Concrete Technology

Chapter – 1 Introduction

14 Properties of Aggregates and Its Importance!

The properties of aggregates that decides their nature have been listed below.
 Specific gravity
 Bulkage of aggregates
 Voids
 Composition
 Size & Shape
 Texture of Aggregate
 Porosity & Absorption
 Bulkage of aggregates
 Fineness Aggregate
 The surface area of aggregate
 Deleterious Material
 Crushing Value of Aggregate
 Impact Value of Aggregate
1. Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of aggregates is calculated by the ratio between the weight of
aggregates to the weight of water which equals the aggregate weight.
The high specific gravity of aggregates contains good quality, and at the same
time, low specific gravity aggregates are weak and permeable.
Normally the specific gravity value of aggregates lies between 2 to 3 which is used
in construction works. The specific gravity value shows the quality and strength of
the material.
2. Bulkage of aggregates
The volume of aggregates will change when it is subjected to moisture
called bulkage.
When the moisture content is present in the sand, it forms a thin film around each
sand particle that makes the adjusted particles push a little away from them. This
change makes the overall volume of the sand increase.
The bulking of sand is in the range between 20% to 30% and for the coarse
aggregate is minimal. Bulk density is the ratio between the dry weight of the
aggregates to the saturated weight of aggregates in kg/litre.
The bulk density of aggregates is dependent on the compaction and grading of
aggregates in concrete.
3. Voids
The presence of space between the aggregate particles is called voids. The
saturated aggregates volume will be changed due to the presence of voids.
4. Composition
The aggregates may contain different chemical particles that react with the cement
and form cracks on the concrete surface. So the aggregates must be tested to ensure
that such kinds of particles are not present in the aggregates.
5. Size and Shape
The size of aggregates less than 4.75mm is called fine aggregate and beyond
4.75mm is called coarse aggregates.
The size and shape of the aggregates impact the strength and durability of the
concrete. The workability of concrete might be affected when using large size
aggregates.
The maximum size of aggregates must not be less than 20mm in Reinforced
concrete.
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Moreover, the incorrect size of aggregates such as flaky, rounded, angular, and
irregular aggregates increase the voids and reduce the bondage of other ingredients
in concrete. It may increase the material cost and indirectly reduce the strength of
the concrete.
6. Texture of Aggregate

The surface texture represents whether the surface of the aggregates is smooth,
polished, or rough. The rough surface texture is good for developing higher
bondage between other ingredients of concrete which increases the strength of the
concrete.
7. Porosity
We can see some tiny holes on the surface of the aggregates called pores and such
kinds of rocks called porous rocks. The pores happen on aggregates due to the air
bubbles formed on the surface when the molten magma solidification.
High pore aggregates may easily disintegrate when applying load.
8. Water Absorption
The coarse aggregate should not absorb water else; it may create cracks on the
surface of the concrete after hardening.

The water absorption is calculated by the ratio between the dry weight of aggregate
to the saturated weight of the aggregate. The water absorption will affect the water-
cement ratio in concrete.
9. Fineness of Aggregate
The fineness denotes the particle size of the aggregates. Cracks may form when
more fineness aggregates are used in concrete.
A high fineness value indicated the aggregate is coarser and a low fineness value
indicates the aggregate is finer. The sieve analysis test founds the fineness of the
aggregate.

10. Surface area of aggregate

The surface area of fine aggregate is higher than the coarse aggregate. The
identification of the surface area of the aggregate is another parameter to grade the
aggregate. The specific surface area is nothing but the surface area per unit weight
of the aggregate.
11. Deleterious Particle
Deleterious particles affect the bondage of the concrete ingredients, thus resulting
in reduced strength and durability of the concrete. The aggregates which may be
used in concrete must be free from silt, clay, and other marine impurities.
12. Crushing value of aggregate
Determination of the crushing value of an aggregate is helpful to find the
compressive strength of the aggregate, whether it is suitable for the concrete work
or not. One of the important properties of aggregates affects the overall strength of
the structure.
13. Impact value of aggregate
The aggregate impact value test is used to find the resistance capacity of aggregate
from sudden impact applied on the aggregate.

14. Thermal Expansion

The aggregates should not expand due to the change of weather conditions else it
may create cracks on concrete surfaces.
Concrete vs. Cement: Did You Know?
While cement can be used on its own, it is primarily used as an ingredient in
concrete. Concrete, of course, is the ubiquitous building material found all over the
world in roads, bridges, dams, sidewalks, and backyard patios.
Properties of Fresh Concrete
1. Workability of Concrete
The ability to handle and place the concrete and compact without segregation and

bleeding is called the workability of concrete. The workability of concrete

depends on the quality of material, proper mixing, and water-cement ratio. We can

measure the workability of concrete by the Slump Test.

