20/12/1444

TAIBAH UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

PHYS 452

Physics Of Semiconductor

= 4=
Carrier Transport Phenomena

In this Section
o Introduction
⁻ Overview of carrier transport phenomena
o Carrier Drift
⁻ Motion of charge carrier in solids
⁻ Drift velocity and carrier mobility
⁻ Drift Current Density
⁻ Conductivity/resistivity
o Carrier Diffusion
⁻ Diffusion Current Density
⁻ Total Current Density
o Graded Impurity Distribution
⁻ Induced Electric Field
⁻ The Einstein Relation
o The Hall Effect
o Non-equilibrium charge carriers
⁻ Carrier Generation and Recombination

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[3] 1. Introduction
1.1 Overview of carrier transport phenomena
o The process by which the charged particles (electrons or holes) move
within the material is called transport properties.
o Electrons and holes in a semiconductor can be moved under the
influence of
o Electric filed/potential gradient (Ohm’s law)
  
J e = − V =  E electric current or current density
o Temperature gradient, resulting in heat flux
 
Q = − K T heat flux or heat current
e
o Any motion of free carriers in a semiconductor leads to a current.
o Transport properties (electric or thermal, thermo-electric) is determined
by the charge carrier characteristics (densities and types) of the material
o In last sections we calculated the density of charge carrier in intrinsic
and extrinsic SC, thus, we are ready to study its transport properties.

1. Introduction
[4]
1.1 Overview of carrier transport phenomena
Three primary types of carrier actions occur inside a semiconductor:
o Drift: charged particle motion under the
influence of an electric field.
• Scattering mechanisms
• Drift current
• Conductivity and resistivity
o Carrier diffusion: charged particle motion
under the influence of concentration
gradient
o Diffusion current
o Einstein relationship
o Generation and recombination: heat or
radiation influence
o Excess carrier concentrations
o Minority carrier recombination lifetime

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[5]
2. Carrier drift
2.1 Motion of charge carriers in solids
Electron and hole motions in solid: No field ✓ Effective mass , m*
o Mobile electrons in the Si lattice are ✓ Scattering life time, 
✓ Main free path ,  th
always in random thermal motion. The
net current in any direction is zero, if no
E-field is applied. As a result of thermal
energy there are almost an equal number
of carriers moving right as left, in as out
or up as down.

o Assume that Sc crystal is at thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e. there is no

applied field). What will be the energy of the electron at a finite
temperature?
o The electron will have a thermal energy of ½kT per degree of freedom. So ,
in 3D, electron will have a thermal energy of
Average electron kinetic energy
1
3 1
E K = kT = mn* vth2 3kT Vth  T 2
vth =
2 2 mn*
( )
−1
Vth  m* 2

[6]
2. Carrier drift
2.1 Motion of charge carriers in solids
Thermal velocity of electrons and holes in Si

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[7]
2. Carrier drift
2.1 Motion of charge carriers in solids
Electron and hole motions in solid: E-field

o When an electric field (e.g. due to an externally applied voltage) exists

within a semiconductor, mobile charge-carriers will be accelerated by
the electrostatic force:
o Electrons drift in the direction opposite to the E-field → net current
o Because of scattering, electrons in a semiconductor do not undergo
constant acceleration. However, they can be viewed as quasi-classical
particles moving at a constant average drift velocity vdn

[8] 2. Carrier drift

2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility
A “Quasi-Classical” Treatment of Transport
3 2
• This approach treats electronic motion in an electric field E 1
using a Classical, Newton’s 2nd Law method, but it modifies electron
4
Newton’s 2nd Law in 2 ways: 5

o The electron mass mo is

replaced by the effective mass
m* (obtained from the
In vacuum
Quantum Mechanical band In SC material
structures).
F = (-q)E = moa F = (-q)E = mn*a,
o An additional, (internal
“frictional” or “scattering” or In this theory, all Quantum Effects are
“collision”) force is added, “buried” in m* & τ.
& characterized by a “scattering
time” τ
o The mean free time between collisions is typically 10–13s or 0.1 ps (picosecond), and
o the distance between collisions is a few tens of nanometers or a few hundred
angstroms.

