Chapter I
Multimedia Essentials and
Challenges
Baha A. Khasawneh
Princess Sumaya University for Technology, Jordan

Abstract

This chapter introduces multimedia and multimedia elements and technology that are influencing and
will continue to influence much of the exchanged data over the Internet today. It presents all the elements
of multimedia with an emphasis on the basic building block of each element and how it integrates with
the other elements to achieve a better multimedia content. This chapter also presents the close relation
between advancements in multimedia technology and the immense use of the Internet. In addition,
various popular image, audio, and video standards are presented with more emphasis on compression
standards that are influencing multimedia use. Furthermore, we hope the inclusion of a section dealing
with copyrights, ownership, and cross-platform issues will shed light on the challenges facing multime-
dia producers and owners alike. Finally, the chapter includes some of the future challenges and issues
facing the research community for the advancement of multimedia uses.

Introduction

The term multimedia or multimedia technology is an overloaded term that has diverse meaning to
different people, depending on their use of the various multimedia elements. For some, it means the
deployment of computers to deliver information in various forms such as text, video, or audio. For oth-
ers, it is the capacity to manipulate and distribute content via a communication apparatus that includes
audio, video, or presentational forms. Nevertheless, multimedia technology is all of that and more; by
definition, multimedia is the design, implementation, manipulation, storing, and proper delivery of
various types of media to interested users. From this characterization and in order to make this process
efficiently effective, a team of specialized individuals and capable machines are essential to ensure

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 Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

that the integrated elements are well designed for the appropriate use, as well as stored and transmitted
within the limitation of storage capabilities and the transmission constraints (Vaughan, 2004; Lewis
& Luciana, 2005).
Multimedia is divided into three major types: interactive multimedia where users control the deliv-
ery of the integrated elements, hypermedia where users are presented with navigational capabilities,
and liner multimedia such as TV or radio where users have no control over the flow of information and
have no interaction.
In this chapter, we will look at the various types of multimedia elements and their design, usage,
integration, storage, and transmission. We will also present the techniques and standards used for com-
pression and delivery of the various multimedia content. Multimedia library techniques and usage are
also discussed and presented to highlight the overwhelming use of such media in all aspects of life.

Multimedia and the Internet

The World Wide Web is the largest collection of networks that shares information on every subject and is
considered the largest hypermedia application. Its importance is most visible in the universal and equal
access to disperse resources and the diversity of information available to everyone everywhere.

Figure 1. Popular Web2.0 home pages (Youtube.com and Napster.com)


Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

In the last decade, most of the information transmitted over the Internet has been of the multimedia
nature, including images, music, and video movies. This is evident in the numerous Web pages available
to users with all types of interest. As an example, most if not all newspapers have an electronic edition
of their newspaper on the Internet, which contains all the printed news in addition to extra up-to-date
news, images of current events, forums of discussions, advertisements, and an archive for older editions.
Other examples include businesses that sell music of the latest CDs, such as Napster or a business that
sells all consumer commodities online.
The Internet started for the exchange of information in its textual form. This was possible with the
implementation of the File transmission Protocol (FTP) and the adoption of a new markup language,
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), that enabled the implementation of Web browsers to include
both text and images and to provide links to other resources with ease.
However, with the adaptation of more sophisticated Web languages, a person now can view a movie,
launch a music application to listen to music, or play chess with multiple opponents who reside thousands
of miles away or even in another country. Web browsers installed in any platform make navigating a
Web page as easy as clicking a link to read a newspaper, purchasing a pair of jeans, or viewing a movie
trailer form the latest animated movie.
The influence of the Internet on multimedia is evident as it is becoming the most important multime-
dia delivery vehicle. With the new Web (Web2.0) and its new principles and practices, more multimedia
applications, content, and services are bound to be the most predominant issues. As users control their
own data, the Web will become a platform that will be influenced by the participant’s architecture that
enables data to be remixed and transformed, which implies that the Web trusts users and software as
more people use the service and participate in its creation. Wikipedia, Yahoo, Napster, and Google sites
(see Figure 1) are some of the first examples of Web2.0 where the emphasis is not on applications, but
rather on the services and the participation of users and data generators and not data owners. For more
information, we advise you to read O’Reilly’s important article on Web2.0 (O’Reilly, 2005).

