UNDERSTANDING ALKALINITY AND ACIDITY

By Dr. Keith David Kantor

1 - THE BASICS
1.1 - The Problem
The body is remarkably adept at maintaining a blood pH between 7.35 and 7.45. Just as blood pH operates
within a certain range, so do other cell structures throughout the body, depending on what kind they are and to
which system they belong. This cellular pH can affect both the structure and chemical reactivity of cellular
molecules.
Water is the universal solvent for all life and its chemical properties affect how cells work. Beyond this,
water’s self-ionization plays a role in providing the hydrogen protons needed for certain cellular processes.
Even though the dissociation constant of water is incredibly small, its importance is very large because of the
reactive nature of hydrogen protons in biological systems. Hydrogen protons have profound effects on
metabolism and other cell processes disproportionate to their relatively small number resulting from water’s
self-ionization.
The body has a series of natural buffers which help the blood and cells resist changes in pH. These include
hemoglobin in the red blood cells, plasma proteins, the bicarbonate buffer, and the phosphate buffer. But
buffering does not eliminate acidity, rather it merely neutralizes it with an opposite charge. Neutralization
through buffering and neutralization through elimination are not the same. For this reason, these natural buffers
are able to maintain the pH level but fail to remove the acidic overload (excess hydrogen protons) modern life
imposes on the body. They will keep the cell and blood pH within a set range but acidic conditions can still
affect the body even within these ranges. Stressors come both from without and within the body. What we do
as individuals, or more accurately what we consume, plays an enormous role in how the body can withstand
both the pressures from outside as well as inside the body. Acidity (excess hydrogen protons) leads to
inflammation which in turn can lead to many other health problems.

1.2 - The Nature of Water

In order to understand what happens within the body, one must first understand the nature of water because the
body consists of more than 60% water. Generally, blood is 92% water, the brain and muscles are 75% water,
and bones are about 22% water. At its very core, the body is an aqueous environment so an understanding of
water will lay the foundation upon which alkalinity and acidity can be understood.

A water molecule consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms held together by a covalent bond. A
covalent bond is a chemical bond in which atoms share electron pairs. The water molecule is also a polar
molecule with an electrical dipole moment. This means it has both a positive and a negative side or pole.
Water as a substance can form a large number of intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which results in the tendency
of water molecules to clump together. All of these factors lead to the strong attractive forces water exhibits and
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make water a good polar solvent. In fact, water is a universal solvent, meaning substances dissolve in water
(lose their chemical integrity) rather than water losing its chemical integrity. This, however, is just the
beginning.

Even pure water consists of more than just water molecules. Through a process called self-ionization, two
different ions are formed from water molecules. When one water molecule donates a hydrogen proton to
another water molecule two new ions are formed. The first is called hydroxide (OH-), a negative ion (anion)
that is formed by the water molecule that donates one of its hydrogen protons. The second is called hydronium
(H3O+), a positive ion (cation) that is formed by the second water molecule when it accepts the donated
hydrogen proton. The hydroxide then becomes a hydrogen proton acceptor because it wants to return to being a
water molecule and hydronium becomes a hydrogen proton donor for the same reason. These ions exist in very
small amounts in the overall aqueous solution and usually for short durations but they do play an important role
in water and in the biology of the body. These ions occur because water has an amphiprotic nature, meaning it
can act as both an acid and a base. This then is the power of water; it can transform itself to suit its environment
and always seeks to maintain an equilibrium between the positive and the negative.