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2. Carrier drift
2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility

Drift motion and electronic scattering

• The force affecting on charge carriers
between collision is FE
• travel at (relatively) high velocities
for a time  & then “collide” with the
crystal lattice. This results in a net
motion opposite to the E field with
drift velocity vdn.

dv vd
FE = qE m* = qE m* = qE
dt 
mn*vdn = q n E vdn =
q n
E
mn*

vdn =  n E

2. Carrier drift
2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility
• Electron and hole nobilities

Electron drift motion Holes drift motion

Vd =  E
q q p
vdn = *n E vdp = E Vd
mn m*p

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2. Carrier drift
[11] 2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility
Saturated Drift Velocities
• The relation between Vd and E does not
imply that Vd increases linearly with
applied field E along all range .
• Vd increases linearly for low values of E
and then it saturates at some value of Vd
which is close Vth at higher values of E.
• In small devices, the electric field can easily
reach 105V/cm. If the electron mobility is
103cm2/V·s, the drift velocity, according to v
= μ, should be 108cm/s. In reality, electron
and hole velocities saturate at around
107cm/s and do not increase beyond that,
no matter how large is
• Any further increase in E after saturation point does not increase Vd instead warms
up the crystal. This due to optical phonon scattering. Optical phonons are high-energy
phonons that interact strongly with the electrons and holes. When the kinetic energy
of a carrier exceeds the optical phonon energy, Eopt, it generates an optical phonon and
loses the kinetic energy. Therefore, the velocity does not rise above saturationvelocity,
Vsat.

[12]
2. Carrier drift
2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility
Dominant scattering mechanism in SCs
1. Phonon scattering (lattice scattering)
• Phonon is a quasi particle refering to lattice vibrations
• The mean free time of phonon scattering is inversely
proportional to the phonon density and the electron
speed, which is basically the thermal velocity.

2. Impurity (dopant) ion scattering

• Dpant ions are fixed charge in semiconductors and can
make electrons and holes change the direction of
motion through the coulombic force.
• The mobility due to impurity scattering is therefore
inversely proportional to the sum of the donor and
acceptor ion concentrations. It is also proportional to
T3/2 i.e.

At higher temperature the mobility is higher, i.e., the scattering weaker. Because electrons has a higher thermal
velocity and flies by the ion in a shorter time, and its direction of motion is thus less affected by the ion.

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[13]
2. Carrier drift
2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility

Drift velocity, Mean free time, and mean free path

[14]
2. Carrier drift
2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility
Mobility variation with temperature

1 1 1
= +
  phonon impurity

At low temperatures I component is significant.

I decreases when temperature decreases.

3
 I = C2  T 2 C2 is a constant.
Carriers are more likely scattered by ionized impurities.

At high temperature L component becomes significant.

L decreases when temperature increases.  L = C1  T
−
3
2
T
−
3
2

C1 is a constant.
Carriers are more likely scattered by the lattice atoms.

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2. Carrier drift
2.2 Drift velocity and carrier mobility
Mobility Dependence on Doping
Carrier mobilities in Si at 300K
Ionized impurity
Phonon
The reason is free-
scattering
scattering Is dominant carrier screening.
Is dominant When the carrier
concentration is
large, the carriers
can distribute
themselves to
partially screen out
the coulombic field
of the dopant ions.

