Electric Motors -21EE44

MODULE1
• DCMOTORS

• LOSSES&EFFICIENCY

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Electric Motors – 21EE44

Module-1
D.C Motors
1.1 Introduction

A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In a
DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is transformed into the mechanical
rotation.

1.2 Construction Of DC Motor :

Two major parts in DC motor
1) Stator
a) Yoke
b) Pole
c) Field winding
2) Rotor
a) Armature
b)Armature winding
c)Commutators
d)Brushes

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1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel.
It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the field winding.

2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They
carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i)
they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed
on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when
energized, they form alternate North and South poles.

4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with
slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel
disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air
flow for cooling purposes. Armature is keyed (fixed) to the shaft.

5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that
each armature slot will carry two different coils.

6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to
collect the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor,
commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of
a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is
equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the
commutator is keyed (or fixed) to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or
graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator
rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.

1.3 Principle of operation of DC Motor:

“When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experience a force”. In short,
when electric fields and magnetic fields interact, a mechanical force arises. As conductors a replaced
in the slots which are in the periphery, the individual force experienced by the conductors acts as a
twisting or turning force on the armature which is called a torque. The torque is the product of force
and the radius at which this force acts. So over all armature experiences a torque and starts rotating
This is the principle on which the DC motors work.

In order to understand working of D.C motor consider a single conductor placed in a

magnetic field as shown in the Fig .1(a). The magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet but
in a practical d.c. motor it is produced by the field winding when it carries a current.
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Figure 1.1
Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular
direction. Consider that it carries a current away from an observe as shown in the Fig. 1(b). Any
current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it. hence this conductor also
produces its own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb
rule. For direction of current considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise. For
simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by the permanent magnet is not
shownintheFig.1(b).

Figure 1.2

Now there are two fluxes present,

1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
There are shown in the Figure 1.2(a). Form this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor,
both the fluxes are in same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering
of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the conductor, the
two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, the density of
the flux lines in this area gets weakened. So on the left, there exists high flux density area while
on the right of the conductor there exists low flux density area as shown in the Fig.1.2 (b).
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This flux distribution around the conductors acts like a stretched rubber band under tension
This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards
low flux density area.i.e. from left to right for the case considered as shown in the Fig.12(b).

Figure 1.3 Torque Exerted on Armature

In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding which produces the
required flux called main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on the periphery of the armature
drum, get subjected to the mechanical force. Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force called
torque and armature of the motor starts rotating The torque experienced by the motor is shown in figure 1.3

NOTE :
1) Magnitude of force experienced is given by
𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑙 𝐼 Newtons(N)
B= Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding
𝑙 = Active length of the conductor in meter
I= Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.

2) Direction of force experienced by the motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule

Figure 1.4 Fleming’s Left hand rule

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1.4 Back EMF and Significance

When the armature of a d.c. motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the
armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence e.m.f. is induced in them as in a
generator. Such induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V (According to
Lenz's law) and in known as back or counter e.m.f. and is denoted 𝐸𝑏
The Magnitude of Such Back Emf is given by
∅𝑍𝑁𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = Volts ----------- 1
60 𝐴
Where
𝐸𝑏 → 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑚𝑓
∅ →Flux per pole in webers
Z→No of Armature Conductors
N→Speed in rpm
A→No of parallel path
A=2 for Wave winding DC machine
A=P for Lap winding DC machine
This back emf is shown schematically in the figure 1.5

Figure 1.5
So ‘V’ is the supply Voltage, 𝑅𝑎 is the value of armature resistance,𝐼𝑎 is the armature current.

1.5 Voltage Equation of a DC Motor:In case of DC motor supply voltage has to over come
1) Back emf 𝐸𝑏 which is opposing
2) Armature resistance drop/armature voltage drop 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
3) Brush drop etc.
Here electrical work done in overcoming the back emf gets converted into the mechanical energy
developed in the armature
The voltage equation of a dc motor is represented as below
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐵𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
Neglecting the brush drop voltage equation will be
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Back emf less than supply voltage 𝐸𝑏 < V.
Armature current is given by
𝑉−𝐸
𝐼𝑎 = 𝑅 𝑏
𝑎

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1.6 Power Equation of a DC motor: The voltage equation of a d.c motor is given by
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 -----------1
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by 𝐼𝑎
𝑉𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 -----------2
𝑉𝐼𝑎 → Net Electrical power input to the armature in watts
𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 →Power loss dure to the resistance of the armature measured in watts
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 →is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by armature and it is
denoted by
Difference between input power 𝑉𝐼𝑎 and Armature loss 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 gives the output of the armature.
Modifying the equation 2
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 =𝑉𝐼𝑎 -𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 -----------3
Gross mechanical power developed in armature = Power input to the armature- Armature copper
loss Or armature power loss.