1.3 - The Nature of Ions

In order to understand the acid/alkaline (acid/base) relationship we must first look at basic chemistry and the
electro-magnetism involved. Atoms in their natural state exist in balance, with the number of protons which are
positively charged matching the number of electrons which are negatively charged. When an imbalance in this
equilibrium happens, the atom becomes an ion. If it has more protons than electrons, then it is a positively
charged ion called a cation. If it has more electrons than protons, then it is a negatively charged ion called an
anion. In most instances only the word ion is used to refer to both cations and anions. The same rules apply to
molecules and the same naming system. Therefore an ion can either be an atom or a molecule that is
imbalanced and has a charge.
Ions play a major role in the acid/base reaction. The first modern definition describes how acids and bases
interact in an aqueous solution (water). Simply put the Arrhenius theory maintains that:
An acid is any substance that produces hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution.
A base is any substance that produces hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution.
The hydrogen ions form through the dissociation of the acid and the hydroxide ions form by the ionizing of the
base. Bases are said to ionize because they can either dissociate or dissolve whereas acids almost uniformly
dissociate. In both instances, it is the action of water as a universal solvent that sets the ions free. For all
practical purposes the concept of dissociation and dissolution have the same effect of freeing ions in an aqueous
solution.
A hydrogen ion and a hydrogen proton are the same thing because hydrogen is the simplest atom, with one
proton and one electron. When the hydrogen proton exists without its electron, it is an ion or cation to be more
precise. Throughout this article, hydrogen proton or just proton will be used to designate the hydrogen ion.
The Arrhenius theory was limited in its scope because it only dealt with acids and bases in aqueous solutions
and only looked at the relationship between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. In an attempt to solve some of

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the limits of the Arrhenius theory, a new theory emerged put forth separately by two different individuals and
became known as the Brønsted-Lowry theory, named for both of them. The Brønsted-Lowry theory holds that:
Acids are proton donors.
Bases are proton acceptors.
The proton in question is the hydrogen proton (hydrogen ion). Acids have at least one hydrogen proton that
they easily transfer to another substance through a process called deprotonation. Furthermore, since bases are
proton acceptors, they are in fact acceptors of hydrogen protons and this is called protonation. This concept of
hydrogen proton donation and acceptance is fundamental to understanding how alkaline waters work.
The Arrhenius theory gives us the foundation of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions and the Brønsted-Lowry
theory gives us the concept of hydrogen proton transfer. With these theories as our basis, we can now discuss
the fundamental chemistry behind base aqueous solutions, aka alkaline waters, and acidic aqueous solutions.

1.4 - The Nature of Hydroxide

Up to this point we have been discussing the hydroxide ion as if it exists in large quantities in water by itself.
But hydroxide is not normally found by itself in nature, rather it is attached to another element, most commonly
a metal (mineral) to form a base molecule or compound. The strongest bases in terms of alkalinity in an
aqueous solution are the hydroxides formed from the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals.
It is important to note that pH and alkalinity do not measure the same properties. Potential hydrogen (pH)
measures the acid or base properties of a substance while alkalinity measures the quantitative ability of a base to
neutralize an acid. Remember, neutralization of an acid is not necessarily the same as the elimination of an
acid. This will be discussed in detail later on.
The first issue is the structure of the two groups of hydroxides. Alkali metal hydroxides are monovalent and
alkaline earth metal hydroxides are divalent. This means for every one mineral ion in an alkali metal hydroxide
there is only one corresponding hydroxide ion but in alkaline earth metal hydroxides there are two hydroxide
ions for every mineral ion. Simply put, alkaline earth metal hydroxides contain twice as many hydroxide ions
as alkali metal hydroxides.
The next issue is ionization in an aqueous solution that frees the hydroxide ion. The term ionization is used
because it can come about either through dissociation or dissolution. As noted earlier, the concepts of
dissociation and dissolution have the same effect of freeing ions in an aqueous solution. According to
Arrhenius, free hydroxide ions are the most important factor in determining alkalinity in an aqueous solution.
Among the alkali metal hydroxides, potassium and sodium are the strongest in terms of alkalinity in an aqueous
solution. Both completely dissociate in water. This means that the mineral ions (either sodium or potassium)
and the hydroxide ions break apart and float freely in the water. Potassium hydroxide is slightly stronger than
sodium hydroxide.
Among the alkaline earth metal hydroxides, calcium and magnesium are the strongest in terms of alkalinity in
an aqueous solution. Calcium hydroxide is not quite as strong a base as potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide because it is only relatively soluble where the other two completely dissociate. To reach a saturated
solution of calcium hydroxide, an equal amount of undissolved calcium hydroxide must be present in relation to

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the calcium ions and hydroxide ions freely floating in the solution. So for every two free hydroxide ions there
is one corresponding calcium ion and one corresponding calcium hydroxide molecule.
Magnesium hydroxide, on the other hand, is even weaker because it has low solubility and does not dissociate
very well. Even though this is true, magnesium hydroxide is still used as a common component of antacids
because even with its weaker properties it is still effective.
Potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and magnesium hydroxide are all strong bases
with strong alkalinity in an aqueous solution. Magnesium hydroxide is by far the weakest of the four because of
its solubility and dissociation issues. The other three each produce effective levels of free hydroxides in an
aqueous solution.