Multimedia Elements

In this section, we introduce the basic elements of multimedia and detail their uses in all aspects of life
and the integration of these elements.

Text

Text is made up of letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs to tell a story, state a fact, report an event,
or convey an idea or a belief. It is the most widely used form of communication and is considered a
basic element of visual multimedia. In addition to the set of characters that makes a certain language,
text also includes numbers, punctuation, symbols, and special characters.
This set of characters appears in every form of multimedia presentation you may come across. Any
page title, page content, or picture label includes informative text that gives details to users on the in-
tended information of such content. Text is still the dominant form for explaining what the application
is for and how to use it. In addition, text use is more evident in the design of the GUI of applications,
including menus that include short meaningful words and symbols, the help menu, how-to help tips,
thesauruses, hyperlinks in Web pages, and error reporting.


 Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

The power of text or words should not be taken lightly; that is why designers of multimedia projects
have to carefully choose the words that convey the idea in a few meaningful words, in addition to other
properties of text such as size, color, and effects that grab the reader’s attention (Vaughan, 2004; Li &
Drew, 2004).
Text technology is concerned with the design of text for multimedia and computer use, which includes
the way characters are viewed on a computer monitor or in print. This includes the design of families
of characters or what is known as typeface. A typeface includes fonts of different sizes and styles such
as Bold, Italic, and Underline. The size of a font is measured in points; each point is 0.0138 inch. Other
attributes of a font design include the vertical space between lines of text (leading), the space between
characters pairs (kerning), and others. These properties are important and have proved essential for
easy viewing, comfortable reading, and precise printing.
Fonts are divided into two types: serif and sans serif. Serif, the most widely used type in printed text
(e.g., Times New Roman), includes strokes or decorations at the edges of letters to guide the reader’s eye
along a line so it becomes easier to read. On the other hand, sans serif, which has no strokes, is used in
computer monitors because of the contrast it has with the screens.

Graphics and Image Data Types

Still images or graphics are an important multimedia element, and when included in a document, they
add flavor and substance. Images have different definition from different perspectives. In mathematical
terms, “the image of an element x in a set X under the function f::XY, denoted by f(x), is the unique y
in Y that is associated with x” (Vaughan, 2004). Commonly, an image is an artifact that reproduces the
likeness of some physical or imaginary object. However, from a multimedia perspective, a still image
stored and displayed on a computer screen is made up of a number of picture elements called pixels with
brightness and color. As a matter of fact, we can define an image as a collection of dots with colors,
each with a value, and when placed next to each other, they form the entire image. These dots can be
black and white or colored.
Digital images can be drawn on paper and stored on a computer in a digital form after being scanned
or captured using a digital camera or even drawn directly using image editing software. Images are

Table 1. List of popular image formats

File Format
Gif87a/Gif89a Graphical Interchange Format
JPEG Joint Photographic Expert Group
PNG Portable Network Graphics
TIFF Tagged Image File Format
EXIF Exchange\Image File Format
PS/PDF Postscript/Portable Document Format
WMF Windows Meta File
BMP BitMap
PAINT/PICT MacPaint and MacDraw
PPM X Windows Portable PixMap


Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

stored and exchanged in many standard formats such as the 8-bit GIF format (Graphics Interchange
Format) and JPEG format (Joint Photographic Experts Group), which are considered the most com-
monly used formats in Web browsers. These two standard formats (image compression formats) are
platform-independent and popular due to the small file size that is mostly suitable for exchange over
slow network channels. However, other less common formats are used in multimedia such as BMP,
PICT, PNG, and TIFF (see Table 1).
Digital images are divided into two types: Bitmap images and Vector images. In the next sections, we
discuss these two types and emphasize tier differences (Gonzales & Woods, 2002; Li & Drew, 2004).

Bitmap Images

Bitmap images (Raster images) are represented as a two-dimensional matrix of pixels where each pixel
has a different representation (pixel depth), depending on the image type.

