has been achieved
[46].
3.5 Petrochemical wastewater

Petrochemical industries produce a large amount of sludge mainly composed of
hydrocarbons and toxic effluent and a lesser amount of organics. Treatment of such
wastewaters using MFCs has been practised by a number of investigators. Sludge
obtained directly from the petroleum industry has been observed to produce more than 50
mWm-2 power using microbial fuel cell [47]. Real petrochemical wastewater containing
terephthalic acid has been investigated both in acidic and alkaline pH of the substrate
using single chambered MFC. The power generation was 50% more in the case of
alkaline pH of 8.5 as compared to the acidic substrate [48].
3.6 Treatment of domestic wastewater

As domestic wastewater can be treated in MFCs as it contains a mixture of organic
components Cusick et al. employed an air cathode fuel cell with an incorporation of
domestic wastewater as a feed material and observed a COD removal of 83% [49]. In a
different investigation of combined treatment using a microbial fuel cell with photo
bioreactor resulted into phosphate and ammonium removal of 99% [50]. Combined
mixture of domestic and oil mill wastewater provided better efficiency in achieving a
power density of 125 mWm-2 [51]. Moreover, a number of investigations have also
accomplished for the treatment of municipal solid waste in MFCs and a substantial
amount of electricity generation and COD removal were achieved [52].
Conclusions
Rapid depletion of conventional fuels (viz. petroleum and fossil fuels) continuously urges
the search for alternative fuels. Further, emission of greenhouse gases mostly CO and
CO2 and consequently their detrimental effects on the environment, especially global
warming have led to the scientific community to find a way out in this regard. On the
other hand, more efficient processes of treatment of wastewater are also important for
recycling of water to prevent the shortage of water at present and in future. Therefore,
environmentally benign techniques for both the purposes are urgently required. MFC
technique has been emerged as potent to mitigate the energy crisis without affecting the
environment significantly. Moreover, the microbial fuel cell has been an individual kind
of sustainable technology which uses microorganism as biocatalysts during the
conversion of wastewater into the clean energy. Over the years, a number of attempts
have been made to improve the power density from different types of wastewater by
300
altering the basic configuration of microbial fuel cells. However, the practical adaptation
of this technology is limited within the laboratory scale and demands for a significant
breakthrough to scale up the process into the next level to be feasible for industrial
purposes.
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Chapter 12
Microbial Production of Ethanol
Khush Bakhat Alia1, Ijaz Rasul1, Farrukh Azeem1, Sabir Hussain2,

Muhammad Hussnain Siddique1, Saima Muzammil3, Muhammad Riaz4, Amna Bari1,
Sehrish Liaqat1, Habibullah Nadeem*1
1
Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
2
Department of Microbiology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
3
Department of Food Sciences, University College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, Pakistan
4
Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Government College University,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
* [email protected]
Abstract
With the increase in population, the demand for fuel from renewable resources is
increasing as the sources of fossil fuel are exhausting. In this perspective production of
biofuels gained importance and now biofuels are obtained by the fermentation of
sugarcane and starch-based cereals and lignocellulosic materials including wheat straws,
woodchips, agricultural and forest residues, etc. As these sources have certain limitations
attention has been shifted towards the use of algae as a feedstock for biofuel. The
conversion of these feedstocks into ethanol with the help of microorganisms is in
consideration to meet the demand for fuel from renewable resources.
Keywords
Biofuel, Bioethanol, Lignocellulosic Biomass, Renewable Energy
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................309
2. Classification of biofuels .......................................................................309
3. Bioethanol as the fuel of future ............................................................311
4. Bioethanol production ...........................................................................312
307
4.1 First generation biofuels ..................................................................313

4.2 Second generation biofuels ..............................................................313
4.2.1 Challenges in second-generation biofuel.........................................314
4.2.2 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass ..........................................314
4.2.3 Fermentation process .......................................................................318
4.2.4 Metabolic pathway of D-xylose ......................................................319
4.2.5 Conversion of L-arabinose in fungi .................................................320
4.2.6 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) ..................................320
4.2.7 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) ..................320
4.2.8 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF)...........320
4.2.9 Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) ..................................................321
4.3 Third generation biofuels.................................................................321
4.3.1 Microalgae .......................................................................................322
4.3.2 Macroalgae (seaweed) .....................................................................322
4.3.3 Algae as a better option for bioethanol production .........................322
4.3.4 Challenges with third generation biofuel ........................................323
4.3.5 General processes of bioethanol production from algal
feedstock ..........................................................................................324
4.3.5.1 Hydrolysis ......................................................................................324
4.3.5.1.1 Acid hydrolysis ...........................................................................324
4.3.5.1.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis ..................................................................325
4.3.5.2 Biological pretreatment..................................................................326
4.3.5.3 Fermentation ..................................................................................326
4.3.5.3.1 Separate enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation .......................328
4.3.5.3.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation ........................328
4.3.5.3.3 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation ...................328
4.3.5.4 Purification.....................................................................................328
5. Recent advances in bioethanol production..........................................329
5.1 Molecular toolings and genetically modified organisms for
bioethanol production ......................................................................330
Conclusions and Future Perspective ..............................................................330
References .........................................................................................................331
308
1. Introduction
Sustainable energy is a big task in the world of growing population. The demand for
energy continuously increases with the increase in population but the sources of fossil
fuel are exhausting day by day which causes an increment in petroleum fuel prices [1,2].
The increased use of fossil fuels from petroleum resources have concerns related to
environment and energy security issues. Issues, including global climate change due to
the emission of greenhouse gases, make researchers find alternative ways for the
production of fuels from sustainable bio resources [3]. International political pressure to
reduce greenhouse gasses and global energy crisis forced researchers to develop or search
alternative renewable energy resources to replace traditional energy sources [4]. In
sustainable development, the use of renewable energy sources is in consideration. Liquid
fuels like biodiesel, bioethanol and biogases like methane and in solid fuel wood pellets
and charcoal are mainly produced from biomass and are known as biofuels [2, 5].
Today the demand for fuel production from renewable resources is high and will be very
high in the future [6]. The biofuel production gained importance in this perspective as it
is an important type of fuel used in internal combustion engines and powertrains when
blended with gasoline [4]. By definition biofuels are fuels, generated by using biological
material and ethanol is one of the best-known biofuels [7].
Currently, bioethanol is produced by the fermentation of sugarcane and starch-based
cereals but the use of crops in its production leads towards competition between animal
feed and food industries and ultimately results in higher food prices and opposition in EU
and globally. Lignocellulosic residual materials from agriculture industry and forest have
resistance towards fractionation for production of sugars, along with this, the incapability
of microbes in the fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates reduces bioethanol
production from these abundant materials [4, 6].
2. Classification of biofuels
Biofuels are generally classified into primary and secondary biofuels (Table-1). Biofuels
directly obtained by the burning of woody plants and dry waste of animal are known as
primary biofuels, while the secondary biofuels are further divided into 1st, 2nd and 3rd
generation biofuels. Biofuels produced by the first generation includes fermentation of
crop plants like sugar cane or corn. Biofuels production by the first generation has a
negative impact on food security when edible parts of plants are in use for biofuel
production. This limitation paves way for second-generation biofuel production in which,
309
lignocellulosic material from nonfood biomass like straw or other agricultural waste
materials serve as feedstock [8]. These waste materials have a high concentration of
complex sugars like cellulose, hemicellulose and other polymers. These complex sugars
are usually not accessible for microbes because of the absence of appropriate
saccharolytic enzymes [9]. Third generation biofuel is produced from seaweeds, microbes
and microalgae. Production of third-generation bioethanol is an effective strategy to meet
the global needs [10].
Table 1: Classification of biofuels

Primary Biofuels Secondary Biofuels
produced from
First generation Second generation Third generation
Wood chips, produced by
Firewood, Forest,
crops, Animal Fermentation Production of Production of bioethanol
waste residues of starch (wheat, bioethanol and from microalgae and sea
potato, barley, biobutanol by weeds
corn) or sugars lignocellulosic
(from sugar beet materials (e.g.
and sugar cane) straw, wood and
grass)
Plant residues are the most promising low-cost and sustainable biomaterials for the
production of biofuels. First generation bioethanol serves as a vehicle fuel and in contrast
to fossil fuels, first generation bioethanol reduces CO2 emission. To meet the demand of
first-generation bioethanol higher amount of feedstock is required which can lead to
competition between fuel and food. Production of second-generation biofuels may avoid
these concerns because second-generation bioethanol production depends upon nonfood
bio resources like lignocellulosic material as they are inexpensive and are accessible in
large quantities. For second-generation bioethanol production the most common
lignocellulosic material is sugarcane bagasse. Both thermal and biological platforms are
used for biofuel production from sugarcane bagasse [3].
The production of bioethanol is increasing but depletion of water resources and use of
arable land make put it under the scanner. The extensive use of arable land to produce
biomass for bioethanol production causes a deficiency of food crops which initiates
debate for its sustainability. To eliminate this problem use of algae is gaining importance
for the production of biomass for bioethanol. Algae is present in marine, fresh and
310
terrestrial ecosystems. This suggests that algae have the ability to grow in a diverse
environment. Therefore, algae as a renewable energy source will ensure energy security
and self-sufficiency. As compared to land plants algae produce 5–10 times more biomass
because of more photosynthetic efficiencies [11]. Lignin is absent in algae which serve as
an obstacle for enzymatic hydrolysis. In ethanol production, this property of algae is
helpful in pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis [2].
3. Bioethanol as the fuel of future

