UNIT I

INTRODUCTION
1. lllustrate the difference between message passing and shared memory process
communication model.
[Nov/Dec 2022]
In this model, data is shared by sending and receiving messages between co-operating
processes, using system calls . Message Passing is particularly useful in a distributed environment
where the communicating processes may reside on different, network connected, systems. The
major challenges in distributed systems
 Heterogeneity: The Internet enables users to access services and run applications over a
heterogeneous collection of computers and networks.
 Transparency
 Openness.
 Concurrency.
 Security.
 Scalability.
Shared memory system is the fundamental model of inter process communication. In a
shared memory system, in the address space region the cooperating communicate with each
other by establishing the shared memory region. Shared memory concept works on fastest inter
process communication

2. Explain the types of group communication used in distributed system. [Nov/Dec 2022]
Systems hardware and software can be categorized under the following:
Communication between two processes in a distributed system is required to exchange
various data, such as code or a file, between the processes. When one source process tries to
communicate with multiple processes at once, it is called Group Communication
 Operating system: Harnesses communication between hardware, system programs, and
other applications.
 Device driver: Enables device communication with the OS and other programs.
 Firmware: Enables device control and identification.
 Translator: Translates high-level languages to low-level machine codes.
 Utility: Ensures optimum functionality of devices and applications.

3. Why global states are essential in distributed computing systems? Elaborate with an
example. [Nov/Dec 2021]

The global state of a distributed system is the set of local states of each individual
processes involved in the system plus the state of the communication channels. At any point in
computation there is at most one event that can happen next.
 Spontaneous networking is referenced here as the integration of services and devices into
network environments with the objective of an instantaneous service availability without
any manual intervention.
 There are two areas of spontaneous networking, a device concerned one and a service
concerned one. The first area includes all tasks required for integrating a node into the
communication infrastructure like negotiation of transmissions protocols and speeds,
configuration of addresses, routing information, and other resources.
  Automatic device integration into network environments handles all tasks making the device
able to communicate with others. That includes the configuration of physical and logical
parameters
 In Ethernet and IP based networks there exists a variety of protocols that provide
mechanisms for automatic parameter configuration [Ste96]. Table 2 gives a short
description of some of them
4. Elaborate any two logical dock categories in distributed systems with an example.
[Nov/Dec 2021]
A logical clock is a mechanism for capturing chronological and causal relationships in
a distributed system. Distributed systems may have no physically synchronous global clock, so a
logical clock allows global ordering on events from different processes in such systems

(1) the user must run a program on her device that listens for these URLs, and which gives the user
sufficient control that she is not swamped by unwanted URLs of the places she passes through; and

(2) the means of propagating the URL (e.g. infrared or an 802.11 wireless LAN) should have a
reach that corresponds to the physical spread of the place itself.

3. Categorize the application areas of distributed systems. [April/May 2018]

Telecommunication networks:
 telephone networks and cellular networks,
 computer networks such as the Internet,
 wireless sensor networks,
 routing algorithms;
Network applications:
 World Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks,
 massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities,

 distributed databases and distributed database management systems,

 network file systems,
 distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline
reservation systems;
Real-time process control:
 aircraft control systems,
 industrial control systems;

4. Summarize the recent trends in distributed system. [April/May 2018]

 Ethernet - the name given to the popular local area packet-switched network technology
invented by Xerox PARC. The Ethernet is a 10 Mbit/s broadcast bus technology with
distributed access control.
 FDDI - the Fiber Distributed Data Interface. FDDI is a 100-Mbit/sec token-passing ring
that uses optical fiber for transmission between stations and has dual counter-rotating rings
to provide redundant data paths for reliability.
 HiPPI - the high-performance parallel interface. HiPPI is a copper-based data
communications standard capable of transferring data at 800 Mbit/sec over 32 parallel lines
or 1.6 Gbit/sec over 64 parallel lines. Most commercially available high-performance
computers offer a HIPPI interface. It is a point-to-point channel that does not support
multidrop configurations.
  SONET - Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a series of optical signals that are
multiples of a basic signal rate of 51.84 Mbit/sec called OC-1. The OC-3 (155.52 Mbit/sec)
and OC-12 (622.08 Mbit/sec) have been designated as the customer access rates in future B-
ISDN networks, and signal rates of OC-192 (9.952 Gbit/sec) are defined.
 ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode. ATM is the technique for transport, multiplexing,
and switching that provides a high degree of flexibility required by B-ISDN. ATM is a
connection-oriented protocol employing fixed-size packets with a 5-byte header and 48
bytes of information.

