Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

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Lithic bipolar methods as an adaptive strategy through space and time

Pedro Horta *, Nuno Bicho, João Cascalheira
ICArEHB, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The use of bipolar (on anvil) methods for resource exploitation has been identified in the archaeological record
Stone tools from the late Pliocene through to the Holocene. During all phases of human evolution, bipolar knapping and
Bipolar methods wedging were applied by different hominin species in a wide range of ecological settings. Studies on lithic bipolar
Paleolithic
methods have mainly focused on understanding the functional aspects of this technology. This paper explores the
Meta-analysis
variability of the application of these methods during the Paleolithic on a macro scale. Through the meta-analysis
of published data from 167 sites, it is posited that the use of bipolar methods may have had a significant impact
on hominin expansion, adaptation, and survival strategies. Furthermore, the recurrent use of bipolar methods is
not only an indicator of its success as an adaptive strategy, but also of how hominins were able to evaluate
different types of efficiency through time.

1. Introduction chronologically. Whether used as a means of blank production (bipolar

knapping), or organic resource exploitation (wedging), these methods
The ability to strategically modify their environment through tool are constantly present in the archaeological record. Consequently, the
creation and manipulation as a means of adaptation is one of the many bipolar method has not been labeled as an Age or Industry (de la Peña
behaviors that drove hominin expansion and survival. Several strategies and Wadley, 2014).
were used by hominins to increase their adaptability to different set­ This paper highlights the importance of bipolar methods as markers
tings, including the production, modification, and use of tools. More of variability and evolution of resource exploitation strategies, their
precisely, it is becoming increasingly evident in archaeological research dynamic in the Paleolithic archaeological record, and their implications
that stone technologies were essential for resource exploitation (Rezek for human adaptability. In addition, this paper also presents a short
et al., 2018; Stout, 2011). reflection on the definition, classification, interpretation, and analytical
Among all kinds of lithic techniques, bipolar methods (on anvil) can challenges linked with bipolar methods. To understand and explore
be recurrently found in prehistoric assemblages all over the world these questions on a macroscale, a metanalysis was carried out by
(Barham, 1987; de Lombera-Hermida et al., 2016; Diez-Martin et al., extracting, reviewing, and analyzing information from published data
2009; Horta et al., 2019; Pargeter and de la Peña, 2017; White, 1968). on bipolar technology.
Most research on bipolar methods has been dedicated to understanding
reduction strategies and functional patterns. As a result, we currently 2. Background
have a clear understanding of how these methods were applied in
several chronological and ecological contexts (e.g. (Bader et al., 2015; 2.1. Defining bipolar methods: classification
Flood, 1980; Langejans, 2012; Shott, 1989; de la Peña, 2015a). How­
ever, further research is required to better understand the technological Classifying and determining the function of artifacts related to the
and adaptational aspects that led to their use. application of bipolar methods have proven to be problematic in the
Since its initial identification by Bardon et al. (1906), lithic bipolar past. This is because the identification of bipolar methods is not limited
methods have been surrounded by debate. This century-long contro­ to on-anvil knapping activities, but also include the use of the so-called
versy has ranged from a descriptive typological definition level to a “splintered” or “scaled” pieces as tools for other types of activities. The
functional level. One of the most important factors about bipolar main feature that defines bipolar artifacts is that they are crushed in at
methods is that they are not restricted geographically or least two opposite poles. This damage is the result of opposite forces