Currently, in the world market, the most popular fuel is ethanol. For ethanol, Henry Ford
used the term “fuel of future”. The use of ethanol as an alternative fuel is because of
several reasons, for instance
1. Ethanol can be produced by using agricultural products like molasses, sugar and
corn.
2. Unlike other alcoholic fuels, ethanol is less toxic.
3. By-products produced in the result of incomplete oxidation of ethanol are less
toxic.
Sugarcane is the mainly used feedstock for ethanol production in tropical regions like
Brazil, India and Colombia, while corn is the main feedstock in areas like European
Union, the United States and China [12]. From several decades bio-alcohol is used as
fuel. Mainly the plant material with high sugar and starch contents like sugarcane and
grain crops are a major source of bio-alcohol. As sugarcane and grain crops are food
materials and their use results in competition for food and attention for bio-alcohol
production has shifted to perennial grasses like miscanthus because they do not serve as
food. This cellulosic biomass converted into sugar by fermentation and distillation
processes and the sugars are then converted into alcohol [10].
Biomass is a consistent source of energy and the production of biofuel from
lignocellulosic feedstock is a well-known concept. It is challenging to convert biomass
into liquid fuel because with the complexity in chemical composition the conversion
process becomes complicated and expensive. Depletion of oil stocks with increasing
demand for energy worldwide increases the interest in the production of biofuels.
Another concern in the utilization of biofuel is the environmental impact of liquid fuel
consumption. Due to the emission of greenhouse gases use of biofuels is considered eco-
friendly option [7].
Bioethanol is a common bioalcohol whereas biopropanol and biobutanol are not
common. Microorganisms produce alcohols through the fermentation of feedstock rich in
311
carbohydrates. Traditionally ethanol was used in the preparation of alcoholic drinks [10].
A cyanobacterium species, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 serve as cell factory for the
production of fatty acids, biopolymers, ethanol and sugars [4]. Currently, ethanol has
been used for other purposes, for instance, bioethanol replaces gasoline as the use of
bioethanol reduces the release of CO2, toxic gases like nitric oxide, carbon mono oxide
and other volatile organic compounds. As oxygen is present in molecular structure
combustion at low temperature is possible. Sources for bioethanol production are
feedstocks like starch from corn, sucrose from sugar beet, sugarcane, wheat and
agricultural wastes including lignocellulosic biomass like rice straw, wheat straw, wood
and sugarcane bagasse (after juice extraction the remaining dry pulpy material of
sugarcane stems). When bagasse is utilized sugarcane produces high quantity bioethanol.
In third generation biofuel production, algae is the most important feedstock because it
contains almost 50% lipid for biodiesel production and the rest of the components
including sugars and proteins are used in the production of bioethanol [10].
4. Bioethanol production
Production of bioethanol is represented by the following schematic diagram (Fig.1)
Biomass when reaching the ethanol plant is stored in a warehouse and prevented from
contamination to avoid early fermentation. Pretreatment of the biomass causes extraction
of carbohydrates. If sugar from sugarcane juice and molasses is subjected to fermentation
then processes such as pretreatment, milling, detoxification and hydrolysis are not
necessary but in case of starchy materials, these processes are necessary. Processes like
pretreatment, milling and hydrolysis are also required when lignocellulosic material is
used. Further, detoxification is not necessary, until a toxic substance is fed to bioreactors
[12].
Figure 1: Schematic diagram for the production of biofuels
312
4.1 First generation biofuels

Production of first-generation biofuels comprises the ethanol production directly from
edible sources. Ethanol is generally obtained by the fermentation of six carbon sugars i.e.,
glucose by the activity of classical or genetically modified yeast strains like
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The feedstock, mostly used for the production of first-
generation bioethanol is sugarcane or corn. Brazil is one of the leading countries which
utilize sugarcane for biofuel production. To produce ethanol, the sugarcane is first
crushed in the presence of water in order to remove sucrose, which is then purified to get
ethanol. For the production of ethanol, another major feedstock is corn which is a rich
source of carbohydrate. In case of corn as feedstock initially, hydrolysis of starch is
required in order to release sugars that are then fermented to ethanol. Amylase is the
enzyme used in starch hydrolysis [7].
4.2 Second generation biofuels

Biomass used for second-generation biofuels is divided into three categories:
homogeneous, like white wood chips, quasi-homogeneous which include agricultural and
forest residues and feedstock like municipal solid wastes. The conversion of such
biomass to bioethanol is somewhat complicated [7].
Trees are the interesting resource of cellulosic biomass for the production of second-
generation biofuels. As trees generally have high carbohydrate contents and therefore, are
more suitable for the production of biofuel than food crops. As compared to grain
biomass cellulosic biomass is a renewable, cheap resource and does not compete with the
food supply. Cellulose is a polysaccharide with high molecular weight and its
degradation is a key step in the production of bioethanol. Degradation of cellulose could
be achieved by different enzymes and degradation of cellulose is more difficult than
starch because of the presence of amorphous and crystalline regions. Cellulase, the
generally used cellulose degrading enzymes, includes three different enzymes:
exoglucanase or β-glucosidase, cellobiase or cellobiohydrolases and endoglucanases [13,
14]. These enzymes could effectively degrade cellulose chain into soluble cello-
oligosaccharides. Sugar molecules obtained from cellulose by enzymes produce
lignocellulosic ethanol and reduces the emission of greenhouse gases by 90 % as
compared to petroleum fuels. Low-cost lignocellulosic biomasses includes wood chips,
grasses, sludge, livestock manure and crop residues that can be hydrolysed by the activity
of enzymes to obtain fermentable sugars for biofuel production. The high cost and low
yield of the hydrolysis process pose a negative impact for its use in commercial scale
production. As compared to sugar-containing materials, feedstocks having cellulose and
starch is cheaper but the high cost of cellulase limit the use of processes to convert
313
cellulose or starch to fermentable sugars. Along with this lignin in cellulosic wastes
hinders ethanol production as lignin is hydrophobic and covers the cellulose present,
therefore, pretreatment is required to remove lignin which increases cost for bioethanol
production. Due to these factors, second generation feedstock does not serve the purpose
of commercialization, a low-cost fuel for transportation and pave the way towards third
generation fuel production [15].
Lignocellulosic biomass obtained from agriculture industry consists of bagasse, coconut
shells, wheat straw, rice straw, rice husks, maize cobs, cotton stalks, jute sticks etc.
Lignocellulosic biomass also included a fraction of municipal solid waste or could be
forestry waste like sawdust, bark and wood chips. Lignocellulosic biomass mainly has
hemicellulose (20–40%), cellulose (40– 60%), and lignin (10–25%). Cellulose fibrils are
resistant to digestion mediated by enzymes due to their crystalline nature. While in non-
crystalline form cellulose is susceptible to enzymatic mediated hydrolysis. Along this
lignin adsorb enzymes irreversibly and inhibit the action of the enzyme on cellulose
chains. Therefore, certain pretreatments are required to reduce adsorption of enzyme on
lignin. For efficient hydrolysis, the accessible area for enzymes should be increased and it
is also important to disintegrate the crystalline structure of cellulose [16].
4.2.1 Challenges in second-generation biofuel

Removal of inhibitors and separation of cellulose with high purity without consuming too
much energy is a technological challenge. Once macromolecules are isolated, they need
hydrolysis to be fermented by yeasts. Hemicelluloses are highly branched carbohydrate
having five-carbon sugars and six carbon sugars and make 15 to 25% of dry weight of
lignocellulosic biomass. Hemicelluloses contain about 50-75% glucans and xylans. The
main advantage of hemicelluloses in ethanol production is that due to its highly branched
structure it can be hydrolyzed by water at high temperatures or can be hydrolysed by
dilute aqueous acids. The problem with the use of hemicellulose is that classical yeast
strains do not ferment five-carbon sugars and require genetic modification in order to
produce ethanol. The second most plentiful natural polymer is lignin, comprises 25 to
35% of dry weight in lignocellulosic biomass. This macromolecule has high energy, used
as fuel and also used in biorefinery as a source of hydrogen [7].
4.2.2 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass

Pretreatment is an important step in order to enhance the formation of fermentable sugars.
The choice of a pretreatment method depends upon the type of feedstock because of
difference in chemical composition and physical characteristics of different feedstocks
[16]. The main objectives of pre-treatment are
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i. To reduce the degree of polymerization and crystallinity of cellulose besides this

pre-treatment increase permeability of lignocellulose to enhance sugars in
enzymes mediated hydrolysis.
ii. Avert sugars degradation especially pentose as well as those derived from
hemicellulose.
iii. To reduce the production of inhibitory products, which hinders the fermentation
process.
iv. To recover lignin.
v. Minimize the use of energy to make the process cost-effective and easy in
operation.
Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is important in order to increase the availability
of cellulose. Hemicellulose and cellulose are converted into xylose and glucose by
enzymes like hemicellulases and cellulases. These sugar monomers (pentoses and
hexoses) formed by saccharification are converted into bioethanol by fermentation. In
order to increase the efficiency of bioethanol production, different methods have been
proposed to integrate hydrolysis and fermentation processes. Methods used for the
treatment of lignocellulosic mass are listed in table-2. Microorganisms used in biological
pre-treatment of different lignocellulosic materials are listed in table-3.
Table 2: Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic biomass with their advantages and

disadvantages
Pretreatment Advantages Disadvantages Ref.
Mechanical Increase in digestibility and Economically inefficient due [16,17]
surface area of biomass, to consumption of high
Reduction in degree of energy.
polymerization and crystallinity
of cellulose
Extrusion/ Fiber shortening Parameters should be highly [16]

Pyrolysis efficient in bioreactor.
Liquid hot Better control of pH, Reduction High demand of energy and [16]
water in non-specific polysaccharides water. Commercial scale
degradation, High pentose application is not possible.
recovery, Inhibitor production is
low, Materials ability to resist
corrosion are not required
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Steam Better enzymatic hydrolysis, High cost, less effective [16,17]

explosion low environmental impact, high method for soft woods,
(Auto- yield of sugars, Less harmful Production of inhibitory
hydrolysis) chemicals are required. products, Partial degradation
of lignin and hemicelluloses,
For acid addition additional
equipment is required
Ammonia Increases surface area available Hemicelluloses content is [16,17]

fiber for enzymes and digestibility not significantly reduced
expansion Removal of lignin, hemicelluloses High lignin content
(AFEX) and inhibitors Expensive because large
amount of ammonia is
required
Concentrated High yield of glucose, Reduced Corrosion of equipment, [17]
acid operational costs because of Formation of inhibitors.
moderate temperature
requirement, Hydrolyse both
cellulose and hemicelluloses,
Development of degradation
products is low, No enzymes
requirement
Dilute acid Less corrosion problems as High temperature causes [17]
compared to concentrated acid, degradation products.
Formation of inhibitors is low
Hydrolyses hemicellulose
Alternation in lignin structure
Alkali Efficient removal of lignin, Downstream processing cost [16,17]
Improved accessibility of is high, Not appropriate for
hemicelluloses degrading industrial scale, Long
enzyme. residence times,
Irrecoverable salts formation
Organosolv Improved digestibility of lignin High solvent and catalysts [16,17]
and hemicelluloses by enzymes. cost, Danger of fire and
explosions.
Ozonolysis No production of toxic residues, Highly expensive procedure [16,17]
Room temperature and pressure is because ozone is required in
required to carry out reaction large amount
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Biological Low cost because low energy is Low hydrolysate, Inefficient [16,17]
pretreatment required and no chemicals are for industrial purposes
required, Requirement of mild because of slow hydrolysis
environmental conditions, rate, In large scale operation
Control of pH in sugar utilization operational costs increases.
Ammonia Delignification is highly selective Consumption of energy is [17]
recycled Lignin removal high.
percolation
(ARP)
Ionic liquids High digestibility, Green solvents Large scale application of [17]
Reduction in crystallinity of ionic liquids is under
cellulose, Removes lignin investigation.
Supercritical Cost effective, No inhibitors Have no effect lignin and [17]
fluid formation, Increase in hemi-cellulose
technology accessibility of surface area High pressure is required.
Wet oxidation Formation of inhibitors is low. High cost of oxygen and [17]
Removes lignin alkaline catalyst
Table 3: Microorganisms used for pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass.

Fungus employed Material References
Aspergillus terreus Sugarcane trash [17, 18]
Aspergillus awamori
Trichoderma reesei
Trichoderma viride
Ceriporiopsis subvermisporaCorn stover [17, 19, 20]
Echinodontium taxodii Softwood, Hardwood [17, 22]
Corn stover [17, 21]
Irpex lacteus Corn stover [17, 21, 24]
Phanerochaetechrysosporium Wheat straw [17, 25]
Rice straw [17, 26]
Cotton stalks [17, 27]
Pleurotus ostreatus Corn stover [21]
Rice hull [17]
Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Wheat straw [17, 25]
Pycnoporus sanguineus Cereal straw [17, 28]
Fusarium concolor Wheat straw [17, 23]
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4.2.3 Fermentation process

A number of microorganisms have the ability to ferment pentose and hexose sugars
separately as well as simultaneously. The list of microbes and their substrate sugars is
given in table-4.
Table 4: Microorganisms having ability to utilize pentoses and hexoses.

Microorganisms Activity References
Bacteria Aerobacter, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Successfully [16]
Thermoanerobacter, Aeromonas fermenting xylose
Yeasts Pichia stipitis, Candida shehatae, to ethanol
Pachysolen tannophilus
Fungi Neurospora, Monilia, Fusarium, Mucor,
Rhizopus
In yeast, glucose is metabolized by the glycolytic pathway into pyruvate. Glucose is

phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinases (HK), then glucose-6-phosphate
is isomerized to fructose-6-phosphate by phosphoglucose isomerase (PI), fructose-6-
phosphate is then phosphorylated to fructose-1,6-biphosphate by phosphofructokinase
(PFK). Yeast fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (FA) reversibly converts fructose-1,6-
biphosphate to dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate (G3P).
These molecules are interconvertible and interconversion is achieved by triosephosphate
isomerase (TPI). Later G3P is serially converted to different intermediates and finally
into pyruvate. In the conversion of glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate to pyruvate, G3P is
converted to 1,3-diphosphoglycerate by the action of 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GDH).
1,3-diphosphoglycerate is then converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by phosphoglycerate
kinase (PGK). Later 3-phosphoglycerate is changed to 2-phosphoglycerate due to the
activity of phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM) which causes relocation of a phosphate
group from third carbon to second carbon of molecule, then enolase, convert 2-
phosphoglycerate into phosphoenolpyruvate. Then this high energy molecule is converted
to pyruvate by pyruvate kinase (PK). In anaerobic conditions, a decarboxylation reaction
converts pyruvate to acetaldehyde and CO2 by the activity of pyruvate decarboxylase
(PDC). Further reduction of acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) yields
ethanol. A gene in E. coli codes for pyruvate formate lyase despite pyruvate
decarboxylase in order to convert pyruvate into ethanol [16]
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4.2.4 Metabolic pathway of D-xylose

In metabolic pathway, all microorganisms, convert D-xylulose to D-xylulose-5-phosphate
by the activity of xylulose kinase (XK). Once xylulose-5-phosphate is formed, it is
engaged to native pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). In bacteria, D-xylose is directly
converted to D-xylulose by the action of xylose isomerase (XI). In yeasts and fungi, the
conversion of D-xylulose requires two-step oxidation-reduction pathway. In first step D-
xylose is reduced to xylitol by the action of D-xylose reductase (XR) then oxidized to D-
xylulose through xylitol dehydrogenase (XDH), convert D-xylulose to D-xylulose-5-
phosphate. D-xylose-5-phosphate is further metabolized to G3P and fructose-6-phosphate
by the activity of phosphopentose epimerase (PPE), transaldolase (TAL) and
transketolase (TK).
Figure 2: Metabolic pathway of bacteria and yeast to prepare ethanol from xylose and
arabinose.
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4.2.5 Conversion of L-arabinose in fungi

In most fungi, L-arabinose is converted to D-xylulose-5-phosphate followed by series of
oxidation-reduction steps by L-arabitol dehydrogenase (LAD) and arabinose reductase
(AR). In bacteria, arabinose is converted to ribulose by arabinose isomerise (AI) after
being converted to ribulose-5-phosphate by the activity of ribulokinase (RK). The final
epimerization of ribulose-5-phosphate to D-xylulose-5-phosphate is carried out by
ribulose-5-phosphate-4-epimerase (R5PE). Xylose and arabinose are converted into
ethanol by the pathway as mentioned in figure -2 [16].
4.2.6 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF)

This process has two stages in which both processes (hydrolysis and fermentation)
operate separately. In the first step, the lignocellulosic biomass is pretreated with
enzymes to get monomer units like glucose and xylose. In a second step, these sugars
(glucose and xylose) are fermented into ethanol by the fermentation process. The
advantage of SHF is that enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation work at their optimum
conditions. However, the drawback of this procedure is an accumulation of sugars which
inhibits the activity of enzymes [16].
4.2.7 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF)