1.7 Condition for Maximum Power:

Voltage Equation of D.C Motor is given by
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 ---------1
Power equation of DC motor is given by
𝑃𝑚 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 =𝑉𝐼𝑎 -𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 ---------2
To obtain the maximum power differentiate the equation 2 w.r.t 𝐼𝑎 and equate the first order
differential equation with zero
𝑑𝑃𝑚
=0
𝑑𝐼𝑎
∴ 0 = 𝑉 − 2𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑉 𝑉
∴ 𝐼𝑎 = i.e 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = ---------3
2𝑅𝑎 2
Substitute equation 3 in 1
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 +
2
𝑉
∴ 𝐸𝑏 =
2
Back emf must be half of supply voltage, this is practically impossible, since current required more
that its normal rated value.

1.8 Back EMF as a Regulating Mechanism :

The armature current drawn by the DC motor is given by,
𝑉−𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎
Hence, the back emf makes the DC motor a self-regulating machine i.e. it makes the motor to
draw as much armature current as is needed to develop the torque required by the load. Therefore, it
automatically changes the armature current to meet the load requirement as follows

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• When the motor is running at no-load, a small torque is required to overcome the mechanical
losses. Hence, the Ia is small and back emf is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
• Now, if the load is connected to the motor, it causes the armature to slow down and hence,
the back emf decreases. The decreased back emf causes the larger current to flow through
the armature and the large armature current means increased developed torque by the motor.
Hence, the torque is increased when the motor slows down. The motor will stop slowing
down when the armature current is sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the
load.
• When the load on the motor is decreased, then the torque is momentarily more than the
requirement so that the armature is accelerated. As the speed of the armature increases, the
back emf also increases and causes the armature current is decrease. The motor will stop
accelerating when the armature current is sufficient to develop the torque required by the
load.

1.9 Torque Equation of a D.C Motor : Torque is the turning or twisting moment of a force
about an axis. Torque is the turning moment of force about an axis and is measured by the product
of force(F) and radius (r) at a right angle to which the force acts
𝑇 =𝐹 ×𝑟 ----------1
Let us derive the mechanical power developed in a pulley. Consider a
wheel of radius r meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons
as shown in Figure 1.6.The wheel is rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. Then
angular speed of the wheel is,
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔 = 60 rad/sec
So work done in one revolution is, Figure 1.6
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑊 = 𝐹 × 2𝜋𝑟 joules
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Mechanical Power developed = 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹 ×2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑁
𝑃𝑚 = 60⁄ = (𝐹 × 𝑟) × ( )
𝑁 60

𝑃𝑚 = 𝑇 × 𝜔 watts
T= Torque in N-m
𝜔 = A𝑃𝑚 = 𝑇 × 𝜔ngular speed in rad/sec
Let 𝑇𝑎 (armature torque) be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor.
The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is given by
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑇𝑎 × 𝜔 ----------2
But electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed is 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 , as seen from the power equation.
Gross mechanical power developed = 𝑃𝑚 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 ----------3
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Compare Equation 2 & 3

𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 × 𝜔 ----------4
𝜙𝑍𝑁𝑃 2𝜋𝑁
w.k.t 𝐸𝑏 = 60 𝐴 and 𝜔 = substituting these two value in equation 4
60
𝜙𝑍𝑁𝑃 2𝜋𝑁
𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎
60 𝐴 60
1 𝑃𝑍
∴ 𝑇𝑎 = 𝜙 𝐼𝑎
2𝜋 𝐴
Or
𝑃𝑍
∴ 𝑇𝑎 = 0.159𝜙 𝐼𝑎 𝐴 Newton meter( N m)
This is the torque equation of a d.c. motor.