5. Consider a distributed system environment of the prevailing WWW and discuss the
challenges meeting out sharing of resources. [April/May 2018]
HTTP (short for Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the message protocol that supports the
World Wide Web. It specifies the format of messages exchanged between a web browser and a web
server. All web browsers use the HTTP format to request pages from a web server, and all web
servers use the HTTP format to send back their responses.
Client/Server model Clients are active and servers are passive ˆ Caching technique vs.
buffering ˆ The WWW (World Wide Web) the "hypertext" structure among the documents. Open
system Standard technological components:
• HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
• URL (Uniform Resource Locators)
• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol). ˆ
URL scheme:scheme-specific-identifier ˆ HTTP A request-reply protocol Specify content types
in request One resource per request Dynamic pages, Downloaded code (mobile code)

6. List the various challenges in distributed in distributed systems and explain them.
(Nov/Dec 2017) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Challenges of distributed systems
 Heterogeneity
 Openness
 Security
 Scalability
 Failure Handling
 Concurrency
 Transparency
7. Elaborate on the recent trends in distributed systems.
(Nov/Dec 2017), (Nov/Dec 2016)
(Or)
Explain in detail about trends in distributed systems. (May/June 2016)
 Pervasive networking and the modern internet
 Mobile and ubiquitous computing
 Distributed multimedia systems
 Distributed computing as a utility
8. How resource sharing is done in distributed systems. (Nov/Dec 2016)
 The term resource is a rather abstract one, but it best characteristics the range of things that
can usefully be shared in a networking system.
 Resources in a distributed system are encapsulated within one computer and can only be
accessed from other computers by communication.
  For effective sharing, each resource must be managed by a program that offers a
communication interface enabling the resources to be accessed
9. Enlighten the examples of distributed systems. (May/June 2016)
 The internet
 An intranet which is a portion of the internet managed by an organization
 Mobile and ubiquitous computing
 Air traffic control
 Modern data centers
10. Write a short note on WWW (May/June 2016)
 WWW is an evolving system for publishing and accessing resources and services across the
internet
 It is a collection of million s of files stored on thousands of servers and communication
standards over the world.
 It uses client server interaction
 The browser acts as a client that uses the internet to contract a remote server.
11. Explain the goals of distributed systems.
 Making resource available
 Distribution transparency
 Openness
 Scalability
12. Describe in detail about types of transparency.
 Location transparency: User using resources need not know the location of the resource
 Access transparency: Using identical operations
 Concurrency transparency: Several processed operate concurrently
 Replication transparency: Multiple instances of resources to be used
 Failure transparency: User and application to complete their tasks
 Mobility transparency: Movement of resources
 Performance transparency: Allows the system to be reconfigured
 Scaling transparency: Allows the system and application to expand the scale.
13. List the advantages and disadvantages of transparency.
Advantages transparency
 Easier for the user
 Doesn’t have to better with system topology
 Doesn’t has to know about changes
 Easier to understand
Disadvantages transparency:
 Optimization cannot be done by programmer or user
 Strange behavior when the underlying system fails
 Underlying system can be very complete
14. Discuss the techniques for dealing with failure.
 Detecting failures: not all failures are detected but some of the failure can be detected
 Masking failure: failure are hidden or made less server.
 Tolerating failures: in the internet, client can be designed
 Recovery from failures: recovery involves the design of software
 Redundancy: services can be made to tolerate failures.
15. Explain the example of hardware resource sharing.
  Computing server: It executes processor intensive applications
 Remote object server: It executes methods on behalf of clients.
 Worm program: It shares CPU capacity of desktops
 Memory: cache server holds recently accessed web pages
 Disk: file server, virtual disk serer
 Screen: network windows systems
 Printer: networked printers accept print jobs from many computers.