In this method, a single reactor is required for combined saccharification of biomass and
sugar fermentation. The advantage of SSF is that extracted sugars from biomass are
quickly converted into ethanol by the enzymatic activities of microorganisms and in
result prevent accumulation of sugars which have an inhibitory effect in the medium.
This process requires fewer equipment as compared to the SHF process. In this process,
the presence of ethanol in broth reduces the chances of contamination. The drawback
associated with this procedure is the difficulty in optimization process parameters
because microorganisms and enzymes are present together in the same fermentor. As
cellulolytic enzymes used for enzymatic hydrolysis perform the optimum activity at
50 °C while for microbes, ethanol production has optimal conditions at 28 to 37 °C [16].
4.2.8 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF)

This process involves the assimilation of all types of sugars by microorganisms which
were released by the pretreatment processes of lignocellulosic biomass. Both pentoses
and hexoses can be assimilated by mixed cultures of yeasts. The problem associated with
this process is more conversion of hexoses to ethanol because microorganisms which
utilize hexoses grow at a faster rate as compared to those microorganisms which utilize
pentoses. Another variation is to exploit a single microorganism which has the ability to
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assimilate hexoses and pentoses to produce ethanol. Shorter operation time, low cost, low
risk of contamination and fewer inhibitory effects are the advantages of this process [16].
4.2.9 Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP)

Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) incorporates all reactions which are required for
biomass transformation into ethanol. In this process, a single microbial community
carries enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass and fermentation of sugars in a single step. This
advantage of the CBP process includes no operational costs for enzyme production [16].
4.3 Third generation biofuels

Third generation biofuels are biofuels obtained from algal biomass [29]. Biofuels refer
the production of energy-rich chemicals directly from biological procedures or derived
from the chemical conversion of biomass by organisms, mainly photosynthetic organisms
(vascular land plants, photosynthetic micro-algae, photosynthetic macro-algae and
photosynthetic bacteria). From several decades plant biomass serve as a source of
biofuels but currently, the algal biomass is considered as an encouraging source for
production of biofuel. Photosynthesis is a distinguishing feature of plants and algae. As
photosynthesis is a way for the accumulation of biomass. Biomass obtained from plants
and algae serve as raw material for the production of biodiesel, bio-alcohol and bio-
hydrogen derived through fermentation [10].
As compared to lignocellulosic biomass algae has distinctive growth yield. Biofuels
production from algae usually depends on lipid content, with the use of algal biomass.
Algae belong to the group of photosynthetic organisms, can be classified as macroalgae
(multicellular) and microalgae (unicellular), in biofuel research microalgae is very
important. Usually, microalgae float on the surface of the water and like seaweeds it
normally found attached to rocks [29]. Algae have the potential to produce petroleum
fuels like triterpenic hydrocarbons, isobutyl alcohol, bioethanol and iso-butyraldehyde.
Several bacterial species with ethanol production ability has been identified, along with
this genetically modified bacterial species like Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis also
have the ability to produce high amounts of derivatives of fatty acids, isoprenoids and
bioalcohol. Thermococcus, Thermotoga, Caldicellulosiruptor and Pyrococcus species
have the ability to produce hydrogen in higher amount while these species produce
ethanol in less quantity. Ethanol could be efficiently produced by co-culture of
Thermoanaerobacter species along with cellulolytic organisms. For efficient production
of ethanol, a well-known model organism is Saccharomyces cerevisiae [10].
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4.3.1 Microalgae
Current knowledge suggests that for biofuels, microalgae are an attractive feedstock.
Depending on cultivation conditions and species, microalgae have the ability to produce
biomethanol, bioethanol, biodiesel, biohydrogen, proteins, carbohydrates and other
compounds [10]. Green algae (chlorophyceae), dinoflagellates, diatoms
(bacillariophyceae) and golden algae (chryosophyceae) are different types of microalgae.
In different species of algae the carbohydrate, lipid and protein contents vary in most of
the microalgae the lipid content exceeds 70% by dry weight of biomass [5, 30]. Some
species like Chlorella, Scenedesmus, and Chlamydomona have carbohydrate contents up
to 50% of dry weight [31,32]. Factors like O2, CO2, nutrient contents, salinity, pH, light,
temperature and chemicals have an effect on carbohydrate and lipid contents of
microalgae. In the cell wall of microalgae, the common components are pectin, cellulose,
hemicelluloses, protein and carbohydrates. By acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, these
components can be converted into monomers in order to produce bioethanol.
4.3.2 Macroalgae (seaweed)

Macroalgae are classified into three main groups which are brown (Phaeophyceae), red
(Rhodophyceae) and green (Chlorophyceae) [29, 33]. Usually, the cell wall of seaweeds
is a matrix of linear sulphated galactan polymers. Seaweeds are the most promising
feedstock as their conversion to bioethanol is easy. Brown seaweeds have carbohydrates
like fucoidan, laminaran, alginates, mannitol and cellulose. The red seaweed has
polysaccharides like a carrageenan cell wall, xylene, agar, mannan and cellulose in the
cell wall. Polysaccharides like carrageenan and cellulose in red seaweed and green
seaweed have cellulose, xylene and mannose. In comparison, red seaweed has the highest
carbohydrate content as compared to other seaweeds. As carbohydrates are present in
seaweeds its conversion into bioethanol is important to consider [29].
4.3.3 Algae as a better option for bioethanol production

A variety of algal strains have different carbohydrate contents are used for the production
of biofuels (table-5) and there are several characteristics because of them algae is in use
for bioethanol production. These characteristics include
i. Algae are not in competition with food products in land or in water.
ii. The carbohydrate contents in algae are abundant which can be easily fermented to
bioethanol.
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iii. Algae have a low level of hemicellulose and have no lignin. Which increases the
efficiency of hydrolysis and fermentation yields. Due to these characteristics, the
cost for production of bioethanol reduces.
iv. Algae have the ability to utilize CO2 from environment and results in the reduction
of greenhouse gases.
v. Algae have rapid growth and it is easier to grow them easily in different aquatic
environments like municipal wastewater, fresh water or saline water.
vi. The microalgae have rapid production and harvesting cycle (1–10 days) as
compared to other feedstocks which are harvested once or twice a year due to
rapid production and harvesting cycle, algae provide sufficient supplies in order to
meet the demand for ethanol [33].
Table 5: Types of algae and carbohydrate contents present in them.

Algal Biomass Carbohydrate Reference
Microalgae
Chlorococcum infusionum 32 [33, 34]
Porphyridium cruentum 40-57 [31,33]
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 59.7 [33, 35]
Macroalgae
Brown sea weed
Undaria pinnatifida 48.5 [33, 36]

Sargassum spp. 41.81 [37]
Red sea weed
Kappaphycus alvarezii 64 [33, 38]
Gelidium amansii 67.3 [33, 39]
Green sea weed
Ulva lactuca 54.3 [33, 40]
4.3.4 Challenges with third generation biofuel

Both microalgae and macroalgae are used for the production of bioethanol (Table-6) and
a number of challenges including geographical and technical challenges are associated
with the production of third-generation biofuels. Typically, a large quantity of water is
required for industrial-scale production, the requirement of large volumes of water serve
as a problem for countries like Canada where during a significant part of year
temperature is below 0 °C. The high water content also serve as a problem when lipid is
extracted from algal biomass. The extraction of lipid from algal biomass requires
dewatering, which is achieved by either filtration or by centrifugation [7].
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Table 6: Algal species used for bioethanol production [29].