1.10 Types of Torque in the Motor :

The mechanical power developed in the armature is
transmitted to the load through the shaft of the motor, while
transmitting the power through the shaft, there is a power loss
due to the friction, windage and the iron loss. The torque
required to overcome these losses is called lost torque, denoted
as 𝑇𝑓 . These losses are also called stray losses. Figure 1.7
The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known as load torque or shaft
torque and is denoted as 𝑇𝑠ℎ .
∴ 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝑠ℎ
The shaft torque magnitude is always less than the armature torque (𝑇𝑠ℎ < 𝑇𝑎 ).
The net power output of the motor is given by
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜔 × 𝑇𝑠ℎ

NOTE:
1) At No load , 𝑇𝑠ℎ = 0, it does not mean that motor is at rest, the motor will rotate at speed
𝑁0 r.p.m on no load. Current drawn by the motor is
𝑉− 𝐸
𝐼𝑎0 = 𝑅 𝑏0
𝑎

2) At no load armature torque is given by 𝑇𝑎0 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎

𝑇𝑎0 = 𝑇𝑓
3) No load power mechanical power developed devloped= 𝐸𝑏0 𝐼𝑎0 = 𝑇𝑓

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Types of DC Motor: The classification of DC motor is based on the field winding connected to the
armature. The broad classification is as below.

Figure 1.7 : The classification of D C Motor

1.11.1 D.C Shunt Motor : This motor field winding is connected

across the armature as shown in the figure.
Let 𝑅𝑎 &𝑅𝑠ℎ be the armature and Shunt field resistance
respectively. 𝑅𝑎 ≪ 𝑅𝑠ℎ , Hence shunt field winding has more
number of turns with less cross-sectional area.
Voltage and current relationship
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
V= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ Figure 1.8 D.C Shunt motor
Neglecting 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
V= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐼𝐿 = Load current ,𝐼𝑎 = Armature current ,𝐼𝑠ℎ = Shunt field current.

1.11.2 D.C Series Motor :In this type of motor, the series field
winding is connected in series with the armature winding, as
shown in the Figure 1.9
Voltage and current relationship is given by
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎
V= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
V= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )

Figure 1.9 D.C Shunt motor

Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding along with drop across
armature winding.

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1.11.3 Long Shunt Compounds Motor :

In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the
combination of armature and the series field winding as shown in
figure1.11
Voltage and current relationship
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
V= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
V= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
Figure 1.10 long Shunt D.C motor

1.11.4 Short Shunt Compound Motor :In this type, the shunt
field is connected purely in parallel with armature and series field
is connected in series with this combination as shown in the figure
1.11
𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿
The entire line current is passing through the series field winding
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
SoV= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
V= 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒
Drop across shunt field winding is
= 𝑉 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 Figure 1.11Short Shunt D.C motor
𝑉 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
∴ 𝐼𝑠ℎ = =
𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ

NOTE: DC compound motor is also classified based on direction flux production in the field
winding i.e
1) Cummulative compound motor
2) Differential compound motor.

1.12 Torque and Speed Equations:

𝑃𝑍
Since 0.159 𝐴 us a constant for a given motor. Then toque is given by
∴ 𝑇𝛼 𝜙𝐼𝑎
Flux is proportional to field current
ϕ∝ 𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
In D.C Shunt motor field current 𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ
ϕ∝ 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ = 𝑅 = constant , since supply voltage is constant , hence flux ϕ is also constant.
𝑠ℎ
∴ 𝑇 𝛼 𝐼𝑎
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Similarly as 𝐸𝑏 ∝ 𝜙 𝑁,since 𝑃𝑍⁄60 𝐴 is constant for given DC motor.

𝐸 𝑉− 𝐼 𝑅
∴ 𝑁 𝛼 𝜙𝑏 ∝ 𝜙𝑎 𝑎
For Shunt Motors as flux ϕ is constant,
∴ 𝑁 ∝ 𝐸𝑏 ∝ 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
For series motor 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎
𝑇𝛼 𝜙𝐼𝑎
But ϕ ∝ 𝐼𝑠𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑎
𝑇𝛼 𝐼𝑎2 and
𝐸 𝑉− 𝐼 𝑅
𝑁 𝛼 𝜙𝑏 ∝ 𝐼 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎

1.13 Speed Regulation:

The speed regulation for a d.c motor is defined as the ratio of change in speed corresponding
to no load and full load condition to speed corresponding to no load and full load condition to speed
corresponding to full load.

𝑁𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑁𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

% 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝑁𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

1.14 D C Motor Characteristics

DC motors are widely used in various applications like variable-speed drives, constant-speed drives,
and many more. For selecting a type dc motor for a particular application it is very important to
study the characteristics of various dc motors. Dc motor characteristics give the performance under
various load conditions for recommending their field of applications.

Some of the important characteristics of dc motor are,

• Torque-armature current characteristics (T vs 𝐼𝑎 )/Electrical Characters.