2. Bleeding of Concrete
Water surfacing on the freshly laid concrete when compacting is known as

concrete bleeding. The concrete bleeding happens due to the excessive compaction

or too much water-cement ratio in the concrete mix.

It creates the pores in the concrete and makes it weak. The quality of material,

water-cement ratio, and proper compaction will avoid the bleeding.

3. Segregation of Concrete
The separation of aggregates from the fresh concrete, which results in non-

uniformity, is called segregation. Due to the segregation activity, concrete

honeycombs may form and decrease the strength of the concrete.

4. Harshness of Concrete
When the finished concrete surface is not smooth even after trying with a hand

trowel is known as the harshness of concrete. This is the result of improper grading

and less cement mortar mix. We have to ensure to use proper mix ratio

Properties of Hardened Concrete

Properties of hardened concrete ensure the

 Strength of concrete

 Durability of structure

 Shrinkage of concrete

 Creep of Concrete

 Thermal Expansion

 Changes in Dimension

1. Strength of Concrete
I hope this is the only test that most of us would remember studying in college.

The strength of concrete is nothing but the concrete’s resistance capacity to bear

the compression load after it has hardened. The strength of concrete will gradually

increase from day one and attains its max strength on day 28.

Days Percentage of Strength

Day 1 16%

Day 3 40%
 Day 7 65%

Day 14 90%

Day 28 100%

The grade of concrete and other properties will impact the characteristic strength of

hardened concrete. The concrete strength is measured by the compressive & tensile

test.

 Compressive Strength of Concrete Test

 Tensile Strength Test

The compressive strength of concrete depends on the following factor

 Types of Cement

 Water Cement Ratio

 The shape of the cube

 Quality of materials

 Grade of cement

Generally, the tensile strength of concrete will be 10 to 12 % of its compressive

strength.

2. Durability of Concrete
The durability of concrete is the resistance capacity against environmental

conditions like weathering, chemical attack, and corrosion. Usually, the concrete
has high durability. But sometimes the steel may corrode if the concrete is porous

and makes way to concrete crazing.

It is better to ensure that we are using a proper mix and sufficient compaction to

enhance durability.

3. Shrinkage of Concrete
The shrinkage of concrete depends upon the components, such as the size of the

member and weathering conditions also because of the delayed curing. The approx

value of the shrinkage strain is 0.0003 as per the IS code 1343.

We have discussed this topic (Shrinkage of Concrete) in detail.

4. Creep of Concrete
The inelastic deformation of concrete while applying the compression load is

called a creep of concrete. The Stress in concrete should not exceed 1/3rd of its

compressive strength.

Age at Loading Creep Co-efficient

7 Days 2.2

28 Days 1.6

1 Year 1.1
5. Change in Dimension
The dimensional changes in concrete may happen due to the shrinkage, plasticity,

and creep of concrete. The dimensional changes may lead to the formation of the

crack.

Hardened concrete has a number of properties, including:

Mechanical strength, in particular compressive strength.

The strength of normal concrete varies between 25 and 40 MPa. Above 50 MPa,
the term High Performance Concrete is used (50 MPa corresponds to a force of 50
tonnes acting on a square with sides of ten centimetres).

Durability.
Concrete is extremely resistant to the physico-chemical attack emanating from the
environment (frost, rain atmospheric pollution, etc...) It is particularly well-suited
for structures exposed to demanding and extreme conditions.

Porosity and density.

These properties are responsible for the first two. The denser (or the less porous)
the concrete the better its performance and the greater its durability.
The density of concrete is increased by optimizing the dimensions and packing of
the aggregate and reducing the water content.

Fire resistance.

Thermal and acoustic insulation properties.

Impact resistance.

Compressive Strength Definition

Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its
surface without any crack or deflection. A material under compression tends to
reduce the size, while in tension, size elongates.
Compressive Strength Formula
Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of
failure to the cross-section area of the face on which load was applied.

Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area

Procedure: Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Cubes
For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or
10cm X 10cm x 10cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of
the works cubical molds of size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are commonly used.
This concrete is poured in the mold and appropriately tempered so as not to have
any voids. After 24 hours, molds are removed, and test specimens are put in water
for curing. The top surface of these specimen should be made even and smooth.
This is done by placing cement paste and spreading smoothly on the whole area of
the specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after seven days
curing or 28 days curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140
kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens fails. Load at the failure divided by area of
specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.