Types of algae Species Used in bioethanol production
Micro algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii UTEX 90, Chlorococcum infusionum,
Chlorella vulgaris
Macro algae Green: Ulvalactuca, Ulvapertusa
Red: Kapphaphycus alvarezii, Gelidiumamansii,
Gracilariasalicornia, Gelidiumele- gans,
Brown: Sargassum fulvellum, Laminaria hyperborean, Laminaria
japonica, Saccharina latissima, Undari apinnitifida, Alaria
crassifolia
4.3.5 General processes of bioethanol production from algal feedstock

In the production of bioethanol from the algal feedstock, drying is the first step in the
handling of algae obtained from water. To reduce the size of feedstock is an important
aspect in order to increase the surface area for further analysis. Usually, the powder and
slurry of algae are used in hydrolysis followed by fermentation.
4.3.5.1 Hydrolysis
In bioethanol production hydrolysis is a crucial step because, in algae, the cell wall is the
structure that needs to be depolymerized to get polysaccharides like carrageenans,
alginates, agarans, fucans and ulvans. Polysaccharides are then converted into monomers
to be fermented to get bioethanol. For hydrolysis of polysaccharides into monomers, two
approaches are in use one approach is chemical hydrolysis and the second approach is
enzymatic hydrolysis. Among these two approaches, enzymatic hydrolysis is a recent
approach.
4.3.5.1.1 Acid hydrolysis

The release of simple compounds from complex polysaccharides is achieved by
chemicals. In this process, a wide range of acids are in use but sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is
the most important one. It was found that the dilute H2SO4 can effectively hydrolyze the
polysaccharides from three classes of macroalgae. Initially, in the hydrolysis of
polysaccharide, destruction of hydrogen bonds occurs which ruptures the polysaccharide
chain and changes into an amorphous state. Then acid causes hydrolysis of glycosidic
bonds and in result causes cleavage of the polysaccharide. At the end dilution with water
causes complete hydrolysis of hydrolysate into monosaccharide at moderate temperature
[41].
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4.3.5.1.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis

Algae can be treated both chemically and enzymatically (table-7) to produce sugars
which are then converted to bioethanol. In bioethanol production saccharification
(conversion of complex carbohydrates into simple monomers) is the most important step.
Enzymatic and chemical hydrolysis has been reported to convert algal biomass to sugars.
Enzymatic hydrolysis as compared to acid hydrolysis requires mild conditions (pH 4.5–
5.0 and 40–50 °C) and less energy. Enzymatic hydrolysis does not have corrosion
problem which is a major problem in acid hydrolysis. The main advantage of enzymatic
hydrolysis is low toxicity of the hydrolysates. The concentrations of sugars in enzymatic
hydrolysis are higher than chemical hydrolysis [33].
Table 7: Comparison between chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis of different types of

algae [33]
Chemical Hydrolysis Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Algal Source Conditions Sugar yield Enzyme mixture Sugar yield
Ulva pertusa 150 °C and 15 Glucose Cellulase and Glucose
Kjellman MPa for 15 min 9.08% amylo-glucosidase 61.1%
Gracilaria 120 °C and 2% 4.3 g of Cellulase 13.8 g of
salicornia H2SO4 for 30 min glucose/kg glucose/kg
Gelidium 0.2N H2SO4 at Sugar Endo-glucanase and 56.6%
amansii 121 °C for 15 content β-glucanase Sugar
min obtained content
9.8% obtained
Saccharina 40 mM H2SO4 at Production Termamyl 20.6 ± 1.9
japonica 121 °C for 1h of reducing (Industrial enzyme) g/L
sugar 13.5 Reducing
g/L sugars
Dunaliella 0.5 M HCl at 29.5% Amyloglucosidase 42%
tertiolecta 121 °C for 15 Production reducing
min of reducing sugars
sugar obtained
The physical structure and interaction of feedstock with enzymes is an important factor.
In enzymatic hydrolysis, the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex is a critical step.
The major barrier in enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass is the surface
accessibility of cellulose. During hydrolysis, the accessibility of enzyme to substrate is by
pores present in the cell wall. As this factor is the main contributor to effective
hydrolysis. In enzymatic hydrolysis, a class of enzymes called cellulases have a role in
the hydrolysis of cellulose. Cellulase is mostly used to degrade polysaccharides and
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classified into three types like exo-glucanases, endoglucanases and β-glucosidase. In

feedstock endo-glucanases hydrolyze the complex sugars by attacking the interior
amorphous region of cellulose and exo-glucanases, degrades cellulose by cleaving
cellobiose units from the non-reducing end of cellulose fiber. Cellobiose residues finally
split into two units of glucose by β-glucosidase [29].
Fungi and bacteria can produce cellulases. For bioethanol production in enzymatic
hydrolysis, cellulase causes degradation of cellulose to produce sugars that can be
fermented by bacteria or yeasts. In algal biomass starch is present in large quantity
therefore, use of amylase can hydrolyze algal biomass. Different factors like substrate
concentration, enzyme concentration, pH and temperature are the main factors which
influence the yield of sugar monomers. For cellulose, the optimum pH is 4.5–5 [33].
Conversion of complex sugars into simple sugars by enzymatic hydrolysis reduces
environmental impact and the ability of enzymes to achieve 80% conversion make this
approach attractive for use in bioethanol production [29].
4.3.5.2 Biological pretreatment

Biological treatment is an environmentally friendly method to remove lignin from lingo-
cellulosic biomass. As in algae lignin is present in low quantity therefore rarely biological
methods are adopted for algal pretreatment. Matsumoto et al., in 2003 saccharify green
marine microalga by a bacterium Pseudoalterimonas undina NKMB 0074 having ability
to produce amylase [42]. In saline suspension the terrestrial glucoamylase and amylase
were inactive. While marine amylases in saline conditions are successful for
saccharification of microalgae [33].
4.3.5.3 Fermentation
In hydrolysis by the activity of microorganisms the simple sugar molecules released,
these molecules can be converted into bioethanol (Fig.3). The main product of
fermentation is bioethanol while H2O and CO2 are the byproducts. In fermentation yeast,
bacteria and fungi are in use. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a frequently used strain of
yeast for fermentation of bioethanol because of certain features like its high selectivity,
high yield of ethanol, high rate of fermentation and low accumulation of by-products
[29].
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Figure 3: Pathway to prepare bioethanol from glucose and galactose
Fermentation using microorganisms utilize mannose, galactose, glucose, xylose, and

arabinose from algal biomass obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis. For ethanol production,
the best-known microorganisms are the bacterium Zymomonas mobilis and yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae [33, 43]. Z. mobilis have the ability to bear high sugar
concentrations when compared with S. cerevisiae [44]. The lysate of L. japonica obtained
by acid hydrolysis was subjected to hydrolytic enzymes and fermentation by Escherichia
coli KO11 and 0.4 g ethanol per gram of sugars was obtained. This yield was obtained
due to the ability of Escherichia coli KO11 to use mannitol, present in high concentration
in hydrolysate [33]. However, when a marine macroalgae named G. salicornia was
fermented by Escherichia coli KO11, the yield of ethanol was low. The low yield of
327
ethanol may be due to mono sugars present in invasive feedstock which were not
willingly fermented by Escherichia coli KO11.
Surface aeration was developed by researchers in order to improve bioethanol production
from hydrolysate having five carbon monosaccharides like xylose. The process of
fermentation and enzymatic hydrolysis can be skilled by using three different strategies
[33]
i. Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF),
ii. Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF),
iii. Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF).
4.3.5.3.1 Separate enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation

In this process, the hydrolysis of algal biomass to glucose and fermentation of sugars
obtained from hydrolysis occurs in separate units. The benefits of this process are short
residence time, low cost of chemicals and simple equipment system, which encourage its
large-scale application [33].
4.3.5.3.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation

This method combines the process of saccharification and fermentation. In this
procedure, microorganisms and enzymes remain in the same processing unit, the
fermenting microorganism immediately utilizes sugars like glucose. SSF produces higher
ethanol yield as compared to SHF. For efficient production of ethanol, SSF is a good
option because it reduces the number of unit operations [33].
4.3.5.3.3 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation

Variety of bacteria and yeast ferment hexose, while most of them cannot easily ferment
pentoses, which serve as limiting factor for obtaining ethanol. Genetic engineering is in
use to develop microorganisms having the ability to produce ethanol by the fermentation
of five and six carbon sugars simultaneously. SSCF involves hydrolysis and co-
fermentation of hexoses and pentoses in one vessel [33].
4.3.5.4 Purification
In bioethanol production, the purification step involves techniques like distillation,
rectification and dehydration [29].
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Table 8: List of genetically modified microorganisms used in ethanol production [17].

Microorganism Strain Features
Yeast Candida shehatae NCL-3501 Co-ferment xylose and glucose
Saccharomyces cerevisiae D5a Improvement in yield of ethanol
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ferment glucose and cellobiase
590E1
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ferment glucose and xylose
RWB217
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
RWB218
Bacteria Zymomonas mobilis ZM4 Ferment xylose and glucose
Pichia stipitis BCC15191
Zymomonas mobilis AX101 Ferment arabinose, glucose and
xylose.
Thermoanaerobacterium Improved ethanol yield, have
saccharolyticum ALK2 ablility to ferment arabinose,
glucose, xylose and mannose.
Thermoanaerobacter mathranii Improved ethanol yield
BG1L1
Clostridium thermocellum
DSM1313 & YD01
Escherichia coli KO11 Ferment xylose and glucose

Escherichia coli FBR5 Ferment xylose and arabinose
Pichia stipitis A Adapted at hydrolysate increased
Pichia stipitis NRRL Y-7124 concentration
5. Recent advances in bioethanol production