• Speed-armature current characteristics (N vs𝐼𝑎 ),
• Speed-torque characteristics (N vs T)/ Mechanical Characteristics.

1.14.1 DC Shunt motor characteristics

a) Torque-armature current characteristics (T vs 𝑰𝒂 ):
In case of d.c. motor∴ 𝑇𝛼 𝜙𝐼𝑎
𝑉
ϕ∝ 𝐼𝑠ℎ , Vut 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = constant , since supply voltage is constant ,
𝑅𝑠ℎ
hence flux ϕ is also constant.
∴ 𝑇 𝛼 𝐼𝑎
The characteristics graph is a straight line as shown in figure 1.12.
Torque increases linearly with armature current. Now if shaft torque is
plotted against armature current, it is known that shaft torque is less than
the armature torque and the difference between the two is loss torque 𝑇𝑓
as shown in figure. This motor develops moderate starting torque
Figure 1.12T vs 𝐼𝑎

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b) Speed – Armature current Characteristics:

From the speed equation we get,
𝐸𝑏 𝑉− 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
∴𝑁𝛼 ∝
𝜙 𝜙
As flux ϕ is constant, as load increases and hence drop 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
also increases.
𝑁 ∝ 𝐸𝑏 ∝ 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Hence for constant supply voltage, 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 decreases and hence
speed reduces. But as 𝑅𝑎 is very small, for change in 𝐼𝑎 from no load to
full load, drop 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 is very small and hence speed reduces from no load
to full load hence the characteristic is slightly droping as shown in the
figure 1.13
Figure 1.13N vs 𝐼𝑎

C)Speed- Toque characteristics:

These characteristics can be derived from the above two characteristics.
𝑇 𝛼 𝐼𝑎
𝑁 ∝ 𝐸𝑏 ∝ 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

The graph is similar to speed-armature current characteristics as torque is

proportional to the armature current.The graph is as shown in figure 1.14
Figure 1.14 N vs T

Figure 1.14 N vs T
1.14.2 Characteristics of DC Series motor

a)Torque-armature current characteristics (T vs 𝑰𝒂 ):

In case of series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire
armature current.
𝑇𝛼 𝜙𝐼𝑎
But flux produced is proportional to the aramature current
ϕ ∝ 𝐼𝑠𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑎
𝑇𝛼 𝐼𝑎2 and
𝐸𝑏 𝑉− 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑁𝛼 ∝
𝜙 𝐼𝑎
Figure 1.15T vs 𝐼𝑎
b)Speed – Armature current Characteristics: From the speed
equation
𝐸 𝑉− 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 −𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝑁 𝛼 𝜙𝑏 ∝ as ϕ ∝ 𝐼𝑠𝑒 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 in case of series motor.
𝐼 𝑎
The values of 𝑅𝑎 and 𝑅𝑠𝑒 are so small that the effect of change in 𝐼𝑎 on
speed over rides the effect of change in 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 -𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒 on the speed.
Therefore 𝐸𝑏 ≅ 𝑉 and can assumed constant.
1
𝑁𝛼 , speed armature current characteristics is a rectangular hyperbola
𝐼𝑎

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type as shown in the Figure 1.15

C) Speed- Toque characteristics:
1
In case of series motors, 𝑇𝛼 𝐼𝑎2 and 𝑁 𝛼 𝐼𝑎
1
Hence 𝑁 𝛼
√𝑇
As load increases, torque increases, the speed decreases. On no load,
torque is very less and hence speed increases to dangerously high
value. The speed torque characteristics of a series motor is shown in
the figure 1.17

Figure 1.17:N vs T
1.14.3 Characteristics of DC Compound Motor: The characteristics of dc compound
motors will be combined characteristics of shunt and series motors. But the characteristics depend
upon how the two field windings are connected.
• In a cumulative compound motor, the flux produced by the series field winding assists the
flux produced by the shunt field winding.
• In differential compound motor, the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux( reduction
in resultant flux ).

Figure 1.18 Characteristics of DC compound motors

Torque vs Armature current

If the load on the cumulative compound motor increases the torque developed also increases.
But the torque decreases with an increase in load in the case of a differential compound motor as
shown in figure 1.18 (b).