16. Discuss the example of software resources.

 Web page: web servers enable multiple clients to share read only page content
 File: file servers enables multiple clients to share read write files
 Object: possibilities for software objects.
 Database: databases are intended to record the definitive state of some relation sets of data
 Newsgroup content: the network system makes read makes read only copies
 Video/audio stream: servers can store entire videos on disk
17. Explain the characteristics of centralized systems.
 One component with non-autonomous parts
 Component shared by users all the time
 All resources accessible
 Software runs in a single process
 Single Point of control
 Single Point of failure
18. Discuss about the characteristics of distributed systems
 Multiple autonomous components
 Components are not shared by all users
 Resources may not be accessible
 Software runs in concurrent processes on different processors
 Multiple Points of control
 Multiple Points of failure
19. Elaborate the application of distributed system.
Telecommunication networks:
 Telephone networks and cellular networks,
 Computer networks such as the Internet,
 Wireless sensor networks,
 Routing algorithms;
Network applications:
 World Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks,
 Massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities,
 Distributed databases and distributed database management systems,
 Network file systems,
 Distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline
reservation systems;
Real-time process control:
 Aircraft control systems,
 Industrial control systems;
 Parallel computation:
 Scientific computing, including cluster computing and grid computing and various
volunteer computing projects (see the list of distributed computing projects),
  Distributed rendering in computer graphics.
20. Explain the primary motivation of distributed computing
Resources types
 Hardware, e.g. printer, scanner, camera
 Data, e.g. file, database, web page
 More specific functionality, e.g. search engine, file
Service
Manage a collection of related resources and present their functionalities to users and
applications
Server
A process on networked computer that accepts requests from processes on other computers
to perform a service and responds appropriately
Client
The requesting process
Remote invocation
A complete interaction between client and server, from the point when the client sends its
request to when it receives the server’s response
21. Explain the description of a relevant aspect of distributed system design.
 Physical models are the most explicit way in which to describe a system; they capture the
hardware composition of a system in terms of the computers (and other devices, such as
Mobile phones) and their interconnecting networks.
 Architectural models describe a system in terms of the computational and communication
tasks performed by its computational elements; the computational elements being
individual computers or aggregates of them supported by appropriate network
interconnections.
 Fundamental models take an abstract perspective in order to examine individual aspects of
a distributed system. The fundamental models that examine three important aspects of
distributed systems
 interaction models, which consider the structure and sequencing of the communication
between the elements of the system; failure models, which consider the ways in which a
system may fail to operate correctly and; security models, which consider how the system
is protected against attempts to interfere with its correct operation or to steal its data.
22. Discuss the major influence on the design of the system software.
 Access transparency enables local and remote resources to be accessed using
identical operations.
 Location transparency enables resources to be accessed without knowledge of their
physical or network location (for example, which building or IP address).
 Concurrency transparency enables several processes to operate concurrently using
shared resources without interference between them.
 Replication transparency enables multiple instances of resources to be used to increase
reliability and performance without knowledge of the replicas by users or application
programmers.
 Failure transparency enables the concealment of faults, allowing users and application
programs to complete their tasks despite the failure of hardware or software components.
 Mobility transparency allows the movement of resources and clients within a system
without affecting the operation of users or programs.
 Performance transparency allows the system to be reconfigured to improve
performance as loads vary.
 Scaling transparency allows the system and applications to expand in scale without
change to the system structure or the application algorithms.
23. Elaborate the challenge of failures
 Masking failures: Some failures that have been detected can be hidden or made less
 severe.
 Tolerating failures: Most of the services in the Internet do exhibit failures – it would not
be practical for them to attempt to detect and hide all of the failures that might occur in
such a large network with so many components..
 Recovery from failures: Recovery involves the design of software so that the state of
permanent data can be recovered or ‘rolled back’ after a server has crashed.
24. Explain the Challenges of scalable distributed systems
 Controlling the cost of physical resources: As the demand for a resource grows, it should
be possible to extend the system, at reasonable cost, to meet it.
 Controlling the performance loss: Consider the management of a set of data whose size is
proportional to the number of users or resources in the system
 Preventing software resources running out: An example of lack of scalability is shown by
the numbers used as Internet (IP) addresses (computer addresses in the Internet).
 Avoiding performance bottlenecks: In general, algorithms should be decentralized to
avoid having performance bottlenecks
25. Write a short note on HTTP
Defines the ways in which browsers and any other types of client interact with web servers
(RFC2616)
Main features
 Request-replay interaction
 Content types. The strings that denote the type of content are called MIME
(RFC2045,2046)
 One resource per request. HTTP version 1.0
 Simple access control
26. Explain about failures of Distributed system.