There are certain microorganisms which have been modified to enhance the production of
ethanol as well as tolerance of ethanol. Instead of this, there is no single commercially
available consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) organism reported. For CBP microbial
consortium could be used instead of using a single microbe. A consortium consists of an
enzyme producing strain having the ability to hydrolyze the available biomass and two
other different strains which have potential to ferment five carbon and six carbon sugars
into ethanol. Brethauer and Studer (2014) proposed a model by utilizing Trichoderma
reesei, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Scheffersomyces stipitis. Trichoderma reesei,
which secrets enzyme for hydrolysis; Saccharomyces cerevisiae has the ability to ferment
hexoses while Scheffersomyces stipitis have the ability to use pentose sugars. In a biofilm
membrane reactor, all these microbes convert ligno-cellulosic biomass to ethanol. This
approach seems to be a reasonable one but the major obstacle in this approach is to
329
control the consortium and it is also difficult to find microorganisms having identical
fermentation conditions [16].
5.1 Molecular toolings and genetically modified organisms for bioethanol

production
In recent years, engineering of organisms has been practised to obtain biofuels from the
lingo-cellulosic feedstock. Different bacterial species such as Saccharolyticum,
Escherichia coli, Clostridium thermocellum, Thermoanaero bacterium,
Caldicellulosiruptor bescii, C. phytofermentans, Zymomonas mobilis, C. cellulolyticum;
fungal species like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus oryzae, Trichoderma reesei ,
Paecilomyces variotii, Fusarium oxysporum; and yeast like Clavispora, Kluyveromyces
Marxianus and Pichia stipites have been studied for their application in production of
bioethanol [16]. A list of genetically modified organisms to produce ethanol is given in
table-8.
Conclusions and Future Perspective

Although the biomass for bioethanol production is renewable, abundant and cost-
effective the production of bioethanol from second-generation feedstock is costly due to
high recalcitrance of lignocellulosic materials and the development of sustainable society
is seriously hindered by environmental pollution and energy crisis. For renewable biofuel
production, the algal biomass is unquestionably an eco-friendly source. The
commercialization of bioethanol from algae depends upon the economics of the
procedure. There are a number of obstacles in bioethanol production from the algal
resource, which must be overcome in order to commercialize the bioethanol. In the
production of bioethanol, the pretreatment of algae is a costly process. In order to avoid
the expenses, the pretreatment must be simple and should avoid high demand for energy.
Furthermore, the algal biomass should be hydrolyzed in a way that fermentation
inhibitors produce in less amount. Currently, among different methods, the use of dilute
sulfuric acid is most effective. Instead of this, there is a need to further reduce the cost of
pretreatment. It is also important to minimize sugar losses in bioethanol production. In
pretreatment methodologies, an economically efficient method is biological treatment.
One of the fruitful examples is to consume microalgae for bioethanol production after
extraction of lipid because after lipid extraction in remaining biomass high concentrations
of carbohydrates is present. After ethanol production, the biomass still has leftover
residue may contain a good amount of useful minerals and organic matter that could be
used as biofertilizer.
330
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334
Chapter 13
Microbial Production of Propanol
Mehmet Gülcan1, Fulya Gülbağça2, Kubra Sevval Cevik2, Remziye Kartop2, Fatih Şen2
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Van Yüzüncü Yıl, 65080, Tuşba,
Van, Turkey
2
Sen Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of
Dumlupınar, 43100, Kütahya, Turkey
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Propanol can be present in two forms, 1-propanol and 2-propanol, and can be used as
biofuel. Especially, the reduction of fossil resources required for renewable energy has
paid attention for the inorganic synthesis of propanol. In this regard, the microbial
production of propanol is very important. This chapter examines the latest developments
in microbial production of propanol. Normally, various synthesis ways of propanol have
been developed. However, it has been indicated that the optimization of fermentation
conditions has enhanced the prevention of toxic propanol accumulation. For this reason,
the low cost and high-efficiency propanol production with the help of biosynthetic
pathways from microorganisms is one of the major challenges in microbial fuel cells.
Keywords
Biofuel Cells, Enzymes, Graphene Composites, Bioenergy, Propanol
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................336
2. Biosynthesis of Propanol .......................................................................336
3. Engineering microorganisms for the path of acetone-dependent
isopropanol. ......................................................................................................338
Conclusions .......................................................................................................345
References .........................................................................................................345
335
1. Introduction
Propanol, which is present in two forms, 1-propanol and 2-propanol, is used as chemical
fuels for renewable energy systems [1]. The reduction of fossil resources required for
renewable energy has been the focus of interest for the inorganic synthesis of propanol.
In this regard, this energy problem can be solved with the use of bio-derived propanol as
bio-fuel, or with propylene which can be produced chemically by propanol [2–7].
Propanol preference in the development of biofuels in the literature is still under
investigation. This molecule, which provides high octane number of electrons, has less
energy density compared to ethanol, but its abrasiveness is lower. It has a quite smaller
volume compared to alternative biofuels such as butanol or biodiesel [8]. These reasons
suggest that pure propanol cannot be used as the ideal biofuel, but the development of
microbial production of propanol is an essential development for the economy [8].
Therefore, in recent years, the idea of developing microbial production of propanol has
increased steadily. The processing conditions were optimized with the production
organisms, and the propanol yield was improved. The engineering of various metabolic
pathways has enabled the use of new raw materials.
2. Biosynthesis of Propanol
For his purpose, the preferred reaction in the early 20th century was acetone-butanol-
ethanol (ABE) fermentation of Clostridia species. This fermentation provided the
production of ammunition during the First World War as a source of acetone. Then,
butanol was used as a solvent in the automobile industry [9]. With the development of the
industry, butanol was considered to be one of the most efficient biofuels. Butanol,
acetone, and ethanol mixtures are produced by Clostridia species at a ratio of 3:6:1,
respectively. [10]. The reaction of organic acids re-assimilated at low pH to the alcohol is
carried out. Organic acid production can be prevented by a slightly acidic pH adjustment,
and the solvents present in the environment can become the major fermentation products.
Simultaneous isopropanol deposition and reduced acetone production were also observed
in some Clostridia species [10]. The specificity of increased solid NADPH dependent
primary/secondary alcohol dehydrogenase for acetone has been shown to occur with
isopropanol formation [11–12]. Comparing with the production of butanol and
isopropanol, the production of isopropanol remains lower and does not exceed 25%
alcohol fraction as shown in Fig. 1 [10].
336
Fig. 1 Natural routes to isopraponol and butanol in Clostridia species.
Fig. 2 Wood-Werkman cycle in propionic acid bacteria.
337
Various anaerobic Propioni Bacteria produce propionic acid as a result of mentioned

fermentation and also form isopropanol through the Wood-Werkman cycle according to
growing conditions [13–14]. Two production pathways differ from the characteristic
labelling models of the C atoms of propionic acid [15–16]. It has been observed that
propionic acid bacteria in anaerobic conditions produce much less n-propanol when
grown on glucose. On the other hand, when propionic acid was used as a major
fermentation product, it was observed that propanol production increased [17]. The
expression of the Wood-Werkman reaction in these bacteria can be in two stages as
shown in Fig. 2. When propanol is produced, it should be a different reaction than the
classic one [18].
In the absence of oxygen, Clostridium propionicum bacteria may use lactate and ethanol
instead of growth substrates. The products generally used in the reaction are acetate,
propionic acid, and carbon dioxide. Based on the enzymatic path reactions, propanol is
formed by a two-step reduction of propionyl-CoA as shown in Fig. 3 [15–16–19].
Fig. 3 Propionic acid and n-propanol path for the biosynthesis of natural acrylate.
3. Engineering microorganisms for the path of acetone-dependent isopropanol.

Biofuels are intended to produce alcohol using clostridia species for the potential
application of butanol [20]. Acetone cannot be used as a biofuel because it is an unhelpful
byproduct that reduces the primary/secondary hydrogen compound of NRRL B593 to
338
isopropanol for ABE fermentation and affinity. The most appropriate solution in biofuel
applications is the use of fermentation spectrum products. Acetone was produced by E.
coli which in turn was created by Bermejo et al. Initially, the acetone pathway produced
by C. acetobutylicum is heterogeneous. The attempt to treat and disinfect acetate toxins
was interpreted in E. coli cultures, which understand asymmetric proteins, by this study.
To measure production capacity, acetone was produced by acetobutylicum C. Coded in
different strains of E. coli with different acetates. When using glucose as a carbon source
in the production of acetone in the bioreactor, it is best to do it through the following
procedure; having 154 mA acetone after 120 hours of culture (undetermined evaporation
of acetone) and observing aerobic conditions and pH stabilization at 5.5 [21–22].
Isopropanol was produced in E. coli as a reduction step of the clostridial acetone pathway
as shown in Fig. 4 [23–24]. The metabolic pathway was also shown in Fig. 4. The
presence of acetyl-CoA for isopropanol synthesis resulted in the lowering the expression
of citrate synthesis consuming acetyl-CoA during the production step [25–27].
Fig. 4 The metabolic pathway for isopropanol production.
To reduce the need for free acetate with bioethanolation of acetone, thioesterase can be
used. To prevent the secretion of the secondary product, the acetate must be controlled
and normalized due to increased tensile performance.
339
Fig. 5 Pathway for acetone production in C. acetobutylicum.