1.5 - The Nature of Hydronium

As with the hydroxide ion, the hydrogen proton does not exist as its own entity in an aqueous solution in any
large amount. The hydrogen proton always wants to be attached to another atom or molecule that has electrons
it can share. This seems somewhat at odds with the definition of an acid being a hydrogen proton donor but it is
nonetheless true. The hydrogen proton may easily leave an acid but it then seeks to attach itself to another atom
or molecule.
This is where the properties of water step in. As noted, water can act as an acid or a base and is a universal
solvent. According to Arrhenius and later affirmed by Brønsted-Lowry, an acid dissociates in an aqueous
solution because of the solvent properties of water. The freed hydrogen proton then attaches to a water
molecule just as happens in water self-ionization. The new molecule is hydronium (H3O+, a positive ion or
cation). But hydronium does not actually exist in water by itself either. Here the clumping properties of water
due to hydrogen bonding come into play and hydronium is usually found attached to other water molecules so
you end up with hydronium ion/water molecule clusters or complexes.
One well known example is H3O+(H2O)6 and shows a hydronium ion attached to six water molecules. This
cluster is the mean hydration ion in cold water. A second example is H3O+(H2O)20 and shows a hydronium ion
attached to 20 water molecules. This is called the magic ion number structure because of its increased stability.
Two other examples are the Zundel cation and Eigen cation found in the Grotthuss mechanism. These are
H5O2+ and H9O4+, respectively. The first shows a hydronium ion attached to one water molecule and the second
shows a hydronium ion attached to three water molecules.
By its very nature, hydronium is the most acidic species that can exist in water. The logic is simple. An acid
stronger than hydronium will by its very nature deprotonate (donate a proton) through dissociation in an
aqueous solution. Deprotonation is the very definition of a strong acid. The result will be a protonated water
molecule, aka hydronium. A weaker acid is by definition weaker than hydronium. Hydronium formed in acidic
solutions is longer lasting and more concentrated than hydronium that forms through the self-ionization process
in water.
The nature of water, the nature of ions, the nature of hydroxide, and the nature of hydronium are the
fundamental chemistry needed to understand how acids and bases exist and react in an aqueous solution.

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2 - THE BATTLE
2.1 - Overview
How does the knowledge set forth above apply in the real world? What is the best way to arm the body to
handle the acidic load modern life produces both from without and within?
First let’s define exactly what the enemy is, so that we can then figure out how to defeat it. It is clear that since
hydronium is the most acidic species that can exist in an aqueous solution and that the body is by its very nature
an aqueous environment, hydronium necessarily becomes the most important acid to combat in the body. Other
acids may be present but they naturally convert to hydronium through dissociation. Excess hydrogen protons in
the form of hydronium is the real problem. The extra hydrogen proton in hydronium is still highly reactive and
like all acids, hydronium will donate it to another atom or molecule freely under the right circumstances. This
is what makes hydronium so potentially harmful to the human body. First, because hydronium ties up free
water molecules it changes the hydration parameters of the body. Second, although the hydrogen proton may
be attached to a water molecule, it is basically free to act as if it is a free ion since acids by definition are proton
donors. This potential reactivity of the extra hydrogen proton can be combatted by neutralization.

