2019 ‫المجلد السادس العدد األول يناير‬

‫نظام التصنيف الجديد للخط الطباعي العربي‬

The new Arabic Type classification System
Mohamed Hazem M. T. H. Abdalla
Helwan University, Egyp

Abstract
One of the main concerns of contemporary Arabic designers is the lack of a comprehensive
classification for Arabic typefaces. Since the spreading of printing press in the Arab world by the
first half of the 20th century, Arabic typographers, and design scholars learning, working and
communicating without classification system. This deficiency creates misinformation within
graphic design practices, and education. The increased number of newly designed Arabic fonts,
which exceeded the one thousand, and the difficulties by the offered courses: Arabic font design,
typography, and editorial design, boosted the demand for a clear and user-friendly classification
system.
This paper is aiming to establish an agreeable classification based mainly on the form-language
and can facilitate the communication between all parties involved with type and letterforms –
designers, typographers, type designers, calligraphers, printers, students, manufacturers, and
scholars. In chapter 2, the previous categories and terms by other classifications will be briefly
discussed. Questions will be raised about the misuse of terms such as “Neo”. “Post-modern”,
“Black headlines”, and “Grotesk. Chapter (3) will explain the new classification’s recourses,
method, and used tools, on the light of arguments raised by Elin K. Jacob (2004), the prototype
theory, Downer’s explanations for the meaning of “originality” of typefaces (2003), Kühnel’s
classification (1972), and “VOX-ATYPI” classification for Latin typefaces. In chapter (4) the
final list of classes and their subordinates will be established, and supported with short
description for each generic. The research paper will end up with an infographics for the main
classes and their subordinates.”
Arabic Typeface, Arabic Type Classification, Arabic Typography.
Background: Challenges and Critiques types organized in groups upon their form
The first challenge by the classification is the similarities and without overlapping or creating
finding of proper approach and helpful tools to fuzzy boundaries. It is quite obvious that the
identify models and building classes, where characteristics of Arabic types demystify

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variations of models that started with closely obvious that we are standing in front of
follow classical models, through out types contradicted interpretations of historical
follow a mixture of two or more classical scientific facts, and misusage of term. (Figure
models, till types that reflect different new 2) The classification doesn't impose a
aesthetics, point of views for “modern” systematic and syntactic order on its member
typography, and the evolution of print, and categories, and doesn’t establish meaningful
display technology. The based typefaces on relationships between categories. The entire
older forms are easily identified as clones or book of Smitshuijzens reflects very confusing
revivals and assigned to one of the classical mechanism for grouping, where the Arabic
groups. But the majority of the newly well- typefaces defined by: 1) function (e.g. Black
designed typefaces couldn't be classified as Headline), 2) by the process of creation (e.g.
subordinates of one of the classical styles Hybrid), 3) unfamiliar terms within the Arabic
(Figure 1). Most of them carry hybrid features, calligraphy and typography (e.g. Grotesk), 4)
and appeared simultaneously. (Compare Smitshuijzen, by Zeitgeist (post-modern), 5) traditional or
E., 2015)
The technological developments by the classical subordinate such as (e.g. Thuluth and
mid of the 1990s, facilitate the programming of Ruqaa) and, 6) classical classes (e.g. Naskh, or
Arabic letterforms that have been often Kufi). Even if we are going to argue and
discussed in terms of the need for assume that a constitutive classification is also
simplification due to new aesthetical and an example of a simple mechanism for
practical functions and technological grouping; in the case of E. Smitshuijzen,
limitations. The huge number of previously dividing the Arabic types into a set of “closely
produced transferrable decal types, have been follow original” “loosely follow original” and
digitalized. By the beginning of the 2000s, the “unrelated to any Arabic model” without
number of Arabic typefaces have been reflecting any meaningful relationships among
increased and appeared in a wide range that them, is incomprehensible.
started from extremely playful types with However, we have to admit that
sloppy baseline like Diwani, till semi- Smitshuijzen’s book is one of the greatest
geometric, that reflect a mixture of different efforts we ever seen in our field. The authors
recourses. The second challenge is the finding had raised important issues, and clarified type
of appropriate terms for each class and design processes, historical developments,
subordinate those reflect understandable clear technological challenges related to
syntactic and semantical patterns. Unfortunate, programming of Arabic typefaces, and
the most well known and great classification of explained how to use the new typefaces within
Arabic script of Kühnel can only help by the the concept of modern typography. Important
identification of archaic styles and tracing form was the raised issue about the lack of unified
developments form the 7th century A.D. till the terminologies and categories by the Arabic
19th century A.D. Since the 1940s, appeared typeface anatomy and classification. (Smitshuijzen
2015)
few trials to classify Arabic typefaces. By the Reasons behind that are not explained!
E. Smitshuijzens’ classification it was quite Hypothetically, the intensive usage of

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hybridization’s techniques (Latin and/or to techniques and features from successful Latin
Arabic) by Arabic type designers, along with typefaces such as Frutiger, Helvetica, and
the lack of Arabic researchers, and type Universe, without knowing how to classify or
designers, who are interested on examining and categorize their new creation! Some of them
analyzing the typeface variations as a result of used the term “Grotesk” because their fonts
different functional aspects, build the main maybe based on one the above-mentioned
reasons behind this dilemma. It is quite Grotesk fonts others used terms like “Hybrid”,
obvious that most of today’s Arabic designers “Post-modern” or “Black Headlines”.
are using hybrid ideas, borrowing design

Figure 1 (Left): The classification of Kühnel (1972), based on the five archaic models of Arabic
script. Figure 2 (Right): The classification of E. Smitshuijzen (2015), based on eleven models of
Arabic script and types. Abdalla 2016.