Besides, compared to E. coli, yeasts are characterized by having higher stress tolerance as
well as being cultured at lower pH values. Because of these properties of yeasts, it is very
important to develop yeast strains for isopropanol production. The feed of yeast for the
340
production of isopropanol was carried out using plant hydrolysates. Also, in the case of
this commonly used feed, the production occurs even under unfavourable fermentation
conditions. In the production of propanol, mild acid treatment was carried out to remove
the bacteria in the medium to recover and reuse the yeast cells as shown in Fig. 5 [28–
30]. Today, Candida utilis was used for the production of isopropanol [31]. E. coli strains
using similar expressions were found to be lower than the E. coli strains that produced a
difference of 0.73 mol/mol compared to isopropanol yield of 0.41 mol/mol compared to
the isopropanol yield. However, the improvement of isopropanol yield obtained from
yeast can be achieved by reducing the capacity to regulate carbon flow along the
cytosolic isopropanol pathway for microbial activity by advanced metabolic design.
There are synthetic routes for the production of alcohol and the possibility of producing
n-propanol and other alcohol derivatives from threonine. The intermediate steps during
the manufacture of n-propanol proceed in the form of 2-ketobutyrate (2KB) and 1-
propanol [32–33] as shown in Fig. 6. By excessive gene expression that symbolizes the
threonine enzymes (thRABC) and leucine (leuABCD) and also by deleting the metA and
tdh that are encoded to the succinyl transferase homoserine and threonine dehydratase,
the production of threonine and 2-ketovalerate were increased. And then, to increase the
rate of presence of acetyl-CoA and dehydrogenase in alcohol, the utilization rate was
raised to 2-ketobutyrate by deleting acetohydroxy acid synthases [34–35].
Fig. 6. A diagram for the production of 1-propanol and 1-butanol by threonine and
biosynthetic norvaline in E. coli that has been genetically modified.
341
There is a need for threonine formation on another 2-ketobutyrate expression path

described in Archaea [36]. The initiation of the citrate on the 2-ketobutyrate pathway of
the Archaea occurs as a result of the intensification of pyruvate and acetyl-CoA. The
resulting intermediate has to be treated for citraconate and beta-methyl-malate in 2-
ketobutyrate production as shown in Fig. 7. The pathway has been tested for the
production of the final product, n-propanol. To produce MJ-Cim1 citramalate synthase of
Methanocaldococcus jannaschii, a thermophilic organism, studies have been conducted to
obtain air temperatures in E. coli enhanced enzymatic activities [37].
Fig. 7. Schematic representation of the pathway for 1-propanol and 1-butanol production
Threonine and citramalate pathways show some differences in the production of n-
propanol according to the common factor requirements. These two syntheses cause a
synergistic effect in the case of simultaneous initiation of the propanol production in the
organism. Theoretically, n-propanol yield in both paths increases from 1 mol/mol to 1.3
mol/mol for one route. Experimental data support the theoretical data, and n-propanol
yield increases. In another study, propionyl phosphate obtained by the conversion of 2-
ketobutyrate to n-propanol in the spontaneous (endogenous pyruvate oxidase, PoxB
probably catalyzes with spontaneous ox decarboxylation reaction) [38] decarboxylation
process which was demonstrated by the conversion of the intermediates to the desired
alcohol using propionate, propionyl-CoA, and 1-propanol [39–41].
342
Fig. 8 Isopropanol production from 1,2-propanediol

There are alternative reactions to the production of 1-propanol, including the reaction in
which propanal-1 reduction occurs which consists of the drought of 1,2-propanediol (1,2
PDO). To make the production of 1,2-propanediol simpler, dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(DHAP) is converted to methylglyoxal (MG). Many of the candidate enzymes stimulate
these reactions. This interaction between the automatic expression of the activity has
been completed [42–44]. By Format oxidation, the NDH-cofactor supply was increased,
and the strain was improved by increasing the secretion of hydrogen-Fdh1, from the
Candida Candida boidinii as shown in Fig. 8. The applicable maximum thermodynamic
efficiency of microbial synthesis product, the product's degree of reduction, (γ) and
carbon source [45–47] can be calculated from the ratio. Also, the carbon conserved for
the biosynthesis of acetyl-CoA dependent development of the phosphoketolase pathway
[28–29], and propanol of synthesis by a great leverage acetone pathways seem to increase
the practical and theoretical yield. In previous studies, it was observed that glucose was
used to produce carbon. However, it is preferable to use raw materials, which do not
cause any side effects for human health, in order to produce propanol. Recently due to the
evolution of the biodiesel industry, glycerol has become an alternative to glucose [48–
49]. It should be noted that all of these propanol methods are proportional to the use of
this carbon source. The use of propanol that produced from glycerol is more
advantageous than glucose since the absorption process reduces propanol precursors
using additional NADH. As a result, it was observed that propanol production through
glycerin had higher carbon yield than the case in which acetone was used. One of the
essential components of cygnolucus biomass is cellulose, and it cannot be directly used
343
by the most commonly used propanol producers. Cellulose may be saturated through the
cooperative action of cellular enzymes cellobiohydrolase, endoglucanase, and beta-
glucosidase (BGL) [50]. Incision step catalyzed by BGL enzyme by infusion cellobiose
to glucose. It has been found that these bacteria produce propionic acid from
lignocellulosic naturally. To produce propionic acid by propionyl, the threonine or
succinate pathway was suggested to be responsible. In addition, it is characteristic for
these bacteria that they are grown at elevated temperature under the aerobic conditions
and at bear the concentrations of propanol [51]. These unique properties are very useful
when producing effective propanol because it requires continuous removal of the product
by gas stripping.
There are many types of carbon derivatives and their applications up to now [54–69]. The
carbon that contributes to the synthesis of chemicals is syngas [68–69]. There are many
advantages to the processes that obscure on hydrolysis and the fermentation of sugars.
Therefore it is proposed to generate energy from agricultural waste or direct fermentation
of the resulting gas. It is suggested that gasification should bypass the steps of costly
biomass treatment and the removal of aquatic toxins. In this case, in terms of the cost, it
will be noted that if the genetic material is developed to manipulate microorganisms and
improve possible conditions, this will allow the production of active propanol [68].
Interestingly, proteins have been used as a feedstock for high alcohol production, such as
butanol, and methyl butanol [2–4]. Alcohol was produced by removing amino acids,
removing carboxylic, and reducing the resulting the oxoacids. In this process, a mixture
of alcohol is produced from remaining protein residues, or large quantities of carbon
dioxide and light are generated from the biomass, and ammonium can also be recycled as
fertilizer [2–4]. These features make this process an exciting and sustainable alternative
to the production of biofuels by sugar. This process is not entirely appropriate to produce
pure alcohol, because the output of these reactions is a complex mixture of alcohol. As it
appears from these processes, when using raw materials for protein, the result will be
biofuels which require no separation of the product. To produce value-added chemicals,
scientists have directed their efforts and research into the use of photosynthetic objects. In
this respect, for the production of alcohol from carbon dioxide, Synechococcus elongatus
was designed with the isopropanol pathway [70–71]. In another study, by improving the
conditions of cultivation, the propanol level was enhanced to 146 mg/L. [71]. There are
more significant obstacles to the use of photovoltaic organisms to address and improve
chemical production, such as the absence of appropriate genetic engineering tools or the
lack of expertise required by effective CO2 delivery strategies. All these results indicate
that more research efforts are still required to increase the production of propanol to
industrial levels by photovoltaic organisms.
344
Conclusions
As a conclusion, the use of propanol as biofuel has gained attention in microbial fuel cells
recently. In this regard, the microbial production of propanol is very important. This
chapter examines the latest developments and synthetic methods which related to the
microbial production of propanol. Normally, various synthesis ways of propanol have
been developed. However, the low cost and high-efficiency propanol production with the
help of biosynthetic pathways from microorganisms is one of the major challenges in
microbial fuel cells and these should be solved in near future.
References
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Keyword Index
Lignocellulosic Biomass .................... 307
Air Cathode........................................ 221
Algal Biomass...................................... 11 Membranes ......................................... 101
Anode................................................. 289 Microalgae ....................................... 1, 21
Microbial Desalination Cell ............... 221
Biocatalyst ......................................... 125
Bio-Cathode ....................................... 221 Nanomaterial ...................................... 151
Bio-Electrochemical Systems and Nanotechnology ................................. 151
Bioenergy............................... 1, 125, 335
Bioethanol .......................................... 307 Operating Condition............................. 53
Biofuel Cells ...................................... 335 Oxidant ................................................. 53
Biofuel ......................... 21, 177, 249, 307
Power Density .................................... 289
Carbon Nanotube ............................... 125 Propanol ............................................. 335
Carbon-Based Materials .................... 151
Cathode .............................................. 289 Renewable Energy ..................... 177, 307
Characterization ................................... 75
Chemical Cathode.............................. 221 Saccharification.................................. 177
CO2 Emissions ..................................... 21 SEM ..................................................... 75
COD ................................................... 289 Substrate ............................................... 53
Conductivity ........................................ 53
Conventional Fuels ............................ 249 Wastewater Treatment ......................... 21
Wastewater ......................................... 289
Electricity Generation .......................... 21
Electricity........................................... 101
Electrochemistry .......................... 75, 151
Electrode ...................................... 53, 125
Environment ...................................... 249
Enzymes............................................. 335
Exoelectrogens................................... 101
Fermentation ...................................... 177