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Horta).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103263
Received 17 March 2021; Received in revised form 17 September 2021; Accepted 9 November 2021
Available online 7 December 2021
2352-409X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

applied to the artifact during its use or production. frequently conclude that scaled pieces are intermediate elements to
Two objectives can be reached by using bipolar methods: flaking the work hard organic raw materials, while others interpret them as cores
artifact itself or splitting the object on which it is resting (i.e., wedging/ for small blank production. Lastly, it has become increasingly clear that
chiseling) (e.g de la Peña, 2015a,b; Hayden, 1980; Hiscock, 2015; Horta these attributions should be considered in their technological context on
et al., 2019; Leaf, 1979; Octobon, 1938; Shott, 1989). The two activities a site-to-site basis (Horta et al., 2019).
have different goals, but the scars that are created on the “main artifact”
(core or wedge) are often similar. Due to the artifact resting on a hard 2.2. Perspectives on the occurrence of bipolar methods
surface, the force produced by the percussion propagates downward
reflecting on the anvil, causing flaking or damage to both ends due to the The occurrence of the use of bipolar technology through time is a
compression of forces. While the main striking (active) platform is longstanding question, leading researchers to hypothesize on its tech­
identical to other direct hard-hammer percussion knapping techniques, nological and adaptational pros and cons. The presence of bipolar
the opposed/secondary (passive) platform often flakes in a random methods in the archaeological record has been linked to several factors,
manner producing chips and small flakes (Andrefsky, 1998; Octobon, such as raw material stress (Gurtov and Eren, 2014), expediency (Horta
1938). Consequently, it sometimes acquires the characteristics of the et al., 2019), time efficiency (Eren et al., 2013), raw material size and
resting surface (de la Peña, 2011). What further complicates identifi­ lithic miniaturization (Pargeter and de la Peña, 2017), resource inten­
cation is that both cores and wedges may have been rotated. In addition, sification strategies (Horta et al., 2019; Pargeter et al., 2019), knapping
there is little to no control in the flaking of the passive platform due to it skill levels (Duke and Pargeter, 2015), core to blank conversion effi­
resting on the anvil. In other words, damage is often not diagnostic of ciency (Morgan et al., 2015; Pargeter and de la Peña, 2017; Pargeter and
function. Bipolar artifact shape is influenced by several variables (e.g., Eren, 2017), and mobility patterns (Eren, 2010).
raw material type and hardness, angle of use, etc.), including some not One of the points that is often raised as an advantage to these
controlled by the knapper (e.g., force application and the resulting methods is that—even at low levels of knapping skills—bipolar reduc­
contact with the anvil). The combination of these factors increases the tion can be successfully performed as a lower cost solution for obtaining
level of difficulty to accurately identify the type and function of bipolar sharp edges (Duke and Pargeter, 2015; Gurtov et al., 2015; Hiscock,
artifacts. 1996; Morgan et al., 2015; Pargeter and de la Peña, 2017). Duke and
The functional identification of bipolar artifacts presents various Pargeter (2015) noted that while experts outperform novices in bipolar
degrees of difficulty. In general, some bipolar artifacts can be easily cobble splitting, the latter are often still successful. Likewise, Morgan
identified as cores; however, the same cannot be said for scaled pieces, et al. (2015) noted that different skill levels do impact the outcome when
which could have had different functions that left behind similar marks. it comes to bipolar reduction. In addition, the capability of teaching and
A bipolar core is simply a nodule that was reduced using a bipolar employing bipolar methods on the go is considered one of its biggest
method to extract blanks, often referred to as bipolar flakes (Andrefsky, advantages, especially in cases where there is high population mobility
1998; Octobon, 1938). A scaled piece can be either a blank (used as a (e.g., Eren, 2010; Will et al., 2013).
core for bipolar flaking) or as an intermediate piece or wedge (used for Another factor to consider is time efficiency, as bipolar knapping can