Neo-Naskh or Neo-Kufi borrowed features from other cultural domains,

The term “Neo” stands out the Greek word and new typographical aesthetics, is it still
néos which means as much as “new,” “recent,” possible to categories them under “Jadid”?
“revived,” “modified,” and used in the Generally the answer can’t be easily given with
formation of compound words: neo- yes, or no. Any “new” or “neo” font should
Darwinism; Neolithic; neo-orthodoxy; share common features with its descender,
neophyte. It reflects almost the same meaning which is the Arabic script. No matter how
in the Arabic term “Jadid”, which means as closely or loosely follow the new design the
much as the “new”. Logically the Arabic term resources, the term “neo” indicates the
“Jadid” can replace the term “Neo-“. extraction from a model or class. Even when
Especially when it is assigned to those newly many modern Arabic art historian signify that
designed typefaces that are closely following the Latin Gothic, Fraktur or Black types, are
an archaic model. The question here is: How strongly manipulated by the archaic Kufi, still
close the new fonts to the model should be? the usage of the term Neo- remain limited up to
And if the newly designed typefaces include the tide relation between the new type, its

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archaic ductus, and cultural environment. “News Gothic” are resulted out of the modern
Finally, none of the great and well-known Europe in the 20th century, and arrived the
paleographers, epigraphers, and art historians East with the French and British and other
categorized such “mixed-resulted” scripts colonialist European states.
under “Neo-Arabic”, but under “pseudo Kufi”. Interesting is that Grotesk typefaces are in
The pseudo Kufi and Naskh styles were known use in the Arab world since the beginning of
in Europa during the renaissance and have been the 20th century, but still unknown neither by
used for centuries. They were the “Latinized the designers nor by the printers. The majority
imitations” of Arabic scripts in European of Arabic typefaces that looks like one of the
environment. Grotesk Latin typefaces are called “hadith =
Grotesk modern”. (Bahnasi 1995, Alif-Alif) According
The term “Grotesk” is closely linked with the to Bahnasi, the new Arabic letterforms reflect
industrial developments’ Europe and later with the “Arabic” modernism and the visual
the idea of democratizing the Latin letterforms, language, upon the artistic, and aesthetical
and has no translation in the Arabic language. criteria. (Ibid) Fact is that the Arabic outcome
The economic characteristics of the Grotesk has nothing to do with the Grotesk typefaces,
typefaces were mainly created to fulfill the which are intentionally designed after the less-
demands of modern European industry, is-more principle, and not only because of the
education and culture. The usage of the term used tools or materials. However, the argument
“Grotesk” for Arabic typefaces is like a of using such terms by the classification of
squeezing’s experiment of foreign terms into Arabic typefaces because of their similarity to
orthodoxical body? The Grotesk typefaces such European Grotesk is irrelevant.
as “Akzidenz-Grotesk, “Franklin Gothic”, and

Figure 3 (Left): The classification of Al-Qalqashandi. Figure 4 (Right): After Bahnasi classification, 1995.

Abdalla 2016

Even though the characteristics of many and not about “extension” or “remixing”.
newly designed Arabic typefaces showing Otherwise, once again, the usage of the term
similarities to Latin types, this doesn’t change “Pseudo” will suites better the imitated copies
the fact that we are talking about “inspiration” or clones of foreign scripts.

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On the other hand, what can learn from the far from the religious text, and reflects the shift
usage of the term Grotesk within the Vox from normatively to individuality. But
classification is the way of categorizing all Humanist “fonts” are those typefaces that
kinds of Grotesk as subordinates of the main basically designed during the 15th century, and
class “modern-linear”. For example the Neo- following human proportion that are imparted
Grotesk, the Humanist, and the Geometric by bonae litterae or humane learning (literally
categories are equally side-by-beside "good letters”). By Vox classification, there are
categorized. For laypersons, the four categories two different categories of humanist typefaces:
looks similar, but by a closer look, their forms humanist serif, such as “Janson” and san-serif
are distinguishable such as between the like “Gill Sans” and “Optima”. Both reflecting
geometrically- constructed Futura, Avenir and human proportion, rounded letterforms and
Avant-Garde, and the humanist typefaces like stoke variations.
Optima, and Tahoma, which are not based on In Arabic, the word “Humanitas=Insani”
the Grotesk of the 19th century but on the means as much as human, and has never been
Roman inscriptional letters and the Carolingian used by Ibn Muqlah (9th - 10th AD.), who
script. “redesigned” the Arabic rounded ductus upon
human proportion. According to Maher Rayef
Humanist (1975) Ibn Muqlah never described his
The term stands out the renaissance humanism, proportioned script as humanist-Naskh or
which was a philosophical and ethical stance, humanist-Kufi! Even by AL-Qalqashandi
that emphasis the value and the ethical of (1355-1418), Al-Tawhidi (923-1023), and by
human being. Humanitas is the original Latin Raseal Ikhwan Al-Safa “Brethren of Purity"
word;-ism, entered English in the nineteenth (between the 8th and the 11th century), there is
century. The name itself comes from “studia no Evidence that such a term is assigned to a
humainitatis”, the renaissance term for the certain style. (Rayef 1975)
study of classical history, moral philosophy,
rhetoric, poetry etc. This means that the term is

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Figure 5 (Left): The new classification. 2016-17. Figure 6 (Right): The classification process after
E. (Jacob 2012, 533). Abdalla 2016

However, within the Latin classification categorizations the Arabic version of the
there are many new critic against the usage of typeface “Palatino” (designed by Nadine
the term “Humanist”. In his article “The Chahine and Hermann Zapf) under “humanist-
history of ‘humanist’ type”, Craig Eliason Kufi”? Neither the letterforms are matching
argued that while the term specifically denotes with the Latin typeface the “Palatino”, which
certain fifteenth-century texts, only its is a humanist typeface of the 15th century, nor
“humanist” connotations made it attractive to with Kufi as Arabic old-style typeface. The
Maximilien Vox. Eliason goes further and design is based on the Al-Ahram typeface
even warranted its use in future classifications. designed by Zapf in 1956 and modified to fit
Added C. Eliason: the Palatino nova family.
“…Maximilien Vox’s employment of Black Headlines
“humanes” in his influential 1954
classification scheme did not codify an already Another term appears during the 6o's and 70’s
accepted category; before Vox the term was is the “Black Headlines”. The explanation for
rarely used for type, and when it was it its existence is:
sometimes referred to types other than those
“….The old Arabic callig­raphic styles don’t
which Vox would group under the labels.
have the needed weights to make
Moreover, the stylistic features that
hierarchically distinctions in the modern
distinguish a humanist seriffed font in Vox’s
typogra­phy.” (Smitshuijzen, E. 2015, 20) In
scheme are not the same features that
fact this clam needs to be discussed. Firstly,
distinguish the faces later named humanist
there is a calligraphic pen called Al-Tumar or
sans types. Given these vagaries of definition,
Tumar in Arabic = Al-Sahifa, which means in
it is worth asking how and why “humanist”
English as much as the newspaper. (Al-Jburi 1999,
has persisted as a label.” (https://www.atypi.org/type- 65)
typography/the-history-of-2018humanist2019-type) Al-Tumar or Tumar is the boldest formal
version of the cursive script. It is mostly used
Eventually, it is not clear why big
for short texts at larger type sizes. (Ibid. 1999)
companies like Monotype allowed the
Secondly, there is other old Arabic term that