Speed vs Armature current:

The speed and armature current characteristics of dc cumulative and differential compound
wound motors are shown in figure1.18 (a) below. Since resultant flux is more in cumulative
compound motor with respect to load, the curve will be slightly more dropping compared to shunt
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motor.
Speed-Torque Characteristics:

When there is a sudden application of heavy loads, the speed decreases, the cumulative
compound motors can develop large torque similar to series motors. At no-load, they run at definite
speed due to shunt field flux, unlike series motor attain dangerous speeds.(Figure 1.18 (c) )

The speed remains almost constant in differential compound motors with increases in load.
Hence shunt motors are more preferred compared to differential compound motors and are rarely
used.

Why D.C Series motor is never started on No load or light load condition ???
In case of d.c series motor, ϕ∝ 𝐼𝑎 and on no load 𝐼𝑎 is small, hence flux produced is also very small.
1
According to speed equation, 𝑁 ∝ 𝜙 as 𝐸𝑏 is almost constant.

Figure 1.19 Characteristics of DC Series motors

So on very light or no load as flux is very small, the motor tries to run at dangerously high speed
which may damage the motor mechanically, This can be seen from the speed-armature current and
the speed-torque (Figure 1.19) characteristics that on low armature current and low torque condition
motor shows a tendency to rotate with dangerously high speed. This high speed will causes
mechanical vibrations in the machine and equipments connected to the machines also get damaged.
This is why d.c Series motor never be started at no load or light load condition.

1.15 Application of D.C Motors

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9.16 Factors Affecting the speed of d.c Motors :

According to the speed equation of d.c. motor
𝑬 𝑽−𝑰 𝑹
𝑵 ∝ 𝝓𝒃 ∝ 𝝓𝒂 𝒂 ( Since Z,P,A are constants for a given motor)

𝑅𝑎 and 𝑅𝑠𝑒 is very small, the drop 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 and 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 ) is very small compared to applied voltage V.
𝑉
∴ 𝑁 = 𝜙 as 𝐸𝑏 ≈ 𝑉
Thus from the above equation factors affecting the speed of a d.c motor are,
a) The flux ϕ
b) The voltage across armature or back emf 𝐸𝑏
c) Supply voltage or applied voltage V.
Depending upon these factor the various methods of speed control are,
1) Flux control of field current control
2) Armature voltage control or Rheostatic control
3) Applied voltage control.

1.20 Speed Control of D.C Shunt motor

1.20.1: Flux control method
Due to the field winding, the magnetic flux varies in order to vary the speed of the motor. As the
magnetic flux depends on the current flowing through the field winding, it changes by varying the
current through the field winding. This can achieve using a variable resistor in a series with the field
winding resistor.

Figure 1.20 (a) Flux control of shunt motor (b) N Vs 𝐼𝑠ℎ (ϕ) for shunt motor

Initially, when the variable resistor keeps at its minimum position, the rated current flows
through the field winding due to a rated supply voltage, and as a result, the speed is kept normal.

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When the resistance increases gradually, the current through the field winding decreases. This in turn
decreases the flux produced. Thus, the speed of the motor increases beyond its normal value.
By this method , the speed control above rated value is possible. This is shown in figure 1.20(b)

Advantages
The flux control method for the speed control of DC shunt motor has following advantages −

• It is a simple and convenient method.

• It is an inexpensive method as the small power loss in the field rheostat due to the
small value of Ish.
• The speed control using flux control method is independent of the load on the
machine.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of the flux control method −

• By this method, only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained because
the total resistance of the field circuit cannot be decreased below shunt field winding
resistance (Rsh).
• In flux control method, there is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable, because if
the field flux is too much weakened, the commutation becomes poorer.

1.20.2 Armature voltage control/Rheostatic control method :

Figure 1.20 (a) Armature Voltage control (b) N Vs Voltage across armature

The controlling of armature resistance controls the voltage drop across the armature. With this
method, the speed of the DC motor can control. This method also uses a variable resistor in series with
the armature. When the variable resistor minimum value, the armature resistance is at normal one.
Therefore, the armature voltage drops. When the resistance value gradually increases, the voltage
across the armature decreases. This in turn leads to decrease in the speed of the motor. In this way,
this method achieves the speed of the motor below its normal range. For constant load torque , the
speed directly proportional to the voltage across the armature. The relationship between speed and
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voltage across the armature s shown in the figure 1.20 (b)

The main disadvantage of the above method is, the speed upto zero is not possible. Speed control from
zero to the rated speed is controlled by connecting large rheostat across the armature known as
potential divider , the arrangement as shown in the figure 1.21(a)

Figure 1.21 (a) Potential divider arrangement (b) N Vs Voltage across armature voltage

Advantages:
1) Easy and smooth speed control below normal is possible
2) In potential divider arrangement, rheostat can be used as a starter.