working hard materials, most frequently organic). It is this equifinality be taught within short periods of time (Shea, 2015) and, therefore, can
that led to the century long debate surrounding bipolar methods (Bin­ be transmitted without the need for preexisting skill. Furthermore, it
ford and Quimby, 1963; de la Peña, 2011; Flood, 1980; Igreja and provides a fast and expedient manner of core reduction, while still being
Porraz, 2013; LeBlanc, 1992; Lucas and Hays, 2004; Shott, 1999; Tixier, able to maximize blank extraction (Pargeter and de la Peña, 2017).
1963). Likewise, expediency is often referred to as a reason for the use of bi­
The first definition of a scaled or splintered piece was proposed by polar methods, whether in situations of time constraint and lower
Bardon et al. (1906), who described it as the result of the bipolar knapping skill. Interestingly, expediency and raw material conservation
knapping of flint through direct percussion. He further elaborates that have been observed when it comes to the application of bipolar methods
the “core” will have been rested on a hard surface, causing splintering at in both knapping (see Gurtov and Eren, 2014) and wedging activities
both ends of the artifact. Since then, several other definitions were (Horta et al., 2019). Gurtov and Eren (2014) observed different raw
adopted and adapted by researchers in a variety of contexts (e.g., de material curation methods in the use of bipolar reduction for different
Sonneville-Bordes and Perrot, 1956; Hayden, 1980; Knight, 2016; raw materials in Olduvai Gorge (see Gurtov and Eren, 2014 for a dis­
MacDonald, 1968; Octobon, 1938; Shott, 1989). As a result, this exact cussion). Similarly, Horta et al. (2019) observed in the Upper Paleolithic
morphotype can be found throughout the literature with several site of Vale Boi (southwestern Iberia) that the treatment of flint and
different typological labels, such as: pièce esquillée, outil esquillé, outil quartz wedges were different. Quartz was used in an expedient way,
écaillé, gouge, chasse-lame, punch, éclateur, bipolar, chisel, wedge, splin­ being abandoned early on in the wedge’s “use life” or reduction, while
tered piece, and scaled piece (Brun-Ricalens, 2006). This turned the flint wedges were conserved and used until extinction, often being
scaled piece morphotype into a murky category that are often clustered rotated to maximize their use potential. In this particular case, quartz
with bipolar cores. was readily available at the site, while flint sources were up to one day of
Beyond the classification debate, the biggest issue with the scaled walking distance (Bicho et al., 2012).
piece morphotype comes from a functional diagnostic standpoint. In Considering raw material stress, the advantages of bipolar opposed
1938, Octobon (1938) suggested that these pieces may have been used to free-hand methods for small raw material volumes is a topic that has
as wedges to work hard materials or as flake cores. This has also been often been considered (Hiscock, 2015; Pargeter et al., 2019; Pargeter
quite debated, with researchers often defending one function over the and de la Peña, 2017). According to Pargeter and de la Peña (2017),
other (see e.g., (Binford and Quimby, 1963; de la Peña, 2011; Flood, bipolar reduction played an incremental role in the expansion of lithic
1980; Igreja and Porraz, 2013; LeBlanc, 1992; Lucas and Hays, 2004; miniaturization strategies of milky quartz during the African Late Stone
Shott, 1999; Tixier, 1963). Age. Their data suggests that bipolar reduction shows higher efficiency
Recent literature has tried to tackle the matter of functional identi­ in the core mass to blank conversion ratio in milky quartz, opposing
fication through both micro and macroscopic analysis (e.g. Bader et al., previous studies that considered bipolar methods as wasteful (e.g., Diez-
2015; Bao et al., 2007; Bosinski and Bosinski, 2007; de la Peña, 2015a,b, Martín et al., 2011). Morgan et al. (2015) and Diez-Martín et al. (2011)
de la Peña, 2011; Igreja and Porraz, 2013; Lucas and Hays, 2004; Sano, found that, for chert and quartz, free-hand methods were more efficient
2012; Vaughan, 2002). Overall, the focus of these studies is on the than bipolar methods for extracting flakes with larger amounts of cut­
identification of use-wear patterned scars and, in some cases, their ting edge from small cores. Hiscock (2015) noted that bipolar reduction
comparison with experimental assemblages. Despite this, some studies was more efficient than freehand methods when cores had steep