Binary Images

Binary images or 1-bit monochrome images where each pixel is represented by a single bit and a value
(0 or 1) displayed with the colors white or black. These images are most popular for illustrations and
simple images due to their small size and low viewing quality. As an example, a binary image with a
resolution (i.e., number of pixels per inch) of 600 x 800 has a file size of 60KB, and as seen in Figure
2(a), the quality is poor and contrast is poor because such files comprise only two valued colors: black
and white.

Gray-Level Images

The second image type is gray-level, or 8-bit images. In this representation, each pixel is stored as a
single byte and has a value between 0 and 255 of gray colors or shades. As an example, a 0-value pixel
is completely black, and a 200-valued pixel is a bright color or close to white. The size of a 600 x 800
8-bit image file with the same resolution would occupy 480KB of storage. Figure 2(b) shows a gray-
level image; it is evident that these images have improved viewing quality since each pixel has more
contrast.

Figure 2. (a) monochrome image; (b) gray-level image; (c) colored image


 Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

8-Bit Color Images

The first two bit-image types have limited colors, either black and white or shadings of the two colors.
The third type of image is a colored image where each pixel is also represented by 8-bit value with colors
ranging from 0 to 255. These colors are a combination of the three basic colors: red, green, and blue
(RGB color space). However, the main difference with the gray-level image is that the pixel value is not
a color; rather, it is an address to an index of colors that is stored in the machine displaying the image.
This index of colors is called a look-up table (LUT), which contains all the colors that exist in an image;
but due to the fact that if we need to represent each pixel with the value for each color component, we
need 24 bits for each pixel. These types of image are discussed in the next section. Furthermore, the
LUT is machine-dependent, which means when an image is viewed in a different platform, the colors
tend to be different since the LUT is not included within the image file. Although the size of such an
image is the same as in gray-level, the viewing quality of an 8-bit color image is more exciting because
of the presence of colors. Figure 2(c) shows the same image in 8-bit color representation.

24-Bit Color Images

The most popular image type is a rich color image where each pixel is stored as three bytes of color
yielding large combinations of colors (16,777,216). Each image is represented as three two-dimensional
arrays, one array for each of the three color components (red, green, and blue); in many instances, they
are called RGB images. Also, the size of a 24-bit image is large due to this fact, so the same image 600
x 600 in a 24-bit representation would have a resolution of 1.08MB. Figure 3 shows an RGB image and
the three separate components displayed as gray-level images.

Figure 3. Original image and the RGB components


Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

Figure 4. Vector images

Vector Images

A vector image is an image that is made up of one or more objects defined and stored as mathematical
equations and not by pixels. These equations specify a point of reference of a line, including direction
and endpoint. It is similar to drawing a rectangle on a page (Figure 4 shows a rectangle and a color-filled
circle). These shapes or objects have attributes such as fill, color, and outline, which can be edited or
changed without affecting the object itself. Also, these objects can be resized, moved, placed over other
objects, and mainly animated. However, the main advantages of vector images are the small file size,
which makes them easy to store, transmit, and display quickly on computer monitors.

Audio

Audio or sound, as we know it, is a powerful multimedia element that inspires diverse emotions and
senses in humans and animals alike. It is perceived in the form of spoken language, vibrations of musi-
cal instruments, or even sounds of animals in joy or stress.
The use of sound is evident in every multimedia product that exists in our daily lives. Can you imag-
ine a computer game with no sound or sound effects? Or have you felt the effects of a surround audio
system in a movie theater? Or what is the value of a videoconference or an e-learning project with no
sound? Many questions underline the significance of audio in our lives.
Sound is generated as differences in pressure that produce waves that travel in all directions. De-
pending on its pressure level and frequency, if it reaches the ears of a human being, it is experienced
as sound. Some sounds are comfortable to hear, some are very noisy and cause stress, while others are
not heard by humans or animals. The science of acoustics studies sound, its measurement and uses, and
details its effects. We are interested in the use of sound in multimedia, where is it used, how to generate
it, and how to incorporate sound in a multimedia projects. (Pohlmann, 2000)
Many computer applications and Internet Web pages incorporate digital sound with functions such as
alerts in case of errors or warnings or at the start or end of a task, and so forth. These sounds, in many
instances, are stored on the computer as digital data generated either by a digital musical instrument
(MIDI) or digitized from existing recordings.
Digitizing is a process of converting a sound from the continuous form (analog) into digital (discrete
form) by taking a sample of the sound at a given time interval and storing it as an 8-bit or 16-bit sample
of data. The frequency of taking samples (sampling rate) of the continuous waves affects the quality of
the digitized. The higher the sampling rate, the greater the quality but the larger the file size.


 Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

In digital multimedia, audio is sampled at three common frequencies: 11.025kHz, 22.05kHz, and
44.1kHz, and stored as mono or stereo sound either on a CD or on a computer hard disk.
Sound files exist in many formats such as MIDI, MP3 Audio, WAV audio, Windows Media, MPEG
audio stream, and so forth. These formats are platform-independent and require the installation of a
media player that is capable of recognizing such formats. However, the main advantage of digital sounds
is the ability to edit such files using digital audio editors such as Audacity, Adobe Audition, and Apple
Quick Time Player, to name a few. These editors provide basic sound editing operations in addition to
other advanced operations. For example, many of these tools provide users with the ability to edit, view,
combine, and add effects to multiple tracks. Other operations include format conversion, resampling,
fade-in and fade-out, trimming, splicing, and reversing.
These editors are built with multilevel capabilities that are of assistance to regular computer users as
well as to the advanced audio composer to create exciting sounds and recordings. It also allows various
audio formats to be easily integrated into any multimedia product such as games, Web pages, presenta-
tions, and educational materials.

Digital Video

Video is defined as a series of images ( frames) put together and displayed on a screen one after the
other to create the illusion of motion and interactivity. The illusion of motion is created by displaying
a number of frames per second where each frame contains a slight difference from the previous one,
utilizing the characteristics of the human eye (vision persistence) and a psychological phenomenon (phi),
thus creating the feeling that the object in the series of images is actually moving. Video is the most
demanding multimedia elements in terms of storage requirements and transmission cost because of the
large size of such files and the fact that it might be broadcast live to a television set, a videoconference,
or even a mobile phone (Bovik, 2000; Sayood, 2000).

Figure 5. Sample of interlaced movie clips (courtesy of plasma.com)


Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

Videos transmitted to most TV sets are analog signals in which they are traced in two popular meth-
ods and display 25 to 30 frames per second, depending on the standard used. The first is Progressive
Scanning, where a complete picture or an entire frame is traced row-by-row in each time interval; and
the second is Interlaced Scanning, where odd-numbered rows are traced first and then even-numbered
ones. Figure 5 shows sample interlaced fields for four film frames.
Some of the most popular video standards include (1) National Television Standards Committee (NTSC)
used in Japan and the United States, (2) Phase Alternate Line (PAL) used in the UK, Europe, and the
Middle East, and (3) Sequential Color and Memory (SECAM) used in France and Eastern Europe.
With tremendous advancements in video use in computers, mobile phones, and the Internet, digital
video is enjoying unprecedented popularity. It has many advantages over analog video, including:

• Direct access
• Storage on different digital memory (reusable), which makes it easier to be processed (edited) and
integrated into multimedia applications
• More tolerant to channel noise

In many countries around the world, High Definition TV (HDTV) is making its way to be the new
standard for TV broadcasting, in which wider screen TVs would give viewers an enhanced sense of vision
and a better viewing pleasure. Other standards such as Standard Definition TV (SDTV) and Enhanced
Definition TV (EDTV) are to replace all analog broadcast in the United States.

Multimedia Delivery

Multimedia products can be delivered using several types of portable devices such as compact disks
(CDs) or Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs), or online using communication networks and the Internet.
However, CDs are the most popular means of delivering and playing music, and are now used to distrib-
ute all types of multimedia products, including applications, games, and data storage. This popularity
is due to their storage capacity, low price, and transfer rates. A typical CD can hold 500 to 900MB of
data, up to 90 minutes of recorded music, and 74 minutes of CD quality movies, and can have a transfer
rate up to 7.2Mbps.
DVDs normally can hold up to 7GB of data and twice that in high-quality movies, and is the standard
delivery method for almost all 3D games and movies (Lewis & Luciana, 2005; Vaughan, 2004).
The next generation of optical disks that will revolutionize the multimedia industry is the Blu-ray opti-
cal disks (see Figure 6), which were developed by a group of leading multimedia and personal computer
manufacturers including Dell, Apple, HP, JVC, and TDK. The name Blu-ray comes from blue-violet
laser utilized to write and read data on disks, which proved to be superior to ordinary laser.
Blu-ray optical disks will permit a user to record, replay, and rewrite high-definition video (HDV),
including MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 formats, in addition to the storage of large amounts of data. A typical
Blu-ray 50GB disk can hold up to nine hours of HDV or 23 hours of standard-definition (SD) video at
a rate of 36Mbps. For further information on specifications and a future look at Blu-ray, refer to www.
blu-ray.com.


 Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

Figure 6. Blu-ray disks by various manufacturers

Compression and Multimedia

One of the major challenges of multimedia is how to deliver large amounts of data either synchronously
or asynchronously within the limitations of existing networks and storage capabilities. A natural solution
to this challenge is compression, which is a process of deriving a smaller representation that provides
a significant reduction in data size to reduce both storage requirements and bandwidth limitations.
Compression strategies are based on reducing redundancies that normally exit in all multimedia data
and on exploiting the characteristics of the human visual and hearing system. Compression techniques
have two constraints: either the reconstruction of compressed data is perfect or near perfect. Lossless
compression (reconstructed data after decompression is the same as the data before compression) and
lossy (reconstructed data is not equal to the original data) compression techniques are widely used to
achieve the goals of compression, and as mentioned before, most of the popular formats for the exchange
of multimedia elements are compression formats (Sayood, 2000; Taubman & Marcellin, 2002).
Redundancy reduction is the most popular strategy for compression in which one of four types of
redundancies can be exploited to achieve better representation that can benefit from compression. These
types include symbol-level redundancy and block-level redundancy, which are popular for text lossless
compression with different compression algorithms (e.g., Huffman coding, RLE, LZ, Arithmetic Cod-
ing). The other types, inter-pixel spatial redundancy and inter-pixel temporal redundancies, are types
of lossy compression that are popular in image and video compression techniques.
We chose not to detail the concept of compression in multimedia, despite its importance in the
overall delivery of multimedia products and applications, but rather to raise readers’ interests and the
importance of the topic. However, some of the popular compression standards are also listed in Table
1, and we advise readers to refer to other books that provide detailed descriptions and explanations of
the various compression standards for the different multimedia elements. However, we emphasize the
effects of compression on the delivery of the various elements and the need for transcoding when deal-
ing with mobile transmission and the challenges it represents.

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Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

Issues in Multimedia delivery

This section introduces some of the issues that relate to multimedia, such as copyright, ownership, cross
platform, and heterogeneity of multimedia elements. The importance of these issues affects the delivery
and compatibility of multimedia elements across heterogeneous platforms, particularly in the mobile
environment, since it is the currently dominant issue.

Copyright and Ownership

Copyright and ownership of multimedia productions are still underdeveloped issues in many countries
around the world and lack the legal laws to protect such products despite their importance.
Many multimedia products are developed to include either original or nonoriginal text, photos, music,
or other artists’ work, and might also be produced by many people who cooperated to generate such
work. In all cases, ownership and copyright issues include:

• The ownership of the intellectual property rights in the products and a clear definition of a public
domain product either as a whole or as separate components.
• The liability of the developer(s) by a faulty product and the developer’s right to gain from the
product or its future use and reproduction.
• Variations of the original products and how it is treated and how to obtain third parties’ permission
to use copyrighted works and remuneration.
• How to prove ownership in case of unauthorized use (partial or full).
• The lack of international means of protection from piracy and illegal use or reproduction of mul-
timedia products across international borders.

Cross Platform

Taking multimedia across platforms includes many issues, such as dealing with text, graphics, video,
audio, and programming. These issues include multimedia bandwidth requirements and digital media
file sizes.
While text issues include character translation, fonts, styles, and size of displayed text, graphics
issues on some platforms such as Mac displays larger than UNIX and PC.
Video issues include display gamma that affect how dark or light an image is displayed, as well as
compression and compatible applications that recognize image types and color representations.
Audio issues are simpler, and you would only be concerned with file formats and the search for
suitable playing utilities. However, down sampling and sampling of audio, as well as the quality of
sound and synchronization between video and audio are also points that characterize the quality of an
integrated multimedia product.

future Directions in Multimedia

Despite the challenges facing multimedia, mainly network bandwidth and content limitations, multimedia
will continue to dominate most of the exchanged data over the Internet and other public networks.