Disadvantages
• A large amount of power being wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full
armature current.
• The output and efficiency of the motor being decreased.
• This method of speed control results in the poor speed regulation.
• The speed changes with the variation in the load because the speed depends upon the voltage
drop across the controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the
load.

1.20.3 Applied voltage /Supply voltage control method:

In this method, the field winding receives a fixed voltage, and the
armature gets a variable voltage. One such technique of voltage
control method involves the use of a switch gear mechanism to
provide a variable voltage to the armature. The figure 1.22 shows
the speed control by two different working voltages which can be
applied to it with the help of switch gear.

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Figure 1.22 Multiple voltage control

Advantages
• Gives wide range of speed control.
• Spreed control in both directions can be achieved very easily.
• Uniform acceleration can be obtained.

Disadvantages
• Arrangement is expensive as provision of various auxiliary equipment is necessary
• Overall efficiency is low .

1.21 Speed Control of DC series motor :

1.21.1 Flux control Method

a) Field Divertor Method :
In this method, a variable resistance called field diverter
is connected in parallel with the series field winding as
shown in the figure.
The field diverter shunts some portion of the line current
from the series field winding, hence weakening the field
and increasing the speed of the motor. The lowest speed
that can be obtained using this method is corresponding
to the zero current through the diverter which is the
normal speed of the motor. Therefore, the field diverter
method only provides speed above the normal speed.
The series field diverter method is mainly used in
traction work. Figure 1.22 Field divertor method

b) Armature Divertor Method:

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Figure 1.23 Armature divertor method

In this method, a variable resistance called armature diverter is connected in parallel with
armature, which shunts some portion of the line current from the armature winding and hence
reducing the armature current (see the figure 1.23).
For a given load, if armature current (Ia ) is decreased, the flux must increase to maintain the load
torque (Ta ∝ ϕIa ) constant. Since the speed (N ∝ 1/ϕ), so the motor speed must decrease. By using
armature diverter method, any speed below the normal speed can
be obtained.

c)Tapped Field Method :

In this method, to decrease the flux, the number of turns
in the series field winding is reduced and hence the speed is
increased A switch (S) is used to short any part of the series field
winding as shown in the figure 1.24 . With the full turn of the
field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and by reducing
the number of turns in the series field winding, speeds above the
normal speed can be obtained.
Figure 1.24 Tapped Field Method
d)Series-Parallel Connection of Field:

Figure 1.25 Series-Parallel grouping of field coil

In this method, the field coil is divided in various parts. These coils can then connected in
series or parallel as per the requirement. The Figure 1.25 (a) & (b) shows the two parts of field coil
connected in series and parallel.
In series grouping, the m.m.f produced increases, flux increases, speed decreases. In parallel
grouping the m.m.f produced decreases, hence higher speed can be obtained by parallel grouping.
This method is generally used in case of fan motors.

1.21.2 Armature Voltage control Method :

In the armature resistance control method, a variable resistance is connected in series with
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the supply to complete the motor circuit as shown in figure.1.26

Figure 1.26 Armature voltage control

This series resistance reduces the voltage available across the armature and thus the speed is
decreased. By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed can be
obtained. This method has poor speed regulation, but this has no significance since the series
motors are used in varying speed applications.
The armature resistance control method is the most common method employed to control
the speed of DC series motors.
1.21.2 Applied voltage control method

Figure 1.27 Variable voltage control

In this method, a series motor is excited by the voltage obtained by a series generator as
shown in the figure 1.27.
The generator is driven by a suitable prime mover. The voltage obtained from the generator is
controlled by a field divertor resistance connected across series field winding of the generator.
As 𝐸𝑔 ∝ ϕ, the flux change is achieved, gives the variable voltage at the output terminals. Due to
the change in the supply voltage, the various speeds of the d.c series motor can be obtained.

1.22 Necessity of Starter for D.C Motor:

When the supply is connected to the armature terminals, motor draws huge currents more than
its rated current. This is because the resistance of the armature circuit is relatively small. This can be
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understood from the expression of armature current Ia of the dc motor.

𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎
From the above equation, we can see that armature current Ia is the ratio of voltage V to
armature resistance Ra. Initially, when a dc motor is started the back emf Eb induced in the armature
will be zero .By substituting Eb = 0, the expression for armature current at starting is given as

𝑉−0 𝑉
𝐼𝑎(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = =
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎

The value of Armature Resistance Ra is very small. There for at starting the armature is
directly proportional to supply voltage. So at start, motor is showing the tendency to draw an
armature current which is 15 to 20 times more than the full load current.

Such high current drawn by the armature at starting is objectionable for the following reasons:

1) High inrush of current may causes high voltage fluctuations, which may affect the
performance of the other equipment connected to the same line.
2)Such a high inrush of current blows out the fuses.
3)If the high current flows through the armature winding for longer duration of time insulation
of the windings may get damaged.
4)Due to high starting current, starting torque will be high which causes large mechanical
stresses. These stresses may cause permanent mechanical damage to the motor

To restrict this high armature current, a variable resistance is connected in series with armature
at start. This resistance is called starter or a starting resistance.
Starter is a current limiting device. In the beginning the entire resistance is in series with the
armature and then gradually cut-off as motor gathers speed.

1.23 Types of starter for D.C motors

There are two types of starters used for DC Motors
1)Three point starter
2)Four point starter

1.23.1 Three point Starter :

A starter basically consists of a set of resistors connected in series. The terminals of each resistance
are brought out separately as shown in figure i.e., OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or RUN. A handle attached with
spring, which is movable against the spring force is pivoted as shown below. The 3-point starter is
named for its 3 terminals to connect with the motor. The three terminals of the 3-point starter are,
• Terminal-L (positive terminal supply),
• Terminal-F (field winding terminal), and
• Terminal-A (armature winding terminal).
The dc supply is given to the positive terminal which is connected to the over-load release (OLR).
The OLR is then connected to the starter handle. The handle is made to move in such a way that it
maintains contact with different resistances accordingly with the movement. The terminal of the
final resistance i.e., 5th terminal, is connected to the armature winding (terminal A) of the motor

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Figure 1.28: Three point starter

Working of Three point starter

• The purpose of using a starter is to limit the starting current of a motor. Initially, the starter
handle is moved to terminal 1 of the resistances set, connecting the motor across the supply.
• Here we can see that when the handle is at terminal 1. The whole resistances (R1 + R2 + R3 +
R4 + R5) get connected in series with the armature circuit. Due to this, the effective
resistance of the armature circuit increases, thereby reducing starting current drawn by the
armature.
• As the motor picks up speed, the handle is gradually moved to the final terminal (5th or ON).
When the handle comes in contact with the final terminal i.e., at ON position, the entire
resistances are disconnected from the armature circuit.
• Thus motor will be protected from the high rush in currents at the time of starting. Once the
motor pickups its speed the back emf in the motor builds that regulate armature current.

Function of No-volt Coil (NVC) :

• It is a coil wound with a number of turns that behave like an electromagnet. In the above
diagram, we can see that field winding is connected through NVC (series connection). This
means that current through both field and NVC are equal.
• When the handle moved to the ON position, due to the electromagnetic effect of NVC it
attracts the soft iron piece fixed to the handle. Due to this magnetic force of attraction, the
NVC holds the handle in RUN position maintaining the supply. It should ensure that the
force of attraction must be greater than the spring restoring force or else the handle is pulled
back to OFF position.
• Also, in the case, if field winding is disconnected due to internal winding cut-off or field-
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rheostat failure the shunt motor will over speed. The causes current to becomes zero in both
field and NVC. The NVC loses its magnetic property and the magnetic force of attraction
between NVC and handle is devastated. This makes the handle return to its OFF position by
spring restoring force. It also operates under low supply voltage and other abnormal
conditions.

Function of Overload Release:

• It is also a coil wound with a number of turns that behave like an electromagnet. The overload
protection of the motor is done with OLR. It is incorporated by a series connection with the
armature circuit. When the motor is overloaded, the armature will start drawing large
currents, which also flow through OLR.
• When the current through the OLR increases the magnetic strength of the OLR increases. This
tends to attract the movable iron lever placed below the OLR by pulling upwards. This
movement causes the short-circuiting of two terminals that are connected to NVC.
• The short-circuiting of NVC causes current to become zero in it and gets de-energized.
Therefore, the starter handle is pulled to OFF position by spring restoring force, thereby
protecting the motor against overload.
• The instant of attraction force (pulling upward) by the OLR on the iron lever is in such a way
that. Under normal conditions, for normal armature currents, the gravitational force balances
the magnetic force without causing any movement in the iron lever. At overload conditions,
the magnetic force becomes greater than the gravitational force.