Screening effect
become dominant

2. Carrier drift
2.3 Drift current density

o Under drift conditions; holes float

and electrons sink. Since there is an
applied voltage, currents are
flowing and this current is called as Si
drift current. Electric field
Electron movement

J p ,drift = qpv d = qp p  Hole flow

J n ,drift = − qn(−  n ) A

J drift = J p ,drift + J n ,drift = qp p  + qn 

n

J drift = (ep p + en n )  E

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2. Carrier drift
2.3 Drift current density

For electron J n = nqE  n For hole J p = pqE  p

o Total current density
J total = J n + J p = n0 q n E + p0 q p E
o For undoped or intrinsic semiconductor n0 = p0 = ni
J total = ni q (  n +  p ) E
o For doped or extrinsic semiconductor
o n-type semiconductor;
n  p  J T  nqn E = N D q n E where ND is the shallow
donor concentration
o p-type semiconductor;

p  n  J T  pq p E = N Aq  p E
where NA is the shallow acceptor concentration

[18]
2. Carrier drift
2.3 Drift current density
Consider a gallium arsenide sample at T = 300 K with doping concentrations of
Na = 0 and Nd = 1016 m-3 -Assume complete ionization and assume electron and
hole mobility given in Table 5.1. Calculate the drift current density if the applied
electric field is E = I0 V/cm.

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2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity / Resistivity
Ohm's low
L L I
V = RI R= = = V
A A 
V I
=  E=J 
L A
E = J V
L
current I=

J total = (n0 q n + p0 q p ) E
R
area

I V _
+

 = n0 q n + p0 q p W
t
uniformly doped semiconductor

1 1
=
L
=
 n0 q n + p0 q p V
R =
L
I Wt

[20]
2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity / Resistivity
A piece of silicon doped with arsenic (Nd = 1017 cm-3) is 100 mm long,
10 mm wide and 1 mm thick. Calculate the resistance of this sample
when contacted one each end.

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2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity / Resistivity
Resistivity Dependence on Doping

For n-type material:

1

qn n

For p-type material:

1
p-type 
qp p
n-type
Note: This plot (for Si)
does not apply to
compensated material
(doped with both
acceptors and donors).

2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity / Resistivity
Example: Resistance Calculation

What is the resistivity of a Si sample doped with 1016/cm3

Boron?
Answer:

N a = 1016 cm −3 , N d = 0 cm −3 1 1
= 
qn n + qp p qp p
P = N a − N d = 1016 cm −3


= (1.6  10 −19 )(1016 )(450) 
−1

p=
(
ni2 1.5 1010
=
)
2

= 10 4 cm −3
n 1016 = 1.4  − cm

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2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity / Resistivity
Example: Dopant Compensation
Consider the same Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron, and
additionally doped with 1017/cm3 Arsenic. What is its
resistivity?
Answer:

N d = 1017 cm −3 , N a = 1016 cm −3 1 1
= 
qn n + qp p qn n
n = N d − N a = 9 1016 cm −3

= (1.6 10 −19 )(9 1016 )(750) 
−1

ni2 1.5 1010

p= = = 1.1103 cm −3
n 9 10 16
= 0.93  − cm

[24]
2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity /Resistivity
Temperature dependence of conductivity o Nd = 1015 cm-3.
o In the mid-temperature range, or
extrinsic range, the electron
concentration remains essentially
constant. the mobility is a function of
temperature so the conductivity varies
with temperature in this range.
o At higher temperatures, the intrinsic
carrier concentration increases and
begins to dominate the electron
concentration as well as the
conductivity.
o In the lower temperature range,
freeze-out begins to occur; the electron
concentration and conductivity
decrease with decreasing temperature.

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2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity /Resistivity
Example: T Dependence of 

Consider a Si sample doped with 1017cm-3 As. How will its resistivity
change when the temperature is increased from T=300K to T=400K?
Answer:
The temperature dependent factor in  (and therefore ) is n.
From the mobility vs. temperature curve for 1017 cm-3, we find that
n decreases from 770 at 300K to 400 at 400K.