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could be chosen which is “Jalil”, which is well a font styles, rather than a class. Today we
known by the Arabic typographers and create Arabic typefaces with families having
researchers boldest traditional weight among light, regular and bold styles that could be
the rounded duct. With Tumar pen extended to include extra bold, black and
calligraphers wrote in big Thuluth or Diwani a extended black styles. Moreover the term
size named Al-Jalil or Jalil, which means in “Black Headlines” indicates certain
Arabic as much as the big or bold. letterforms, which are closely linked with the
However the term “Sahifa” or “Sahafi” has aesthetics of the 60s and 70s: High contrast
almost the same meaning of “Black between horizontal and vertical strokes,
Headline”, and logically, it were be better to relatively small counters, and exaggerated
use it -even as tentative term- in order to fulfill bold horizontal lines, and almost function as
the new Arabic typographical demands at the visual products of Op-Art.
time. The term “Black” could be better used as

Table 1: John Downer Differentiation’s Criteria

Closely follow the original Loosely follow the original

Revivals / Recuttings / Reconsiderations /

Reclamations Reevaluations/Reinterpretations

Closely based on historical models Loosely based on artistic

(metal type, hand-cut punches, successes (of any medium) as a kind of
etc.) for commercial or laboratory exercise, often without much
noncommercial purposes, with the concern for their immediate or eventual
right amount of historic commercial viability.
preservation and sensitivity to the
virtues of the original being kept
in focus-all with a solid grounding
in type scholarship behind the
effort, too.

Anthologies / Surveys / Remixes Homages / Tributes / Paeans

Closely based on characters from Loosely based on historical styles and/or

various fonts all cut by one person, specific models, usually with admiration
or cut by various hands, all and respect for the obvious merits of the
working in one particular style or antecedents - but with more artistic
genre-like a medley or an freedom to deviate from the originals and
overview done more for the sake to add personal touches; taking liberties
of providing a "sampling" than for normally not taken with straight revivals.
the sake of totally replicating any
one single cut of type.

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Knockoffs / Clones / Counterfeits Encores / Sequels / Reprises

Closely based on commercial Loosely based on commercial successes

successes (of any medium) to (of any medium) as a means of further
belatedly muscle in on part of an exploring, or further exploiting, an
unsaturated market, often by being established genre; milking the Cash Cow
little more than a cheap imitation one more time.
of what has already been deemed
by experts as a legitimate revival.
"Me Too" fonts, or "Copy Cat"
fonts, as they are called, tend to
focus on opportunism rather than
on originality. These don't rate as
revivals because they don't revive.

Extensions / Spinoffs / Variations

Loosely based on artistic or commercial

successes (of any medium) for only
rarely more than minor advancements in
a tried, popular, accepted style; akin to
previous category.

Figure 7: Definitions for types Caricatures / Parodies / Burlesques

qualities by John Downer,
Tributes, 2007. Loosely based on prominent features of
the model, often with humor or satire as
the primary objective, but quite often also
with humor or satire as an unexpected
effect.
After John Downer 2012, “Call It What It Is”.
Abdalla 2016.
The process of classification for the development of styles with focusing on
Resources the characteristics of main archaic models. His
The process of the new classification starts classification is partly based on form models
with revising Abdalla’s classification, where (rounded, stiff, and playful graphic) combined
scripts are chronologically connected with the with geo-political chronology, which is a
main Islamic epochs and dynasties. (Abdalla 1997) curtail issue by Kühnel’s classification.
The form-language of a script has been (Figure 1) The third group of references is the
explained upon the aesthetical norms and different published papers and books of Adam
values of a dynasty, its states dogma, and used Gacek, especially the book “The Tradition of
technology and tools. The second reference Arabic Manuscripts”, 2001. In the Arabic
was Kühnel’s classification - Ernst Kühnel, language there are important references such
“Die Kunst der Arabischen Schrift” 2nd as Bahnasi (1990), Al-Jaburi (1990), and
edition. 1972, which gives a macro overview Masoud (1990). They are selectively chosen

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upon their popularity and well-documented hand, the book “Arabic font specimens book”
terms and visual samples of archaic styles. from Smitshuijzen, published by Khatt book
The paper depends on the most comprehensive in 2015, built the main source for the
references about the roots of the Arabic examined fonts. Finally, it was important to
archaic models such as the texts of Gelb examine transferable decals types from
(1958), Jensen (1929), Friederisch (1966), and Linotype, Mecanorma, and transtype, which
Abbott (1938). They are great help for the build, along with all the previous references an
chronological documentation, visual important physical evidences of the
comparison, and understanding for the form- fashionable and well-known styles between
developments, mainly by the causal scripts the 1980s and the 2000s.
and formal calligraphic styles. On the other

Figure 7: The evaluation sheet for the class: Classical: Rounded: Naskh-Jadid.
Abdalla 2016.