1.23.2 Four Point starter:

Figure 1.29: Four point starter

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• The circuit diagram of a four-point starter is shown below, and its arrangement can form three
parallel circuits.
• The basic difference between three point starter and four point starter is the connection of
NVC. In three, NVC is in series with the field winding while in four point starter NVC is
connected independently across the supply through the fourth terminal called N in addition
to L , F and A.
• Any change in field current does not affect the performance of the NVC . Thus it is ensured
that NVC always produce a force which is enough to hold the handle in RUN position
against force of the spring under all the operating condition.

Draw Backs of 4 point starter

• The only limitation or drawback of the 4 point starter is that it cannot limit or control the high
current speed of the motor.
• If the field winding of the motor gets opened under the running condition, the field current
automatically reduces to zero.
• But as some of the residual flux is still present in the motor, and we know that the flux is
directly proportional to the speed of the motor.
Therefore, the speed of the motor increases drastically, which is dangerous, and thus protection
is not possible. This sudden increase in the speed of the motor is known as High-Speed Action
of the Motor

1.23 Losses in a D.C machine:

In DC machines (generator or motor), the losses may be classified into three categories namely,
• Copper losses
• Iron or core losses
• Mechanical losses
All these losses appear as heat and hence raise the temperature of the machine. They also reduce the
efficiency of the machine.
1.23.1 Copper Losses
In dc machines, the losses that occur due to resistance of the various windings of the machine are
called copper losses. The copper losses are also known as I2R losses because these losses occur due
to current flowing through the resistance of the windings.
The major copper losses that occur in dc machines are as,
Armature copper loss = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎
2
Shunt Field copper loss = 𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ or 𝑉𝐼𝑠ℎ
2
Series field copper loss =𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
In dc machines, there is also a brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance. In practical
calculation, this loss is generally included in armature copper loss.

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1.23.2 Iron Losses

The iron losses occur in core of the armature of a DC machine due to rotation of the armature in the
magnetic field. Because these losses occur in core of the armature, these are also called core losses
or magnetic losses
There are two types iron or core losses namely hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
a) Hysteresis Loss
The core loss that occurs in core of the armature of a dc machine due to magnetic field reversal in
the armature core when it passes under the successive magnetic poles of different polarity is
called hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss is given by the following empirical formula,
1.6
Hysteresis loss = 𝐾ℎ 𝐵𝑚 𝑓 𝑉 watts
𝐾ℎ = hysteresis constant
V= Volume of the core in 𝑚3
F= frequency of the magnetic reversals
The hysteresis loss in dc machines can be reduced by making the armature core of such materials
that have a low value of Steinmetz’s hysteresis coefficient like silicon steel.
Eddy Current Loss
When the armature of a DC machine rotates in the magnetic field of the poles, an EMF is induced in
core of the armature which circulates eddy currents in it. The power loss due to these eddy currents
is known as eddy current loss. The eddy current loss is given by,
2 2 2
Eddy current loss = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚 𝑓 𝑡 𝑉 watts
𝐾𝑒 = Eddy current constant ,
t= thickness of each lamination
From the expression for eddy current loss it is clear that the eddy current loss depends upon the
square of thickness of lamination. Therefore, to reduce this loss, the armature core is built up of thin
laminations that are insulated from each other by a thin layer of varnish.
1.23.3 Mechanical Losses
The power losses due to friction and windage in a dc machine are known as mechanical losses. In a
dc machine, the friction loss occurs in form of bearing friction, brush friction, etc. while the windage
loss occurs due to air friction of rotating armature.
The mechanical losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But these losses are practically
constant for a given speed.
Note− Iron or core losses and mechanical losses together are known as stray losses.

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Constant and Variable Losses

In DC machines, we may group the above discussed losses in the following two categories −
• Constant Losses
• Variable Losses
Those losses in a DC machine that remain constant at all loads are called constant losses. These
losses include − iron losses, shunt field copper loss, and mechanical losses.
Those losses in a DC machine that vary with load are known as variable losses. The variable losses
in a DC machine are − armature copper loss and series field copper loss.
Total losses in a DC machine = Constant losses + Variable losses

1.24 Power Flow Diagram : The power flow and energy transformation diagrams at various
stages, which takes place in d.c machine are represented diagrammatically as shown in the
figure

Figure 1.30 : Power flow in DC machines

1.25 Efficiency of DC Machines :

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