Following are the procedure for testing the Compressive strength of Concrete
Cubes
Apparatus for Concrete Cube Test
Compression testing machine

Preparation of Concrete Cube Specimen

The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same
concrete used in the field.
Specimen
6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above

Mixing of Concrete for Cube Test

Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer

Hand Mixing

1. Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a watertight none-absorbent platform

until the mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color.
2. Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the
coarse aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout the batch.
3. Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of
the desired consistency.
Sampling of Cubes for Test

1. Clean the mounds and apply oil.

2. Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5 cm thick.
3. Compact each layer with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping
rod (steel bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet-pointed at lower end).
4. Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel.
Curing of Cubes
The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the
specimens are marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear
freshwater until taken out prior to the test.

Precautions for Tests

The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and the temperature of the
water must be at 27+-2oC.
Procedure for Concrete Cube Test

1. Remove the specimen from the water after specified curing time and wipe
out excess water from the surface.
2. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
3. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
4. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be
applied to the opposite sides of the cube cast.
5. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
6. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface
of the specimen.
7. Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140
kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails
8. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of
failure.
Note:
Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If the strength of
any specimen varies by more than 15 percent of average strength, the results of
such specimens should be rejected. The average of three specimens gives the
crushing strength of concrete. The strength requirements of concrete.

Calculations of Compressive Strength

Size of the cube =15cmx15cmx15cm

Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen )=225 cm2
Characteristic compressive strength(f ck)at 7 days =

Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s

Range to be selected is .......................

Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength

Maximum load applied =..........tones = .............N

Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2)=...............N/mm2

=............................N/mm2
Reports of Cube Test

1. Identification mark
2. Date of test
3. Age of specimen
4. Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
5. Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are
unusual
Results of Concrete Cube Test
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = .............N/ mm2 (at 7 days)
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =.......... N/mm2 (at 28 days)
Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various Ages
The strength of concrete increases with age. The table shows the strength of
concrete at different ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.

Age Strength percent

1 day 16%

3 days 40%

7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%
Compressive Strength of Different Grades of Concrete at 7 and 28 Days
Minimum compressive Specified characteristic
Grade of
strength N/mm2 at 7 compressive strength (N/mm2)
Concrete
days at 28 days

M15 10 15

M20 13.5 20

M25 17 25

M30 20 30

M35 23.5 35

M40 27 40

M45 30 45

Some Facts on Concrete Strength Test

Why Compressive Strength Test of Concrete is Important?

The compressive strength of the concrete cube test provides an idea about all the
characteristics of concrete. By this single test one judge that whether Concreting
has been done properly or not.
What is compressive strength of commonly used concrete?

Concrete compressive strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200
psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi) and higher in commercial and industrial structures.
What is compressive strength after 7 days and 14 days?
Compressive strength achieved by concrete at 7 days is about 65% and at 14 days
is about 90% of the target strength.
Which test is most suitable for concrete strength?

A concrete cube test or concrete cylinder test is generally carried out to assess the
strength of concrete after 7 days, 14 days or 28 days of casting.
What is the size of concrete cubes used for testing?

For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or
10cm X 10cm x 10cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of
the works cubical molds of size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are commonly used.
Which machine is used for concrete strength test?

The compression testing machine is used for testing the compressive strength of
concrete.
What is the rate of loading on compression testing machine?

Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the
Specimens fails.
Which ACI Code is use for Concrete Strength Test?

American Society for Testing Materials ASTM C39/C39M provides Standard Test
Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.

Effect of Water Impurities on Concrete Strength, Durability and Other

Properties
Effect of Suspended Particles in Water on Concrete Properties
If the mixing water contains suspended particles in an amount up to 0.02 percent
by weight of total water used in concrete, it will not affect the concrete properties.
It is found that high content of suspended particles does not affect the strength of
the concrete, but affect other properties of the same. The Indian code IS: 456-2000
prescribes an allowable limit of suspended particles in water to be less than
2000mg/liter. Before the use of water in concrete, the muddy water should undergo
settlement in the basin.

Effect of Miscellaneous Inorganic Salts in Water on Properties of Concrete

The salt content in water adversely affect the strength of the concrete. The major
salts that can be present in water are salts of manganese, tin, lead, copper and zinc.
The presence of zinc chloride in water results in the retarding of concrete strength
gain. This is determined as an observation of no strength gain at the second or the
third day of concrete (when subjected to strength tests). Another salt that brings
destructive effect on concrete is the lead nitrate. Other salts like sodium phosphate,
sodium arsenate, sodium iodate and sodium borate result in the reduction of the
initial concrete strength to a very lower degree. The sodium and potassium
carbonates cause extremely large rapid setting in large concentrations. This results
in the reduction of concrete strength. The presence of calcium chlorides accelerates
the setting and hardening of the concrete. But the presence of calcium chloride is
restricted to 1.5 percent of the total weight of the cement used in the mix.