From categorization to classification semantical or/and historical perspectives of

the typefaces, access can be provided, whether
Between form-based and chronological: The to individual categories or to unique category
new system is form-based distinctions members. The formal criteria of each class and
between groups of entities. Through its subordinate and the establishment of
supplementary mechanism such as the meaningful of information-bearing

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relationships build and organized together the categories are fuzzy or fixed, the membership
system. (Jacob 2004, 532) If we admit that is flexible or rigorous, the criteria for
classification is the process of assigning group assignment are context-determined or
membership labels to unlabeled observations, predetermined, etc. Theories of categorization
it will be understandable the reasons behind such as the “classical view”, which is the
classifying types chronologically upon “pre- oldest well-known approach of grouping
labeled historical periods”. But, “while this is “types” upon their similar properties, was
a good way to categorize many of the difficult to use and classifying typefaces upon
typefaces from the past, chronological discrete entities was impossible to start with.
methods become impractical when it comes to Neither a proper set was available, which
contemporary design. Art critics know this allow to identify models or prototypes, nor the
problem all too well: what comes after existed terms are clear and closely linked with
postmodern? Post-postmodern?” (Coles 2012, 23). certain models. Aside from the “conceptual
I. Kupferschmid, shared in his article clustering”, which is considered as the modern
“Thoughts on Classification of Typefaces” variation of the classical approach, the
(Published: 27. JULY 2009)
, almost the same point of prototype theory or/and the fuzzy set theory
view. He suggested to classify typefaces allow types to belong to one or more groups in
primarily upon their form-qualities and not varying degrees of similarity, which was the
upon a historical timeline. Even Kühnel’s case by different classical types. However, the
classification of Arabic scripts has its operation of organizing items was very
chronological strength; it is based on creative and full of dynamic, where the
classifying the archaic styles upon their from- differences have been recognized, and initial
qualities and not only upon their historical visual comparison of properties and
order. characteristics have been executed. It was
sufficient as initial step, where huge number
Categorization: The process starts with of types with unclear resources have been
categorization, followed by indexing and grouped upon syntactic benchmarks based on
ended up with well-identified classes. By the models.
“cognitive categorization”, typefaces have
been viewed, analyzed and assigned to Indexing: The post-coordinate indexing
“labeled” and also “unlabeled” groups based system allowed us to formulate models with
on old or/and newly found “prototypes”. Some conceptual descriptions after the indexing of
classes accepted not only the natural grading typefaces has been compiled. Only by the
of typefaces and tend to be fuzzy at their classical well-known classes, an action of
boundaries, but also the inconsistency in the grouping according the pre-listed descriptions
status of their components members, such as has been executed (Figure 1, and 2). The pre-
the “Calligraphic: Graphic class” (see next listed descriptions from Kühnel and Al-
chapter). Referring to E. Jacob, the process of Qalqashandi assess by sorting the
categorization is a creative synthesis of memberships’ level in a set that is previously
entities based on context or perceived designed according to a bivalent condition —
similarity, in contra, the process of an element either belongs or does not belong
classification is a systematic arrangement of to the set (Figure 8). It was necessary to use
entities based on analysis of necessary and such binary system.
sufficient characteristics. (Compare Jacob 2012, 528).
The differences between both of them go Classification: In order to continue the
further: The boundaries between classes and classification, following steps were needed: 1)

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create new classes with proper terms: Many of John Downer (2012), the well-known
the newly designed types resulted out of American typeface designer and typographer,
hybridization’s methods, and carrying features explained in his article “Call It What It Is”
of different categories. This point has been published in Emigre's Tribute type specimen
raised by Paul Kay (1973), who observed that, booklet in 2012, a prototype concept that
in some cases the grade of membership of an includes semantical differentiation notions,
object, u, in the intersection of two fuzzy sets where the originality of typefaces can be
A and B may be greater than its grade of measured. Downer divided his descriptions
membership in A (or B) (Zadeh, 1982); 2) Ending into two categories:
up with a system that permit the existence of
mixed aspects of classes, and hierarchal levels “One for designs that closely follow the
such as the taxonomy in biology or zoology, original, and the other for designs that loosely
where the “life-form level, middle level: follow the original.“ (Downer 2012).
generic or genus level, and lower level: the
Downer’s suggestion has been used and
species level, could be used. For example: to
tested successfully in this paper. It allows the
place the Arabic stiff style, which is known
creation of evaluation sheets to examine
with (Kufi or Yabis) in the higher level:
typefaces, in relation to their fidelity to a
“Form quality” level = stiff, middle level:
certain model. The models and the distinction
“generic” level = Maghribi or geometric, and
is based more on characteristics rather than
lower level: the “structure” level = Geometric
chronological accuracy and the pros and cons
Kufi. (Figure 3) The stage of identification
of modification of historical norms. The
was followed by listing down the main
evaluation had started with designing one
description of each subordinate upon three
template for the four main classical styles:
main classes: 1) Classical: includes all the
Kufi, Naskh, Slope, and Maghribi. The
archaic typefaces; 2) Modern: contains all the
comparison’s processes are followed with
newly designed typefaces since the 1940s till
measuring’s process that focused on
today; 3) Calligraphic: all styles that owns
discovering how the examined typefaces
calligraphic or script effects are included,
implies tradition and conventions, i.e.
which will be explained in chapter 4. (Figure
checking if letterforms have been handed
8)
over, and deliver up traditions, or showed
Tools: Evaluation sheet, creating classes legacies (Figure 4). Some of the examined
and subordinates typefaces own a combination of one known
model such as Naskh and new characteristics.
When letters enlarged, all sorts of information In those cases, it was necessary to group such
about any typeface are pulled out: The typefaces together, without using a concrete
functions of negative space are easily generic name. In a later stage the same
discovered, and how the shape of one letter evaluations’ sheet has been used to categories
affects the shape of the others. More important the newly created groups, which ended up
is discovering that seemingly minor attributes with creating thirteen templates, one for each
can affect the personality of a typeface as a model.
whole, and forced us to reevaluate its position
within the classifications’ system, and make The evaluations’ sheet is divided into four
assumptions about its originality’s level, and main parts: Left: Main characteristics of the
to ask to which class it could belongs! model: Middle: the examined typeface (single
letters); Right: Downer’s criteria with its two