2.2 - Neutralization
As noted earlier, alkalinity is a measure of the quantitative ability of a base to neutralize an acid. There are two
basic methods of neutralization, buffering through addition of alkaline substances and elimination through
transformation. The most common method of neutralization is the addition of an alkaline substance that
provides a negative charge to counter the positive charge of the hydrogen proton. This is the basis of most of
the buffering systems found in the body. This is also the basis of most alkaline waters. In alkaline waters this is
accomplished by the addition of alkaline minerals, trace minerals, or electrolytes. But the addition of an
alkaline substance does not remove the acidity, rather it merely counters it with an opposite charge. In this case
the aqueous solution becomes pH neutral but the troublesome hydrogen proton in the form of hydronium still
remains.
The other form of neutralization is elimination by transformation. When hydroxide ions come into contact with
hydrogen protons they combine and form new water molecules. Here is the basic formula:
OH- + H+ → H2O
This transformation of the hydrogen proton and hydroxide ion into a new water molecule neutralizes the acid
because a water molecule is neutral. Further it removes the hydrogen proton from the aqueous solution and in
fact increases the aqueous solution. The next section will look more closely at the role of hydroxide as an acid
fighter.

2.3 - Hydroxide – The Champion Acid Fighter

As noted in section 1.4 above, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and magnesium
hydroxide all have strong alkalinity in an aqueous solution. These four are the most prevalent hydroxides found
in alkaline waters and will therefore be the focus of this discussion. Of these, potassium hydroxide, sodium
hydroxide, and calcium hydroxide produce the highest degree of free hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution.

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According to the Arrhenius theory, the hydroxide ion readily combines with the hydrogen proton to form water
and thus neutralize the acidic nature of the hydrogen proton. Arrhenius goes further and states that hydrogen
protons freely dissociate from their acids in aqueous solutions much like the hydroxide ions from potassium
hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and calcium hydroxide do. At this point it is important to reiterate that the
hydrogen proton does not actually exist as a free species in an aqueous solution but combines with a water
molecule to form hydronium. So in reality a hydroxide ion combines with a hydronium ion to form two new
water molecules. The chemical equation is this:
OH- + H3O+ → H2O + H2O
Furthermore, the hydroxide ion itself has a low solubility and therefore does not break apart easily. By its very
nature as part of the water molecule structure, it has an inherent drive to return to its natural state as a water
molecule. This then is the power of the hydroxide ion.
These facts lead to a very simple question, how do you supply the most possible free hydroxide ions in an
alkaline water? Several factors play into answering this question. As noted, both potassium hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide are monovalent which means they have one hydroxide ion for every mineral ion. Calcium
hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide, on the other hand, are divalent so they have two hydroxide ions for every
mineral ion. The simple math would support the idea then that the calcium and magnesium hydroxides must
provide more free hydroxide ions but this is misleading. As noted, magnesium hydroxide has a very low
solubility, so it does not produce many free hydroxide ions. Calcium hydroxide is relatively soluble except
when in the presence of potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, then its solubility decreases rapidly. This
means if an alkaline water is using many different minerals in its ionization process to create its hydroxide, the
potassium and sodium hydroxides would produce the highest degree of free hydroxide ions and the calcium
hydroxide would be inhibited from doing so. It also means more minerals are necessary because of their
monovalent properties.

2.4 - Electro-Magnetically Induced Ionization

In sections 1.3 and 1.4 above, the term ionization was used to describe the process by which the hydroxide ion
is freed from its mineral ion partner through either dissociation or dissolution. In this section ionization will
refer to the process by which the hydroxide ion is removed from a water molecule. Both processes are forms of
ionization but in the first one the hydroxide ion is separated from a mineral ion and in this section the hydroxide
ion is separated from a hydrogen proton.
Most alkaline waters on the market today recognize the fact that minerals alone cannot effectively combat
acidity. Although most alkaline waters rely mostly on added minerals, they also seek to give the body more
potent ammunition. In most cases this ammunition comes in the form of negative ions. Although most may not
say so, the negative ions are in fact hydroxide.
Most of the leading alkaline waters on the market today claim they have or add negative ions. The question is
how do they do this? They use the same technology that alkalinizing water machines use. Both the ready to
drink alkaline waters in the store and the alkaline water machines sold for home use employ the same basic
technology. It is important to note at this point that although each of these may claim that their technology is
different or special or even patented, the simple fact is they all use the same basic principles. In order to create
hydroxide they all apply electro-magnetism to break apart the water molecule into hydroxide ions and hydrogen