770
Thus,  increases by = 1.93
400

[26]
2. Carrier drift
2.4 Conductivity / Resistivity

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3. Carrier Diffusion
3.1 Diffusion current density
Carrier Diffusion Process in SCs
o Diffusion is the process whereby particles flow
from a region of high concentration toward a region
of low concentration.

o If the particles were electrically charged, the net

flow of charge would result in a diffusion current.

o It is known that the rate of particle movement by

diffusion is proportional to the concentration
gradient. If the electron concentration is not
uniform, there will be an electron diffusion current,
which is proportional to the gradient of the electron
concentration.

o If the distance l shown in Figure 5.10 is less than

the mean-free path of an electron, that is, the
average distance an electron travels between
collisions (l < vth Tcn), electrons moving to the right
at x = -l and electrons moving to the left at x = l
will cross the x = 0.

3. Carrier Diffusion
3.1 Diffusion current density

Dn is called the electron diffusion coefficient, has units of cm2/s, Dp is

called the hole diffusion coefficient,

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[29]
3. Carrier Diffusion
3.1 Diffusion current density
Calculating the diffusion coefficient of holes

Comment:
• A significant diffusion current density can be generated in a
semiconductor material with only a modest density gradient.

[30]
3. Carrier Diffusion
3.1 Diffusion current density
Total diffusion current density: holes and electrons
dn dp
J n,diff = qDn J p,diff = −qD p
dx dx
electron diffusion is in the
hole diffusion is in the
same direction as the
opposite direction to the
concentration gradient
concentration gradient

electron diffusion current is

hole diffusion current is in the
in the opposite direction to
same direction to the
the measuring current
measuring current

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3. Carrier Diffusion
3.2 Total current density

o The total electronic current density is the current due to electronic motion or
transport in the semiconductor , which is drift component and diffusion component
dn
J n = J n ,drift + J n ,diff = qn n ε + qDn
dx
o Similarly, the total hole current density is the current due to hole movement or
transportation in the semiconductor, which is of drift component and diffusion
component also

J p = J p ,drift + J p ,diff = qp p ε − qD p

dp
dx
o The total current density is the sum of electronic current density and hole current
density
J = Jn + J p

Jtotal = Jn,drift + Jn,diff + Jp,drift + Jp,diff in most situations, we will

only need to consider one
+ qp p ε − qD p
dn dp term at any one time at a
J total = qn n ε + qDn particular point in a
dx dx semiconductor

[32]
4. Grade doped semiconductor
4.1 Induced electric field
Electric field due to graded (non uniform) impurity distribution
o If the semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium, the Fermi energy level is constant
through the crystal

……(*)

If there is a graded distribution of

impurities, there will be a vraied
potential energy of charge carrier
throughout the crystal. This variations
of potential enegy of the carrier is seen
……(**) as an internal electric field due to
inhomogeneity
(*) (**)

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[33]
4. Grade doped semiconductor
4.1 Induced electric field
Electric field due to graded (non uniform) impurity distribution

Assume that the donor concentration in an n-type semiconductor at T = 100 K is

given by , where x is measured in cm and varies from 0 to
1 m. Determine the induced electric field in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium

4. Grade doped semiconductor

4.1 Induced electric field
Potential Difference due to n(x), p(x)
• The ratio of carrier densities at two points depends exponentially on
the potential difference between these points:
– Starting from the relation of the electron density in n-type semiconductor
 E F − Ei 
 
n = ni e  kTi 
=== rearrange V
n  n 
E F − Ei1 = kT ln 1  = Ei1 = E F − kT ln 1 
 ni   ni  n1 n2
n 
Similarly, Ei2 = E F − kT ln 2  n(x), p(x)
 ni 
 n   n  n 
Therefore Ei1 − Ei2 = kT ln 2  − ln 1  = kT ln 2 
  ni   ni    n1 
 
V2 − V1 =
1
(Ei1 − Ei2 ) = kT ln n2 
q q  n1 

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[35]
4. Grade doped semiconductor
4.2 The Einstein relation D,
o the semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium, then the individual
electron and hole currents must be zero.