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categories and eight levels; Bottom-left: the of Latin tools such as a pointed pen =
name of the examined typeface as appears in expansion.
its reference. Bottom-right a sample Arabic
sentence that includes the most important 3) Calligraphic; (old and new) forms: forms
letters that can give an impression about the reflect a big variety of used tools, from peer
typeface. (Figure 8) The Left part contains the pen, up-to linear based. It includes old und
original characteristics of one model, and is new styles.
divided horizontally into three sub-sections:
4) Others: (Non-Arabic): like Latin,
A) The upper section: The stems (=Swayed),
Devanagari, Hebrew, etc.
upstroke nature - straight, or curvy
Ascender(s) height(s); B) The middle section: Most of the previously discussed terms in
Baseline strokes nature (curved/stiff chapter two have been avoided or replaced. In
connection – the Mada) organic or straight, X- order to reach well-organized conceptual
height (in some cases), counter-form: closed, arrangement within the set that reflects
blocked and open, eye form; almond-form, mutually exclusive and non-overlapping
geometric, angels: sharp or semi-curvy, classes, it was necessary to create systematic
rounded-, and thickness, loop height(s), tooth structure of hierarchical, genus-species
height(s); C) The lower section: Exit stroke relationships. (Jacob, 2004) The classification
(tails), number of descenders and tail’s shape: ended up with thirteen subordinates or
Slack, rounded or straight. generics. The relationships between classical
generics such as Kufi, Naskh, slope, and
Conclusion: The classes and their Maghribi, and the newly created: Kufi-Jadid,
subordinates Naskh-Jadid, etc. are meaningful and
In conclusion, a holistic classification of information-bearing because they specify
Arabic typefaces system certainly needs more principled connections between two or more
research and contribution from various well-known models (Compare Figure 1 with
specialists, and not only from Arabic Figure 5).
typographers and type designers, but also
Class 1: Classical
calligraphers and design scholars. Even
though, and after examining 400 Arabic The term is used for those typefaces that carry
typefaces from different companies, and characteristics, which are excellent revivals of
individual type designers, the research resulted the five well-known Arabic categories. It is
with establishing an initial attempt, which indicate in this regard has less to do with the
includes three main classes for Arabic term “classics [plural], which is the study of
typefaces and one for non-Arabic typefaces, as the languages, literature, and history of ancient
follow: Greece and Rome”. (Longman dictionary 2009, 185).
According to Kühnel the ductus are:
1) Classical: (old) form models: forms,
contrast and structure, derived mostly from 1) Stiff: Also known as Kufi
writing with reed pen, but also inscribed into
hard martial like wood, and stone, and small 2) Rounded: Also known also as Naskh,
brushes.
3) Slope: Also known as Taliq = hanging or
2) Modern: new and rational (modern) form Persian
model: forms derived mostly from drawing
the linear skeleton with or without the usage

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4) Western: A mixture of Naskh- and Kufi- letterforms (Stiff/Rounded), and baseline

based forms in different variations. (Straight/Sloppy). The Maghribi ductus has
been differently developed and carry
5) Playful Graphic characteristics of the stiff and rounded ductus.
All the variations of the classical typefaces are
The classical classes are here to
classified as subordinates and assigned into
understand as those typefaces with roots that
groups that have traditional terms and are in
got back to the 7th and 8th century. They are
use since the 9th century till today. Kufi,
categorized upon the nature of their
Naskh, Slope, and Maghribi.

Figure 8: Classical: Stiff: Kufi. Font: AGA Mashq 72.

Abdalla 2016.
Classical: Stiff: Kufi (7th Century A.D.) straight lines and angels. However, the simple
Most of the text about the historical Kufi shaped the model of this class. It is
development of the Arabic script starts with characterized with its its not so sharp edges
writings about the simple Kufi rather about the and relatively geometric small loops. The
Naskh styles. However both ductus have been oldest versions, as appeared in different
used during the 7th century A.D.- before Islam references, demystify a mixture between
in different variations. The most dominant round and straight strokes, but with a holistic
version in manuscripts between the 7th to 10th stiff image. (Compare S. Graves 2011, 24, with Enzyklopaedia
des Islam, B1-4, Tafel II, III, and IV, 1938)
centuries was the Kufi Mushafi = Quranic. Because of its
Out of the simple Kufi appeared a lot of bold nature and relatively short descenders, it
variations in architect, textile, pottery, etc. was widely used in display sizes for titling in
with ornamented tails and stems (see class: many architectural and decorative applications
Calligraphic: Ornamented), and playful on fabrics, ceramics, or wood, etc. (Jensen 1925,
130)
skeleton. Between the 12th and the 13th . Many of Kufi variations won over the past
century, Persian extracted other version with fifty years enormous attention by
sharp edges and square-angular look. The contemporary font designers, which will be
square Kufi (known also as geometric or clearly seen by the second class the” Modern”.
eastern Kufi), as its name suggested based on

Figure 9: Classical: Rounded: Naskh. Font: KacstBook.

Abdalla 2016.
Classical: Naskh (7th Century A.D.) writing texts. It has been used in applications
The Naskh ductus (Arabic = Naskhi) won it’s that need to be written in small text sizes and
Arabic name from the act of “copying” i.e. in a short period of time. The term itself used

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as a “generic” name for a huge variety of used pen “Tumar” at this time), which is the
Arabic rounded styles that have been used most elegant formal version of the cursive
since the 7th century and till today. Most of script. It is mostly used for short texts at larger
the dated Naskh scripts in 7th century are type sizes, and for titling. (Bahnasi 1995, Sad)
profane texts. Naskh style is known with its The overall lightness, the short descenders,
organic nature that encourages great and the tall ascenders characterize it.
calligraphers, and later contemporary type However, the oldest Quran manuscript in
designers, to create new variations of well- Naskh was written by Ibn Al-Bawwab in
functioned body-text typefaces. The Baghdad between the 1000 and 1001 A.D.
(Khalili 2008, 51)
proportional system and the writing rules of Naskh has also been used to
the Naskh are created by the calligrapher “Ibn indicate the styles used in papyri between and
Muqlah”. (Rayef 1975) Ibn Muqlah created out of the 7th till the 9th century, Naskh is an archaic
the Naskh the writing’s rule and proportion of style, which is characterized by its compact,
the “Thuluth” (means the third of the widest clear, simple, and curvy letterforms.