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 Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

However, multimedia research, which is multidisciplinary in nature, is advancing toward solving some
of the major challenges identified by some of the Interest groups of multimedia such as ACM SIGMM,
and IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia, which has been a strong force in advancing the
research community and directing the efforts of researchers to tackle multimedia challenges and also
“identify deliver applications that impacts users in the real-world.”
In 2003, ACM SIGMM suggested that the research community must focus on solving three major
challenges. The first challenge is to “make authoring complex multimedia titles as easy as using a word
processor or drawing program. The second challenge is to make interactions with remote people and
environments nearly the same as interacting with local people and environments. The third challenge
is to make capturing, storing, finding, and using digital media an everyday occurrence in our comput-
ing environment.”
While some advancement has been achieved, other issues have been identified at ISM’06, including
issues in the area of:

1. Mobile multimedia (i.e., resource-awareness and portable development, modeling of multimedia,

smart-phones common platform)
2. Internet/Web/home multimedia (i.e., low effort, high reusability of metadata, intelligent content
repurposing, multimodal interfaces)
3. Gigapixel multimedia (i.e., scalability, hardware configuration, interaction design, etc.)

While the multimedia research community addresses and comes across practical solutions for such
challenges, we believe that more sophisticated challenges will surface, and multimedia will continue
to progress and influence our lives.

Further Reading in Multimedia

Blattner, M.M. (1996). Multimedia interface: Designing for diversity. Multimedia Tools and Applica-
tion, 3, 87–122.
Castelli, V., & Bergman, L.D. (Ed.). ( 2002). Image databases: Searches and retrieval of digital imagery.
New York: Wiley.
ISO/IEC 21000. (2003). Information technology—Multimedia framework. International Standard, Parts
1–7.
Jeffay, K., & Zhang H. (2002), Readings in multimedia computing and networking. San Francisco:
Morgan Kaufman.
Lowe, D., & Hall, W. (1999). Hypermedia and the Web: An engineering approach. New York: Wiley.
Miano, J. (1999). Compressed image file formats: JPEG, PNG, GIF, XBM, BMP. Reading, MA: Ad-
dison-Wesley.

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Multimedia Essentials and Challenges

Nielsen, J. (1995). Multimedia and hypertext: The Internet and beyond. San Diego: AP Professional.
Shapiro, L.G., & Stockman, G.C. (2001). Computer vision. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Stamou, G., & Kollias, S. (Ed.). (2005). Multimedia content and the semantic Web, methods, standards,
and tools. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Steinmetz, R., & Nahhrsteddt, K. (1995). Multimedi: Computing, communications & applications. Up-
per Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR.
Taubman, D.S., & Marcellin, M.W. (2002). JPEG2000: Image compression fundamentals, standards,
and practice. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academics Publisher.
Wang, Y., Ostermann, J., & Zhang, Y.Q. (2002). Video processing and communication. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

References

Bovik, A. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of image and video processing. San Diego: Academic Press.
Gonzalez, R.C., & Woods, R.E. (2002). Digital image processing (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Lewis, R., & Luciana, J. (2005). Digital media: An Introduction. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Li, Z.-N., & Drew, M.S. (2004). Fundamentals of multimedia. Pearson Prentice Hall.
O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web2.0: Design patterns and business models for the next generation of
software. Retrieved from http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-
20.html
Pohlmann, K.C. (2000). Principles of digital audio (4th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Sayood, K. (2000). Introduction to data compression (2nd Ed.). San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Taubman, D.S., & Marcellin, M.W. (2002). JPEG2000: Image compression fundamentals, standards
and practices. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Vaughan, T. (2004). Multimedia: Making it work (6th Ed.). McGraw Hill.
Vetter, R., Ward, C., & Shapiro, S. (1995). Using color and text in multimedia projections. IEEE Mul-
timedia, 2(4), 46–54.

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