 Tolerating failures: Most of the services in the Internet do exhibit failures – it would not
be practical for them to attempt to detect and hide all of the failures that might occur in
such a large network with so many components..
 Recovery from failures: Recovery involves the design of software so that the state of
permanent data can be recovered or ‘rolled back’ after a server has crashed.
27. Explain the goals of distributed systems.
Resources types
 Hardware, e.g. printer, scanner, camera
 Data, e.g. file, database, web page
 More specific functionality, e.g. search engine, file
Service
Manage a collection of related resources and present their functionalities to users and
applications
Server
A process on networked computer that accepts requests from processes on other computers
to perform a service and responds appropriately
Client
The requesting process
Remote invocation
A complete interaction between client and server, from the point when the client sends its
request to when it receives the server’s response
28 . Explain about resource sharing in distributed systems.
 The term resource is a rather abstract one, but it best characteristics the range of things that
can usefully be shared in a networking system.
 UNIT II

MESSAGE ORDERING &SNAPSHOTS

1.What are the four different types of ordering the messages?Explain. [Nov/Dec 2022]

Message ordering normally means that each subscriber receives messages from a
particular queue manager, on a particular topic, from a particular publisher in the order that they
are published by that publisher

 Distributed-memory multiprocessors usually have to perform interprocess communicaton by

passing messages from one processor to another.

 Many techniques are known for programming shared-memory multiprocessors.

 Communication can be performed by simply writing to memory for the other

processors to read.
 For synchronization, critical sections can be used with semaphores, monitors, etc.
providing mutual exclusion.
2.Elucidate on the total and casual order in distributed system with a neat diagram ?
[Nov/Dec 2022]
Causal order indicates a cause-effect relationship in a paper/speech. For example,
if your speech/paper is on the price of tuition you might make the claim that rising tuition is
making it difficult for students to go to school. This main idea has two main points that are
in causal order. Cause-Tuition is rising
 The rate of arrival of client requests is unpredictable. If the server uses threads to execute
the requests concurrently, it may not be able to allocate sufficient time to a particular request
within any given time limit.
 If the server queues the request and carries them out one at a time, they may wait in the
queue for an unlimited amount of time.
 To execute requests within bounded time, limit the number of clients to suit its capacity. To
deal with more clients, use a server with more processors.
 After that, (or instead) replicate the service.... The solution may be costly and in some cases
keeping the replicas consistent may take up useful processing cycles, reducing those
available for executing requests.
3. Discuss the purpose of message ordering paradigms and provide example for
asynchronous execution communication in detail [Nov/Dec 2021]
Message system act as intermediate among independent processes. It is also act as
switch through which process exchange messages asynchronously in decoupled manner.
 Software architecture, publish–subscribe is a messaging pattern where senders of messages,
called publishers, do not program the messages to be sent directly to specific receivers,
called subscribers, but instead categorize published messages into classes without
knowledge of which subscribers, if any, there may be Similarly, subscribers express interest
in one or more classes and only receive messages that are of interest, without knowledge of
which publishers, if any, there are.
  Publish–subscribe is a sibling of the message queue paradigm, and is typically one part of a
larger message-oriented middleware system. Most messaging systems support both the
pub/sub and message queue models in their API, e.g. Java Message Service (JMS).

4. Describe the snapshot algorithms which could be applied for FIFO channels with
diagrammatic representation.
[Nov/Dec 2021]
The Chandy-Lamport algorithm uses a control message, called a marker whose role in a
FIFO system is to separate messages in the channels. After a site has recorded its snapshot, it sends
a marker, along all of its outgoing channels before sending out any more messages
Failure modes for distributed systems as perceived for the user of those systems
 Crash failures
 Timing failures
 Omission failures
 Byzantine failures
 Byzantine or arbitrary failures
 Authentification detectable byzantine failures
 Performance failures
 Fail-stop failures
5. Compare the various types of system models in distributed environment.
[April/May 2018]
An architectural model of a distributed system defines the way in which the components of the
system interact with each other and the way in which they are mapped onto an underlying network
of computers. E.gs. include the client-server model and the peer process model.
The client-server model can be modified by:
 The partition of data or replication at cooperating servers
 The caching of data by proxy servers and clients
 The use of mobile code and mobile agents. E.g. applets and object serialization