Figure 10: Classical: Rounded: Slope. Font: IranNastaliq.

Abdalla 2016.

Classical: Taliq: Slope (10th Century A.D.) variation is Nastaliq from 15th century. This
elegant slope-cursive style is used mostly in
Unlike all other Arabic styles, the slope ductus
Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. It served
comes in four different variations: Taliq (12th
mainly the Urdu language, and barely used for
century) Diwani (14th century), Nastaliq
Arabic language. Nastaliq is derived from the
(end14th century, Shikesta (18th century), and
two words: Taliq and Naskh. (Papadoppolo 2006, 337)
later the Ruqaa (18th century). (Abdalla 1997, 135-
145) It is fluid with letters that hang in clusters like
The oldest is the Taliq is based on rounded
grapes. The fourth slope variation is the
forms, long descenders, blocked counters in
informal version of rounded ductus the Ruqaa
some letters, and arch-shaped Kashidah. The
from the 18th century. It has been created in
Diwani won its name from the Turkish term
Turkey by (Mumtaz Bic). The written word in
Al-Diwan, which means as much as the
Ruqaa is originally set on a sloped baseline,
palace, and originally used for official Sultan's
and it is slightly heavier than Naskh, but more
court during the Ottoman dynasty. It is famous
compact script.
with its hanging baselines and exaggerated
low-hanging ending swashes. The third

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Figure 11: Classical: Semi-Stiff: Kufi. Font: AXtAl.

Abdalla 2016.

Classical: Western: Maghribi (10th Class 2: Modern

Century A.D.) The term “Modern” is related to the act of
The cultural and aesthetical nature of the departing from traditional styles and values. It
western part of the ancient Islamic world was coined in the 16th century to indicate
(from Tunisian till Cordoba and Andalusia), present or recent times (ultimately derived
has a strong impact on the Maghribi ductus from the Latin adverb modo, meaning "just
and on its subordinates. They come in now”). Historically there are three periods:
Maghribi-Kufi and Maghribi-Naskh and under Early modern period (early 16th century in
many other names, such as Andalusi, and Europa); Late modern period (late 18th
Timbuktu). The well known are the Andalusi, century); and contemporary history (relevant
the Qairawani, the Tumbuktu, and the to present time). The term and its usage within
Maghribi. The latter is the most playful and non-western culture characterized the usage of
ornamented style and has been further up-to-date ideas, art and design waves, and
developed under the calligrapher Al-Qundusi technologies. A modern typeface is described
(18 century) with new aesthetical norms. as resulted type that based on hybrid processes
However, Kühnel explained how the forms of between revived styles or old ductus with
Maghribi ductus are extracted, and how they Latin types such as Grotesk, Neo-Grotesk. It is
are resulted out of used tools, and material. A well known in the Arabic culture as Hadith
semi-cursive variation of the Kufi style has and widely used to signify all the cultural
been developed in Northern Africa. It is activities and products that are happing at our
characterized by the rounding of its present time. For example the translation of
letterforms into small circular loops or eyes, modern Arabic art will be “Al-Fan Al-Arabi
delicate cursive strokes, and open semi- Al-Hadith”. Rarely, and almost within art
circular large descenders that hang low from historians’, specialists in art or design, a
the baseline. It is generally used as text faces distinction between “contemporary” and
set at large type sizes. “modern” will be executed.

Figure 12: Modern: Stiff: Kufi-Jadid. Font: B Elham.

Abdalla 2016.

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Modern: Linear: Kufi-Jadid styles. From the Kufi inherited the new model
the stiffness, the unified stroke thickness, the
Kufi-Jadid is won its name form its descender
short and unified descender and the semi-bold
the Kufi, and same while from being appeared
to bold appearance. These characteristics
by the 1960s. The increased modernization of
allow Kufi-Jadid to be an excellent style for
the Arabic world forced designers to the
display size applications.
extract new models out the known classical

Figure 13: Modern: Rounded: Naskh-Jadid. Font: Droid Arabic Naskh.

Abdalla 2016.
Modern: Naskh-Jadid
The Naskh-Jadid appears in late 20th century Jadid means as much as “new” or “neo” in
and is based on the proportion and shared the English, and indicates the modernity of
cursive characteristics with its descender the typefaces’ features. It distinguished itself from
classical Naskh. This model inherits not only the Naskh in the stroke variation mixed with
rounded effect, but also the stroke variation geometric linear construction.
and the arch nature of its baseline. The term

r«n◊nrG íp
IÉ nenhn ÊpÉ©nen ‘pºoFpÉgn ørco
reÓ
Figure 14: Modern: Semi-Geometric: Naskh-Sahafi. Font: AXtNada Bold.
Abdalla 2016.

Modern: Semi-Geometric: Naskh-Sahafi counters that looks like half moon, and tails,
The style is closely connected with the combined with geometric construction
development of Arabic newspapers and appeared clearly in the thick baseline-stroke,
magazines in the 1970s. It is also known as and sharp edges. The Naskh-Sahafi is also
“Headline”. The Naskh-Linear inherited from more rounded, and without sharp edges.
the archaic Naskh the rounded effects of the
loops, bow, upper-parts of round open

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Figure 15: Modern: Semi-Geometric: NasKufi. Font: Frutiger LT Arabic.

Abdalla 2016.
Modern: Semi-Geometric: NasKufi through the parallel study of the Latin and
The NasKufi appears by the 2000s, and is archaic Arabic styles. The letterforms are
resulted out of the overlapping between Naskh carrying economical structure in the height
and Kufi, and based on inspiration of Grotesk. and width.
The new hybrid characteristics are revived

Figure 16: Modern: Semi-Geometric: Naskh-Linear. Font: AXtDamour.