Effect of Salts in Seawater on Properties of Concrete

The seawater comprises of 3.5 percent of the dissolved salts. The seawater
chemical composition is uniform throughout the world. Most of the chlorides are
associated with the sodium, where some are with potassium, while sulfate is
associated with magnesium. When considering approximate values, different ion
content due to the presence of salts can be specified as 51.3% of chlorides,
magnesium in 3.6%, 7.2% of sulfates, 28.5% of sodium, 1.3% of calcium and 1%
of potassium. But the total amount of salt may vary widely. The ingress of any
considered ion into concrete mass is directly proportional to the seawater's salinity.
This is with respect to a given mass of seawater. When the chemical effects are of
more priority it is mentioned that of all, sulfate is the most problematic. This is the
reason for the development of sulfate resistant cement. The concrete of very lower
water/cement ratio facilitates this requirement of sulfate resistance. The salt
content in sea water reduces the concrete strength by an amount of 10 to 20
percent. More than strength factor, the corrosion of the reinforcement is considered
as the adverse effect. The chlorides are the main cause of corrosion. The risk of
reinforcement corrosion is higher when it is exposed to air than when it is
submerged in water. Another effect of chlorides is the efflorescence. It is advised
to use cement with high C3A content, as the chloride ion will be intercepted by the
aluminate present. This is by the precipitation of calcium chloroaluminate which
has no detrimental effects. This will hence increase the life period of steel and the
durability of the structure.

The two main reasons for the presence of chloride ions in the concrete are

1. Addition of calcium chloride as accelerating admixture

2. Use of seawater as mixing water
For those cements that are not sulfate resistant, the use of CaCl2 will adversely
affect the sulfate resistances of the concrete mix. This is not a problem if the
cement has some amount of sulfate resisting measure in it. Hence in cold weather
conditions, the CaCl2 can be employed to accelerator add some content of sulfate
resisting cement (in a measure equal to that added to the normal cement). The
codes do not support the use of calcium chloride when the sulfate resisting cement
is employed. But in situations which are unavoidable, it is used in plain
concrete that is submerged under water.

Effect of Acids and Alkalis in Water on Properties of Concrete

The water that consists of industrial waste are not suitable for concrete
construction. The industrial water consists of detrimental acids or alkalies that
depend on the waste product of the respective industry. In terms of pH value, the
water that has a pH value greater than 6 can be employed for the concrete
construction. But the pH value will not give a proper and adequate measure about
the acid content in the water. The acid content in water can be gauged accurately
based on total acidity, in the extend to satisfy the below requirement, i.e.: The
amount of 0.02 normal NaOH required to neutralize 100ml of water sample by
using phenolphthalein as the indicator should not be greater than 5ml. Here, the
acidity is equivalent to 49 ppm of H2So4 or 36 ppm of HCL.
Effect of Algae on Properties of Concrete
Algae are observed on the surface of the mixing water or on the surface of the
aggregates. The algae (algae in aggregates) will combine with cement (cement +
algae) reducing the bond between the cement paste and aggregates. The algae
entering the mix through water will result in the air entrainment in large quantities,
which in turn result in the reduction of concrete strength.

Effect of Sugar on Properties of Concrete

The sugar content in water if is less than 0.05 percent by weight of water, then no
adverse effect is observed in the concrete structure. The sugar content in 0.15
percent will result in retarding of setting time and the early strength of the
concrete. But it is observed that the 28th day strength of concrete is improved. The
sugar content increased by an amount to 0.20 percent is said to improve the setting
(time is accelerated). Further increase of sugar will cause rapid setting but the 28th
day strength is affected.

Effect of Oil Contamination on Properties of Concrete

Mineral oil in water, that have no animal or vegetable oil content have no adverse

effect on the concrete properties. The mineral oil content to a percentage of 2% is

said to increase the strength of the concrete. But for more than 8% mineral oil, the

strength is reduced. The vegetable oil in water used for concrete manufacture

shows its detrimental effects on the strength of concrete at its later stages.

EFFECT OF WATER CEMENT RATIO ON CONCRETE

A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix
difficult to work with and form. Work-ability can be resolved with the use of
plasticizers or super-plasticizers.
However, a mix with a ratio of 0.35 may not mix thoroughly, and may not flow
well enough to be placed. More water is therefore used than is technically
necessary to react with cement. Water–cement ratios of 0.45 to 0.60 are more
typically used. For higher-strength concrete, lower ratios are used, along with a
plasticizer to increase flowability.

Too much water will result in segregation of the sand and aggregate components
from the cement paste. Also, water that is not consumed by the hydration reaction
may leave concrete as it hardens, resulting in microscopic pores (bleeding) that
will reduce final strength of concrete. A mix with too much water will experience
more shrinkage as excess water leaves, resulting in internal cracks and visible
fractures (particularly around inside corners), which again will reduce the final
strength.