There is no global time in a distributed system so all communication is achieved by message

passing. This is subject to delays, failures of various kinds on the networks, and security attacks.
These issues are addressed by three models:
1) The interaction model deals with performance and with the difficulty in setting time limits
in a distributed system, for example for message delivery.
2) The failure model attempts to give precise definitions for the various faults exhibited by
processes and networks. It defines reliable communication and correct processes.
The security model discusses possible threats to processes and networks.
6. List and explain the part of distributed object model. [April/May 2018]
Distributed objects differ in many respects. Here are some of them:

1. Life cycle : Creation, migration and deletion of distributed objects is different from local
objects
2. Reference : Remote references to distributed objects are more complex than simple pointers
to memory addresses
3. Request Latency : A distributed object request is orders of magnitude slower than local
method invocation
 4. Object Activation : Distributed objects may not always be available to serve an object
request at any point in time
5. Parallelism : Distributed objects may be executed in parallel.
6. Communication : There are different communication primitives available for distributed
objects requests
7. Failure : Distributed objects have far more points of failure than typical local objects.
8. Security : Distribution makes them vulnerable to attack.

7. Give a note on characteristics of group communication. [April/May 2018]

 Indirect communication – Communication through an intermediary – No direct coupling
between the sender and the receiver(s)
• Group communication – Messages sent to a group of processes and delivered to all
members of the group
• One-to-many communication
• Provide reliability and ordering guarantees
• Group management functionality
• Maintain membership
• Detect failure of member(s)
 Interface for group membership changes – Create and destroy groups, add or remove
members to a group
• Failure detection – Mark processes as suspected or unsuspected and remove those
processes that have (suspected) failed – Notify members of group membership changes
– Processes that join or leave – Perform group address expansion
8. Explain in detail about the fundamental model of communication in distributed systems.
(Nov/Dec 2017)
 Defines the ways in which failure may occur in order to provide an understanding of its
effects.
 Omission failures
 Arbitrary failures
 Timing failures
9. Explain in detail about RPC architecture with the functionality of its components.
(Nov/Dec 2017)
 developed by sun micro systems
 When making rpc ,the calling environment is suspended, procedure parameters are
transferred across the network to the environment
 RPC Model
 Transparency of RPC
 Implementing RPC mechanism
 Stub generation
 RPC Messages
10. Illustrate TCP and UDP communication with suitable examples programs.
(Nov/Dec 2016), (May/June 2016)
TCP communication:
 Creating a stream socket bound to any free port
 Making a connect request to a server
 Creating a listening socket
 Making accept request to reply a client
 Creating a new stream socket
 Keeping the listening socket
UDP communication:
 Create a socket
 Send and receive data
 Server side create a socket
 Bind the socket to an address
11. Explain any two indirect communication techniques in detail. (Nov/Dec 2016)
It uses third entity for providing indirect communication. There is a strong degree of
decoupling between senders and receivers
Space uncoupling: senders do not need to know who they are sending to.
Time uncoupling: senders and receivers do not need to exist at the same time.
12. Write down the steps in javaRMI and explain it with suitable programs.
(May/June 2016)
 Define the remote interface
 Develop the remote object by implementing the remote interface
 Develop the client program
 Compile the java source files
 Generate the client stubs and server skeletons
 Start the RMI registry
 Start the remote server objects
 Run the client
13. Bring out the features of distributed object model.
 Remote object references: It access the remote object
 Remote interfaces: It specify which methods can be invoked remotely
 Actions: It initiated by a method invocation may result in further invocations.
 Exceptions: During the execution of the method invoked.
 Garbage collection: It must be provided to free up the space used by objects.
14. Discuss about design and implementation of DSM.
Implementation of DSM
 Hardware: It is shared memory multiprocessor based on un uniform memory access
architecture
 Paged virtual memory: It occupies same address range in the address space of each
process.
 Middleware: Underlying physical implementation at each node is observed.
15. Elucidate the design issues for RMI.
Design issues for RMI
 RMI invocation semantics
 May be semantics
 At least once semantics
 At most once semantics
  Level of transparency
 Stub and skeleton in RMI