Abdalla 2016.
Modern Semi-Geometric: Naskh-Linear curved angels, middle sized to closed loops,
The Naskh-Linear is one of the first typefaces and angled tails and stem endings indicate a
that appeared by the 1960s. It is the legal and mixed process between the calligraphic effect
of the Naskh and the geometric structure of
normal linear extension of the classical-Naskh. the modern.
Its straight horizontal baseline with its slightly

Figure 17: Calligraphic: Rounded: Script-Formal. AXtLAkhdarLight.

Abdalla 2016.
Class 3: Calligraphic latter embraces the largest amount number of
The third class in the system is based on the typefaces with huge number of form
calligraphic-based typefaces that reflect the variations, where decorative forms are
used tools in the skeleton and letterforms. It dominant. Unlike the script-formal typefaces,
includes four main subordinates, two kinds of which own a lot of classical characteristics,
scripts, one ornamented, and one graphic. The the script-casual typefaces are freely scripted

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and reflect the subjective visions of the they are not strictly following their
calligraphy. The ornamented subordinate is calligraphic bases: proportion, stroke
also known with ornamented Kufi, where all variations, etc. At the first glance, laypersons
known Kufi styles with ornamented ending are will barley notice the differences, which are
included. based on remixed old calligraphic principles
Calligraphic: Script-Formal mixed with subjective aesthetics and/or
Although the script-formal sharing common commercial influences.
characteristics with classical subordinates, but

Figure 18: Calligraphic: Rounded: Script-Casual. Font: AXtNadine.

Abdalla 2016.

Calligraphic: Rounded: Script-Casual appear to have been written with a speed

Casual scripted typefaces are those that own a flexible pen, or different brush thicknesses.
mimic of calligraphic writing. They are mostly Most of the members of this category own
rounded and connected. The letterforms Ruqaa, or Naskh characteristics.

Figure 19: Calligraphic: Stiff: Ornamented. Font: AXtNova.

Abdalla 2016.
Calligraphic: Linear: Ornamented often reflect the nature of the used mediums
The term ornament within the Arabic culture and the functions of products such as written
will be understood as decorative (= Zokhrouf). text with brush or pen on ceramics plates,
This linear ornamented style is extracted from graved signature or text on copper, etc.
the simple Kufi. (fig. x) The Ornamented Kufi Because of the numberless and the decorative
appears in different epochs, regions, and look of the ornamented Kufi, like knotted
applications with large amount of variations in Kufi, or Floral Kufi, it will be possible to
the stroke nature, thicknesses and stem’s categorize them separately in a new category
heights. We can primarily differentiate them under “Ornamented Kufi” or Decorative
through their tail’s and stem’s endings, which Kufi”.

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Figure 20: Calligraphic: Graphic. Font: Asmaa Font.

Abdalla 2016.
Calligraphic: Graphic graphic letterforms are largely determined by
Most of the Arabic classical and modern the former writing tools – e.g. the broad nib or
typefaces can be differentiated according to pointed nib – and based on stroke contrast, but
the styles and form clarity, which include also reflecting geometric constructions and
certain numbers of basic characteristics. The module-shaped forms.
Calligraphic: Graphic class is quite different. Others: Non-Arabic
It plays a considerable role in visual art and All non-Arabic scripts all included in this
free graphics, or function as display face. It is class, no matter their roots or letterform
to compare with any other art medium, such as natures, such as Latin, Devanagari, Hebrew,
lettering. It’s graphically shaped letterforms Chinese, Cyrillic.
are meant to look at rather than through. The

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Figure 21: The new Arabic type classification system.

Abdalla 2016.

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REFERENCES 12. Typographique Internationale.

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2. Abdelkebir Kh., Mohammed S. 1995. Schrift. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
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3. Abdalla, M. H. 1997. Analyse der technical terms and bibliography.
Arabischen Schriftformen. Wuppertal: Leiden: Brill.
Bergische Universität. 15. Gelb, I.J. 1952. Study for Writing.
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typeface between global and traditional 16. Hans Jürg Hunziker, Untitle booklet
norms. 3rd world conference on design, about his Arabic type work in Morocco,
arts and education. Switzerland.
5. Aicher, O., and Rathgeb, M. 2006. Die 17. Hayashi, C., Ohsumi, N., Yajima, K.,
Schrift. Phaidon. Tanaka, Y., Bock, H.-H., Baba, Y., eds.
6. Al-Jaburi, K. S. 1999. Encyclopedia of 1998. Data Science, Classification, and
Arabic Script. Beirut: El-Hilal Library Related Methods. Japan: Springer.
and Publishing house. 18. Jacob, E. 2004. Classification and
7. Abulhab, S. 2004. The Mutamathil Categorization: A Difference that
Type Style. Accessed October 2016. Makes a Difference. Accessed
https://www.academia.edu/1958605/Th September 2016.
e_Mutamathil_Type_Style_Towards_F https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2
ree_Technology- 142/1686
Friendly_Arabetic_Types 19. Jensen, H. 1925. Geschichte der Schrift.
8. Bahnasi, Afifi (1995). A Dictionary of Hannover: Orient-Buchhandlung.
Arabic Calligraphy-Terms and 20. Khoury Nammour, Y. 2012. Nasri
Calligraphers. Lebanon: Librairie du Khattar Khatt – A Modernist Typotect.
Liban Publishers. Amsterdam: Khatt Books.
9. Close, Stephen 2012. The Anatomy of 21. Kühnel, E. 1972. Islamische
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Type. England: Quid Publishing Ltd. Schriftkunst. 2 ed. Austria: Graz
10. Downer, J. 2003. “Call It What It Is.” 22. Longman dictionary. 2009. England:
In Emigre. Accessed August 2016. Pearson Education Limited
www.emigre.com/Editorial.php?sect=2 23. Majidi, M. 1986. Geschichte der
&id=1 arabisch-persischen Schrift. Hamburg:
11. Eliason, C. “The history of ‘humanist’ Buske.
type.” In ATYPI Association