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protons. Although they all uniformly use the term hydrogen proton, as noted earlier, a free hydrogen proton
will immediately attach to any molecule with which it can share an electron. Since other water molecules are
within reach, the newly freed hydrogen proton will protonate one of these water molecules and form the
hydronium ion. This electro-magnetism is applied in the presence of minerals, most notably sodium, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium among others. The mineral hydroxide rich water produced in this process is the
alkaline water product and the acid rich hydrogen (hydronium) water is discarded or used for other purposes.
This basic method for producing negative ions is used by both ready to drink alkaline waters and alkaline water
machines for home use.
Since this is the way most of the industry creates negative ions (hydroxide), is this the only way to do it? The
short answer is no. In most alkaline waters, the free hydroxide ions available are limited by the amount of
minerals present because of the reasons noted in section 2.3. But does this always have to be the case? The
simple answer is no.

3 – A DIFFERENT METHOD
3.1 – Hydroxide Rich Water Approach
As noted in section 2.2, most alkaline waters use the addition of alkaline minerals, trace minerals, or
electrolytes as the basis of their alkalinity and therefore their approach to combatting acidity. This means
buffering rather than elimination is the main method of neutralization. To bolster the buffering capabilities of
these minerals, most alkaline waters also undergo ionization as discussed in section 2.4. This forms hydroxide
which is necessarily limited by this method of production. Because most alkaline waters see addition of
minerals as the most important tool and hydroxide as only a secondary tool, their ability to take advantage of the
acid eliminating potential of hydroxide is limited.
A far better approach is to seek to increase the amount of free hydroxide ions available because these neutralize
excess acid by elimination rather than just buffering as demonstrated in section 2.3. The best way to increase
free hydroxide ions is to add hydroxide from natural sources to the water rather than creating them through
electromagnetically induced ionization. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and calcium hydroxide are the
best candidates to provide the most free hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution. Historically, sodium hydroxide
and potassium hydroxide were both produced by combining calcium hydroxide with either sodium carbonate
(soda ash) or potassium carbonate (potash), respectively. Today they are manufactured through easier, cheaper
processes. Calcium hydroxide, on the other hand, is still created from calcium carbonate (limestone) through
the introduction of heat and then water. All three of these are good sources of free hydroxide ions but each has
different strengths and weaknesses.
As noted in section 1.4, both sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are monovalent. This means they
only have one hydroxide ion for each mineral ion. Calcium hydroxide, on the other hand, is divalent meaning it
has two hydroxide ions for each mineral ion. Calcium hydroxide, therefore, has the potential to have twice as
many hydroxide ions available for the same amount of mineral content as the other two.
Also noted in section 1.4, both sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide almost completely dissociate in an
aqueous solution which means the hydroxide ions and the minerals ions break apart almost completely.
Calcium hydroxide is relatively soluble so its ions do not break apart completely like the others do. Calcium

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hydroxide will break apart at a rate of about 50%. This means for every two free hydroxide ions there will be
one calcium ion and one calcium hydroxide molecule.
Any of these three when added to water will provide an abundance of free hydroxide ions. Each can also be
naturally processed to remove much of the mineral content while concentrating the free hydroxide ion content
through precipitation and other means. The water then becomes a hydroxide rich water rather than just an
alkaline water. Hydroxide rich water by its very nature is a far stronger acid fighter than alkaline waters that
rely chiefly on minerals for their alkalinity. Combatting acidity by transforming excess hydrogen protons back
into water molecules eliminates the acidity rather than just countering it by buffering. Elimination through
transformation reduces the acidic load while also providing hydration. This hydration can then be used by the
body or easily removed through normal channels.