Food Processing Waste.............. 177, 249
Fuel Cell ...................................... 75, 151
Graphene Composites ........................ 335

Greenhouse Emissions....................... 249
354
About the Editors
Dr. Inamuddin is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Chemistry Department,
Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He is a permanent
faculty member (Assistant Professor) at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He obtained the Master of Science degree in Organic
Chemistry from Chaudhary Charan Singh (CCS) University, Meerut, India, in 2002. He
received his Master of Philosophy and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Applied
Chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), India, in 2004 and 2007,
respectively. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of
Analytical Chemistry, Materials Chemistry, and Electrochemistry and, more specifically,
Renewable Energy and Environment. He has worked on different research projects as
project fellow and senior research fellow funded by the University Grants Commission
(UGC), Government of India, and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), Government of India. He has received the Fast Track Young Scientist Award
from the Department of Science and Technology, India, to work in the area of bending
actuators and artificial muscles. He has completed four major research projects
sanctioned by the University Grant Commission, Department of Science and Technology,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, and Council of Science and Technology,
India. He has published 133 research articles in international journals of repute and
eighteen book chapters in knowledge-based book editions published by renowned
international publishers. He has published forty two edited books with Springer, United
Kingdom, Elsevier, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. U.S.A., CRC Press Taylor & Francis
Asia Pacific, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., Switzerland and Materials Research Forum
LLC, U.S.A. He is the member of various editorial boards of journals and is serving as
associate editor for journals such as Environmental Chemistry Letter, Applied Water
Science, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, Springer-Nature,
Frontiers Section Editor of Current Analytical Chemistry, published by Bentham Science
Publishers, editorial board member for Scientific Reports-Nature and editor for Eurasian
Journal of Analytical Chemistry. He has attended as well as chaired sessions in various
international and national conferences. He has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow, leading a
research team at the Creative Research Initiative Center for Bio-Artificial Muscle,
Hanyang University, South Korea, in the field of renewable energy, especially biofuel
cells. He has also worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Center of Research Excellence
in Renewable Energy, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia, in
the field of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells and computational fluid dynamics of
polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. He is a life member of the Journal of the Indian
355
Chemical Society. His research interest includes ion exchange materials, a sensor for
heavy metal ions, biofuel cells, supercapacitors and bending actuators.
Dr. Mohammad Faraz Ahmer is presently working as Assistant Professor in the
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mewat Engineering College, Nuh Haryana, India,
since 2012 after working as Guest Faculty in University Polytechnic, Aligarh Muslim
University Aligarh, India, during 2009-2011. He completed M.Tech. (2009) and Bachelor
of Engineering (2007) degrees in Electrical Engineering from the Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh in the first division. He obtained a Ph.D. degree in 2016 on his thesis
entitled “Studies on Electrochemical Capacitor Electrodes”. He has published six
research papers in reputed scientific journals. He has edited three books with Materials
Research Forum LLC, U.S.A. His scientific interests include electrospun nano-
composites and supercapacitors. He has presented his work at several conferences. He is
actively engaged in searching of new methodologies involving the development of
organic composite materials for energy storage systems.
Prof. Abdullah M. Asiri is the Head of the Chemistry Department at the King Abdulaziz
University since October 2009 and he is the founder and the Director of the Center of
Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) since 2010 till date. He is the
Professor of Organic Photochemistry. He graduated from King Abdulaziz University
(KAU) with B.Sc. in Chemistry in 1990 and received his Ph.D. from the University of
Wales, College of Cardiff, U.K. in 1995. His research interest covers color chemistry,
synthesis of novel photochromic and thermochromic systems, synthesis of novel coloring
matters and dyeing of textiles, materials chemistry, nanochemistry and nanotechnology,
polymers and plastics. Prof. Asiri is the principal supervisors of more than 20 M.Sc. and
six Ph.D. theses. He is the main author of ten books of different chemistry disciplines.
Prof. Asiri is the Editor-in-Chief of King Abdulaziz University Journal of Science. A
major achievement of Prof. Asiri is the discovery of tribochromic compounds, a new
class of compounds which change from slightly or colorless to deep colored when
subjected to small pressure or when grind. This discovery was introduced to the scientific
community as a new terminology published by IUPAC in 2000. This discovery was
awarded a patent from the European Patent office and from the UK patent. Prof. Asiri is
involved in many committees at the KAU level and on the national level. He took a major
role in the advanced materials committee working for KACST to identify the national
plan for science and technology in 2007. Prof. Asiri played a major role in advancing the
chemistry education and research in KAU. He has been awarded the best researchers
from KAU for the past five years. He also awarded the Young Scientist Award from the
Saudi Chemical Society in 2009 and also the first prize for the distinction in science from
the Saudi Chemical Society in 2012. He futher received a recognition certificate from the
356
American Chemical Society (Gulf region Chapter) for the advancement of chemical
science in the Kingdome. He received a Scopus certificate for the most publishing
scientist in Saudi Arabia in chemistry in 2008. He is a member of the editorial board of
various journals of international repute. He is the Vice- President of the Saudi Chemical
Society (Western Province Branch). He holds four USA patents, more than one thousand
publications in international journals, several book chapters and edited books.
357

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Microbial Fuel Cells

Materials and Applications

Inamuddin1,2,3, Mohammad Faraz Ahmer4,

Published by Materials Research Forum LLC

Published as part of the book series

Print ISBN 978-1-64490-010-9

Materials Research Forum LLC

Manufactured in the United States of America

Microalgae–Microbial Fuel Cell

The Progress of Microalgae Biofuel Cells

Microbial Fuel Cell Operating Conditions

Microbial Fuel Cells Characterization

Paper-Based Microbial Fuel Cell

Use of Carbon-Nanotube Based Materials in Microbial Fuel Cells

Biofuel Production from Food Processing Waste

Microbial Desalination Cell: An Integrated Technology for Desalination,

Biofuels from Food Processing Wastes

Microbial Production of Ethanol

Microbial Production of Propanol

Keyword Index .............................................................................................................. 354

Microalgae–Microbial Fuel Cell

4. Factors affecting bioelectricity generation from microalgae ................6

2. Microbial fuel cells

3. Microalgal microbial fuel cell (mMFC) technology

3.1 Role of microalgae at the anode

3.2 Role of algae at the cathode

4. Factors affecting bioelectricity generation from microalgae

4.3 Light and photosynthesis

4.4 Nature of substrate and its load.

4.5 Membrane material

Future perspective and conclusion

Environ. Sci. Technol. 49 (2015) 10710–10717.

[28] Y. Chisti, Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol. Trends Biotechnol. 26

[38] G.R. Ramanathan, S. Birthous, D. Abirami, Efficacy of marine microalgae as

[60] A. Melis, Solar energy conversion efficiencies in photosynthesis: minimizing the

and in mass culture, J Biotechnol. 162 (2012) 115–123.

industrial fruit juice wastewater, Int. J. Hydrog. Energy. 39 (2014) 21828–21836.

[89] F. Harnisch, U. Schroder, Selectivity versus mobility: Separation of anode and

[99] S. Peighambardoust, S. Rowshanzamir, M. Amjadi, Review of proron exchange

The Progress of Microalgae Biofuel Cells

The Progress of Microalgae Biofuel Cells........................................................21

3.4 Genetic engineering in microalgae strains ........................................29

by-passing the need of Clostridial ferredoxins. Addition of polyhistidine-tag has

3. Strategies for microalgal strain improvement

numerous high-value compounds. And metabolic engineering has found to do the

3.1 Genetic change in microalgae species

proposed biochemical and information pathways for algal biosynthesis. Signiﬁcant

3.2 Engineering of lipid pathways

3.3 Random and insertional mutagenesis

3.4 Genetic engineering in microalgae strains

Red Genome 17 TAG accumulation for biodiesel [46, 47]

Galdieria Genome 14 Use of acidophile-based wastewater [50, 51]

4. Application of microalgae species

4.1 In microbial fuel cell (MFC) construction

Saccharomyces An anode as an electron 146.71 ± 7.7 [69]

Microbial biophotovoltaic (BPV) cells have been exploited by the ability of

Organic matters H2O

Anode Membrane Cathode

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of two-chamber microbial fuel cell (MFCs) [65]

Cyanobacteria have been found to produce electricity. Microorganisms have the