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24. Milo, Thomas. 2002. Arabic Script and ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Typography, a brief historical Dr. Mohamed Hazem M. taha Hussein
overview. Accessed October 2016. Abdalla: Associate Professor of graphic
25. http://www.islamicmanuscripts.info/ref design, Advertising department, Faculty of
erence/books/Type-2002/Milo-2002- Applied Arts, Helwan University, Giza, Great
Arabic-script-typography.pdf Cairo, Egypt.
26. Rayef, Ahmad Maher. 1975. Die In 1983 graduated from Faculty of Applied
ästhetischen Grundlagen der arabischen Arts, Helwan University, and hired as teaching
Schrift bei Ibn Muqlah. Ph.D. Thesis. assistant in advertising department; between
Köln. 1983 and 1990, work as freelancer, and
27. S. Graves, Margaret ed. 2011. researcher for typography; 1990 obtained the
Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - master degree in graphic design, and promoted
Arts of the Book and Calligraphy. to assistant Senior teaching assistant; 1993
Istanbul: Sakip Sabanci Museum and obtained the diploma in graphic design, in FH
Sabanci University. Muenster; Germany; 1997 obtained PhD in
28. Smitshuijzen-AbiFares, H., ed. 2001. design, Wuppertal, Germany; 1999 promoted
Arabic Typography. London: Saqi to assistant professor; 2005 promoted to a
Books associate professor in Advertising department,
29. Smitshuijzen-AbiFares, H., ed. 2007. faculty of applied arts; 2005-06 acting HoD of
Typographic matchmaking. The advertising department, Damietta University;
Netherlands: BIS Publishers. 2009-11 HoD in faculty of art and design,
30. Smitshuijzen-AbiFares, H., ed. 2010. RUW, Bahrain; 2013-14 Associate professor of
The Typographic Matchmaking in the visual communication design, GUC, Egypt;
City. Amsterdam: Khatt Books. 2014-16 Associate professor of graphic design,
31. Smitshuijzen, E. eds. 2015. Arabic Font RUW, Bahrain; 2016-till today Associate
Specimen Book. Amsterdam: Khatt professor of graphic design, advertising
Books. department, faculty of applied arts, Helwan
32. Smitshuijzen, E. ed. 2013. Arabic Font University, Egypt. Since 1983 and till today,
Design for Beginners. Amsterdam: known as visual artist and typographer under
Khatt Books. the professional name Hazem Taha Hussein,
33. Spiekernann, E, Ginger, E. M. 2003. exhibited in many countries like Germany,
Stop stealing sheep and find out how Italy, etc., museums such Bonn museum 2007;
type works. California: Adobe press. designed more than 40 design projects in
34. Zadeh, L. A. 1982. A note on prototype Egypt, GCC, and Europe; Supervised six
theory and fuzzy sets. University of master’s and PhD’s thesis. Published till today
California, Berkeley. Accessed nine papers about Arabic typefaces design,
November 2016. Arabic typography, and Arabic visual
35. https://ai2s2pdfs.s3.amazonaws.com/54 language; Translated thirteen books about
c5/8d6a64561299bf31c4a7491f96d99b European modern art 2007-09.
514f58.pdf

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‫الملخص‪:‬‬
‫إحدي المشاكل التي يواجهها المصممين العرب هو القصور في وجود نظام متكامل لتصنيف الخطوط العربية الطباعية‪ .‬فمنذ‬
‫إنتشار الطباعة بالحروف المتحركة وحتي اآلن يتواصل التيبوغرافيين ويتعلم طالب التصميم ويتواصلون مع بعضهم البعض‬
‫بدون نظام موحد لتصنيف الخط‪ .‬هذا القصور أدي إلي ظهور معلومات خاطئة وإستخدام لمصطلحات غير مناسبة بتعليم‬
‫التصمميم الجرافيكي‪ ،‬وعدم وضوح الرؤية التيبوغرافية الحديثة لدي المصممين باألسواق العربية‪ .‬ومع اإلزياد السريع لمناذج‬
‫خطوط عربية طباعية جديدة‪ ،‬تفاقمت مشكلة التصنيف‪ ،‬وأصبح من الضروري إقتراح لتصنيف يصلح للتدريس والتواصل بين‬
‫المتخصصيين وغير المتخصصيين‪.‬‬
‫تلك الورقة البحثية تهدف إلي حل تلك المشكلة‪ ،‬ووضع مقترح جديد لتصنيف الخطوط الطباعية العربية‪ ،‬كما هو الحال في‬
‫الخط الالتيني وخطوط أخري‪ .‬ففي الفصل األول يتناول البحث بالنقد والتحليل المصطلحات الدخيلة علي اللغة التيبوغرافية‬
‫ومدي أهميتها إلي التيبوغرافيا العربية مثل خطوط “مابعد الحداثة” ‪“ ،‬المجددة”‪“ ،‬العناوين السوداء”‪ ،‬وأيضا خطوط‬
‫“الجروتسك”‪ .‬وفي الفصل الثاني يستعرض البحث أسلوب التصنيف وإعتمادة علي كتابات ألين ك‪ .‬ياكوب (‪ ،)200٤‬ونظرية‬
‫النموذج المبدئي‪ ،‬تفسيرات جون دونر (‪ )200٣‬لمفهوم األصالة في تصميم الحروف‪ ،‬وتصنيف كونيل ألنواع الخطوط العربية‬
‫اليدوية أو الكاليجرافية (‪ ،)19٧2‬وعلي تصنيف فوكس للخطوط الطباعية الالتينية (‪ .)19٥٤‬وبالفصل األخير يقدم البحث‬
‫مقترح جديد للتصنيف يشتمل علي أربعة نماذج رئيسية وثالثة عشر نموذج ثانوي مصاحب بوصف لكل منهم‪ .‬وينتهي البحث‬
‫بإنفوجراف لكل النماذج المقترحة‪.‬‬
‫الخط الطباعي العربي ‪ ،‬تصنيف الخط الطباعي العربي ‪ ،‬التيبوغرافيا العربية‬

‫‪Journal of Applied Art and Science - International Periodical Scientific Peer Reviewed - Issued By Faculty of Applied Arts - Damietta Univ. - Egypt‬‬

‫)‪(ISSN 2537-1061) (Print‬‬

‫‪41‬‬
‫)‪(ISSN 2537-107X) (Online‬‬