3.2 – A Practical Application

The role of lactic acid in muscle fatigue during exercise has fallen under much scrutiny in recent times. Current
research and theory holds that it is a buildup of hydrogen ions in the muscles that is to blame. Whether these
hydrogen ions come from dissociation from lactic acid or are created during the break down of ATP, is still a
matter of debate. The fact that the acidity associated with the presence of these hydrogen ions is the cause of
muscle fatigue is now almost universally accepted. As noted throughout this article, hydrogen ions do not exist
as a distinct species in an aqueous solution, so the real culprit is hydronium. As has already been established,
hydroxide would be the best, most natural solution to help the body deal with this buildup. This makes
hydroxide rich water with its high concentration of free hydroxide ions uniquely qualified to help solve the
problem of exercise induced hydrogen ion (hydronium) buildup in the muscles.
The free hydroxide ions from hydroxide rich water are readily available for the body to use to help maintain the
acid-base balance in any cell or system in the body. When a hydrogen ion dissociates from an acid or is
otherwise produced as a by-product of some other chemical reaction, it attaches to a water molecule and turns it
from H2O into H3O, the hydronium ion. When hydroxide comes into contact with the hydronium, it combines
and two new water molecules are formed. As noted earlier, the chemical equation is this:
H3O+ + OH- → H2O + H2O
The free hydroxide ions that hydroxide rich water provides the body, work seamlessly within the biological
mechanisms the body already uses to maintain its acid-base balance. Because the end product is water, balance
is restored, inflammation is reduced, hydration is enhanced, and detoxification is bolstered.

4 – CONCLUSION
4.1 – The Source Matters
Most alkaline waters focus first and foremost on adding minerals to increase alkalinity. They then use
electromagnetically induced ionization to create negative ions, aka hydroxide. This process, by its very nature,
limits the amount of free hydroxide ions that can be produced and utilized. Adding naturally sourced mineral
hydroxides provides far more hydroxide ions than electromagnetically induced ionization can. Naturally
sourced mineral hydroxides also allow for the concentration of free hydroxide ions and the minimization of
mineral ions. By focusing on the hydroxide and not the minerals, it is possible to create a hydroxide rich water.

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Alkalinity based on hydroxide content is far more effective in combatting acidity than alkalinity based on
mineral content.

4.2 – The Method of Neutralization Matters

When mineral content is the focus of a water’s alkalinity then buffering is the main method of neutralization.
Buffering rebalances pH but it does not eliminate acidity. The hydrogen protons are still there to disrupt the
body’s biology. When hydroxide content is the focus of a water then acid elimination through transformation is
the main method of neutralization. Concentrating the free hydroxide ions while minimizing the mineral content
increases the acid eliminating capabilities of the water. Hydroxide ions neutralize acidity by transforming the
acid back into water that can then be used for hydration or detoxification. Neutralization through
transformation eliminates the acid completely and removes its disruptive effects on the body’s biological
systems. Buffering merely stabilizes the pH but cannot stop the disruptive effects of the presence of excess
acidity.

REFERENCES
● 1.1 Properties of Water

Source: http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/fl1_1.php

● 2.6 Regulation of Intracellular Hydrogen Ion Concentration

2.6.1 Importance of Intracellular [H+]

2.6.2 ‘Intracellular Buffering’

Source: http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/AcidBaseBook/ab2_6.php#261

● MAINTAINING CELLULAR CONDITIONS: pH AND BUFFERS

Source: http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/webmodules/phbuffers.html

● Arrhenius theory

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/Arrhenius-theory

Source: Myers, Richard (2003). The Basics of Chemistry. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 157–161. ISBN 978-0-313-
31664-7.

● Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/Bronsted-Lowry-theory

Source: Masterton, William; Hurley, Cecile; Neth, Edward (2011). Chemistry: Principles and Reactions. Cengage Learning.
p. 433. ISBN 1-133-38694-6.

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● Alkalinity Table (hydroxides and carbonates)

Source: http://www.aquatext.com/tables/alktables.htm

● Hydroxide

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxide

Source: Marx, D.; Chandra, A; Tuckerman, M.E. (2010). "Aqueous Basic Solutions: Hydroxide Solvation, Structural
Diffusion, and Comparison to the Hydrated Proton". Chem. Rev. 110 (4): 2174–2216.

● Calcium hydroxide

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide

● Sodium hydroxide

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide

● Potassium hydroxide

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide

● Hydronium

Source: http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Physical_Chemistry/Acids_and_Bases/Aqueous_Solutions/
The_Hydronium_Ion

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium

● Acid Base Reactions

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction

● Lactic Acid/Lactate

Source: http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/lactate.html

Source: http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/lactic-acid.html

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