[36]
4. Grade doped semiconductor
4.2 The Einstein relation D,
The Einstein Relation: values of D and 

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[37]
4. Grade doped semiconductor
4.2 The Einstein relation D,
The Einstein Relation: Example
Minority carriers (holes) are injected into a homogeneous n-type semiconductor
sample at one point. An electric field of 50 V/cm is applied across the sample,
and the field moves these minority carriers a distance of 1 cm in 100 ps. Find the
drift velocity and the diffusivity of the minority carriers.

[38]
5. Hall Effect
5.1 The setup and relations
❑ The Hall effect is the production of a voltage
difference (the Hall voltage) across a current
carrying conductor (in presence of magnetic
field), perpendicular to both current and the
magnetic field.
❑ Discovered in 1879 by Edwin H. Hall while
working on his doctoral degree at the Johns
Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland,
USA

➢ It can determine the carrier type (electron vs. hole)

➢ the carrier density n for a semiconductor.
❑ How?
❖ Place the semiconductor into external B field, push current along one
axis, & measure the induced Hall voltage VH along the perpendicular
axis Then use suitable mathematical relations

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5. Hall Effect
5.1 The setup and relations
❖ When a current-carrying semiconductor is
placed in a magnetic field, a voltage is
generated in a direction perpendicular to both
the current and the magnetic field.
❖ The Hall Effect results from the deflection of the
charge carriers to one side of the conductor as a
result of the magnetic force experienced by the
charge carriers.
❖ The arrangement for observing the Hall Effect
consists of a flat conducting strip carrying a
current I in the x-direction.
❖ A uniform magnetic field B is applied in the y-direction.
❖ If the charge carriers are electrons moving in the negative x-direction with a velocity vd, they
will experience an upward magnetic force FB.
❖ The electrons will be deflected upward, making the upper edge negatively charged and the
lower edge positively charged.
❖ The accumulation of charge at the edges continues until the electric field and the
resulting electric force set up by the charge separation balances the magnetic force on
the charge carriers (Fmag = Felectric).
❖ When equilibrium is reached, the electrons are no longer deflected upward

5. Hall Effect
5.1 The setup and relations
qE H = qVd  B
❑ EH = VH /W
❑ If W is taken to be the width of the
conductor, then the Hall voltage VH
measured by the voltmeter is:

VH = E H  W = v d  B  W

❑ The measured Hall voltage gives a value

for the drift velocity of the charge
carriers if W and B are known.

❑ The number of charge carriers per unit volume (charge density), n, can also be
determined by measuring the current in the conductor:
Ix Ix  B  W
vd = VH =
n qA n qA
A = d·W , therefore:
Ix  B
❑

VH =
n qd

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5. Hall Effect
5.1 The setup and relations
1
❑ If Hall coefficient, RH is given by RH = , the Hall coefficient can be
determined from n q
IB R IB
VH = = H
n qd d

❑ The sign and magnitude of RH gives the sign of the charge carriers and their
density.

❑ The charge density is approximately equal to the number of valence electrons

per unit volume and can be given by
I. B
n=
VH q d
❑ The carrier mobility can be given by

Ix . L
=
en V x W d

[42]
5. Hall Effect
5.1 The setup and relations

Example:: Hall Effect

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6. Non-equilibrium excess carrier

6.1 Carrier generation and recombination
• So far, we looked at equilibrium charge densities where we get n
p np == nni22 ,
i
for both types of SCs (intrinsic and extrinsic)
• If the system is perturbed by introducing excess carriers, by optical
p n>nni2 , the system is said to be in
illumination or electric biasing, then pn
non equilibrium situation
• The process by which the system tries to restore itself towards equilibrium
is called generation and recombination

o Carrier generation: is the process by which n0 + n

charge carriers are created in pairs inside a
semiconductor either by thermal heating, electric
field or by irradiation excess carriers
o Carrier recombination: is the process by which
charge carriers are destroyed or annihilated in
pairs inside a semiconductor p 0 + p
Non equilibrium excess carriers