16. Explain with diagrammatic illustration the working of remote procedure call.
Working of Remote Procedure Call
 The client calls a local procedure called client stub
 These network messages are sent to the remote system
 The network messages are transferred to the remote system
 A server stub procedure is waiting on the remote system
 The server stub executes a local procedures call
 When the server procedures is finished

17. Explain the Remote procedure call (RPC) mechanism with various functional
components.
 Push arguments onto stack
 Trap to kernel
 Kernel memory map of clients
 Client thread executes procedures
 Thread traps to kernel
 Kernel changes the address
18. Describe CORBA RMI and its services.
Methods Remarks
GET It retrieves information identified by the URI
POST It sends information to a URI and retrieves result.
HEAD It retrieves meta information
PUT Store information in location
DELETE It remove entity

19. Write the characteristics that illustrates IP multicast.

 Replicated services: a replicated service consists of a group of members.
 Better performance: performance of service is increase by using data replication.\
 Propagation of events notification: multicast to a group may be used notify processes when
something happens.
20. Explain the marshalling operations in CORBA.
Marshalling is the process of assembling a collection of data item into a form
Operations are
 CORBA’s common data representation (CDR)
 Concerned with an external representation for the structure and primitives types
 Can be used by a variety of programming languages.
 Java serialization
 Concerned with the flattening objects
 Used only a java
21. Discuss the UDP datagram communication.
Steps on the client side
 Create a socket using socket () functions.
  Send and receive data by means of the recv( ) and send to ( ) functions.
Steps on the server side are as follows:
 Create a socket with the socket ( ) function
 Bind the socket to an address using bind ( ) functions
 Send and receive data by means of recv ( ) and send to ( )
22. Discuss TCP stream communication.
The client role involves
 Creating a stream socket bound to any free port
 Making a connect request to a server at its server port.
The server role involves
 Creating a listening socket bound to a server port and waiting for clients to request
connections
 Making accept request to reply a client request at its port
 Creating a new stream socket to communicate with this client
 Keeping the listening socket for new connecting requests.
23. Describe the steps developing an EJB application.
 Create the EJB
 Code the remote interface
 Code the home interface
 Code the bean
 Start J2EE server
 Deploy the EJB using deploy tool
 Create and compile a client code
 Execute the client code
24. Explain the types of EJB.
 Session beans
 Stateless session bean
 Stateful session bean
 Stateful Vs stateless
 Message driven bean
 Entity beans
25. Explain the implementation of publish subscribe system.
Publish subscribe system can be implemented by a centralized server or by a network of
message routes.
 Centralized broker model
 Peer to peer model
26. Discuss the characteristics of publish subscribe system.
 Asynchronous communication: publishers and subscribers are loosely coupled
 Many to many interactions between publisher and subscriber
 Content based pub/sub very expressive
 Heteronogeneous: distributed event based system to allow connecting heterogeneous.
27. Explain the steps to developing an RMI system.
 Define the remote interface
 Develop the remote object by implementing the remote interface
 Develop the client program
 Complete the java source files
  Generate the client stubs and server skeletons
 Start the RMI registry
 Star the remote server objects
 Run the client
28. Describe the developing RMI application in detail.
 Define server object interface
 Define server implementation object
 Create and register server object
 Develop client program
29. Explain the styles of protocols.
Request protocol
 Request protocol is also called as R protocol
 No confirmation is required to the client.
Request /reply protocol
 This protocol is also known as the RR protocol
 It is used both by operating system
Request/reply/acknowledge reply protocol
 This protocol is also known as RRA protocol
 It requires clients to acknowledge the receipt of reply messages.
30. Explain the types of overlay network.
 Distributed hash tables
 Peer to peer file sharing
 Content distribution networks
 Content
 Content provider
 Origin provider surrogate server
 Wireless ad hoc networks.
31. Explain the API for internet protocols
 General characteristics of inter process communication
 Socket
 UDP datagram communication
 TCP stream communication
32. Explain in detail about failure model.
 Omission failures
 Process omission failures
 Communication failures
 Arbitrary failures
 Timing failure
 Masking failure