[44]
6. Non-equilibrium excess carrier
6.1 Carrier generation and recombination
Generation and Recombination mechanisms
o Each of these recombination mechanisms can be reversed leading to carrier
generation rather than recombination. A single expression will be used to
describe recombination as well as generation for each of the above
mechanisms.

o Band-to-band transition (one step

transition and two particle
process)
o Trap-assisted transition (two step
transition and two particle
process)
o Auger transition /Impact ionization
(one step transition and three particle
process): it is a band-to-band
transition, but the resulting energy is
given off to another electron or hole.

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6. Non-equilibrium excess carrier

6.1 Carrier generation and recombination
Generation Processes
Impact Ionization
Band-to-Band Trap-assisted

Carrier generation due to A "trap level", is an energy level

within the forbidden energy Impact ionization is caused
light absorption occurs if by an electron/hole with an
bandgap caused by the
the photon energy is large energy, which is much
presence of a foreign atom or a
enough to raise an larger/smaller than the Eg .
structural defect.
electron from the valence This generation process causes
An electron from the VB gaining
band into an empty energy less than Eg and jump to the avalanche multiplication in SC
conduction band state, trap level leaving behind a positive diodes under high reverse bias:
thereby generating one hole in the VB. Once the trap is filled As one carrier accelerates in
electron-hole pair. it cannot accept another electron. the electric field it gains
The electron occupying the trap, in a energy. The kinetic energy is
1 2 second step, moves into CB given off to an electron in the
h f absorbed = E g + mv producing a conduction electron . VB, thereby creating an
2 electron-hole pair.

[46]
6. Non-equilibrium excess carrier
6.1 Carrier generation and recombination
Other generation process
o Carrier generation due to
light absorption occurs if the
photon energy is large
enough to raise an electron
from the valence band into an
empty conduction band state,
thereby generating one
electron-hole pair.
o Carrier generation or ionization due to a high-energy beam consisting of
charged particles is similar except that the available energy can be much
larger than the bandgap energy so that multiple electron-hole pairs can be
formed. The high-energy particle gradually loses its energy and eventually
stops. This generation mechanism is used in semiconductor-based nuclear
particle counters. As the number of ionized electron-hole pairs varies with
the energy of the particle, one can also use such detector to measure the
particle energy.

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6. Non-equilibrium excess carrier

6.1 Carrier generation and recombination
Recombination Processes
Band to band “Direct” R-G Center Auger

Trap-assisted recombinat-
occurs when an electron Auger recombination is a
ion or Shockley-Read-Hall
moves from its CB state process in which an
(SRH) recombination, it
into the empty valence electron and a hole
occurs when an electron
band state associated recombine in a band-to-
falls into a trap, level then,
with the hole. This band- band transition, but now
in a second step, it moves
to-band transition is the resulting energy is
into an empty valence band
typically also a radiative given off to another
state, thereby completing
transition in direct electron or hole. The
the recombination process.
bandgap semiconductors involvement of a third
particle affects the
recombination rate

6. Non-equilibrium excess carrier

6.1 Carrier generation and recombination
Direct and indirect band gap consideration in G-R processes
Direct band-gap SCs Indirect band-gap SCs

E E Virtual
Phonon
emission
states
Ec
Eg Phonon
absorption Eg
EV

k k
Little change in momentum Large change in momentum
is required for recombination is required for recombination
→ momentum is conserved → momentum is conserved by
by photon emission phonon + photon emission

p f = pi p f = pi  ps
E f = Ei + E ph E f = Ei  Es + E ph

final initial final initial phonon photon

photon

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[49]
6. Non-equilibrium excess carrier
6.1 Carrier generation and recombination

Radiative recombination in germanium

25