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

platforms, or required larger amounts of force, since these constraints analysis (Table 1).
are neglectable when using bipolar reduction. The author added that The literature sample is comprised of a mixture of both general and
these methods could be employed at any stage of reduction to extend the specific papers on bipolar methods dating from 1963 to 2021. The first
capability of reduction, making it so smaller raw material volumes could group (general papers) is comprised of studies that were not dedicated to
be continuously reduced and recycled. bipolar methods (e.g., lithic technology papers, site monographs, etc.),
Following this idea, Pargeter et al. (2019) considered the possibility but mentioned the presence, context, and other variables used in the
that increased lithic miniaturization and bipolar reduction may be analysis of those methods at archaeological sites.
linked to resource intensification and increasing population densities.
The link between resource intensification and bipolar knapping, as well 3.2. Recorded variables
as with wedging, have been recognized due to their considerable rep­
resentation in modern human expansion events (de la Peña, 2011; With the goal of only including variables that would be consistently
Pargeter and de la Peña, 2017). It is often in these cases that the ad­ present in interpretations of the application of bipolar methods, the
vantages of wedging are referenced (e.g. Horta et al., 2019; LeBlanc, following group of variables were considered: chronology, site location,
1992; Manne and Bicho, 2009). Wedging is frequently used to intensify function attributed to bipolar artifacts at the site, raw materials, artifact
organic resource extraction by enabling higher efficiency in processing type, and the size of blanks extracted (see Table 2 for variables and
carcasses, producing bone tools, and working organic materials (Bicho Supplementary Information for the full database). Due to the variation
et al., 2013; Cascalheira et al., 2017; Horta et al., 2019; Manne, 2014; in the amount of data and its quality in the literature, some harmoni­
Manne and Bicho, 2009). Coupled with the advantages of bipolar zation was needed to provide a comparable view of data from different
knapping for raw material conservation and reduction intensification, it studies.
is undeniable that bipolar methods likely impacted hominin expansion The sample covers all regions throughout the Old World (Fig. 2).
and survival strategies. Chronologically, and due to the large time span of the sample, the sites
were grouped following an adaptation of the methods by Rezek et al.
3. Materials and methods (2018). We added the Late Pliocene to the Early Pleistocene group to
include the Lomekwian industry where bipolar methods have also been
This paper presents a detailed review of published data on the use of identified (Harmand et al., 2015). This resulted in sites being grouped
lithic bipolar methods across the Paleolithic record in the Old World. To into the following chronological phases: Late Pliocene and Early Pleis­
gather the data, we searched the two major electronic databases of tocene (3.3–0.78 million years ago [Ma]), Middle to mid-Late Pleisto­
publishers (see below for the sampling methodology). Data was cene industries (780–50 thousand years ago [ka]), and Final Late
extracted from the sample of publications and used to build a compa­ Pleistocene (50–12 ka). The chronological attribution of each site in the
rable dataset (see below for the database and variables analyzed). sample was made based on the published data for the site (see SOM for
the database and the full reference list). The quality and resolution of
3.1. Sampling methodology and categorization each site is far from homogeneous and absolute. Despite this we consider
that due to the macro scope of this study, this problem is neglectable,
Electronic databases of publishers including Elsevier, Springer, and posing little to no impact on the overall results. Chronology was recor­
others (Plos, Taylor and Francis) were manually searched using the ded to explore trends across time. This variable is especially important,
following terms: bipolar, pièce esquillée, splintered piece, and scaled piece. as the sample encompasses 3.3 million of years of stone tool technology
In addition, several synthesis papers encompassed the analysis of several that was created and used by multiple species of hominins.
sites based on older references, including monographs. Some of these As for the variable of functional attribution, the sample was sepa­
were also included in the sample (see Fig. 1 for the Sampling Process and rated into three main groups: Blank Production, Tool Use, and Not
the Supplementary Online Materials (SOM) for the full list of references Available. These were mostly based on the function attributed in the
and papers used). In total, 167 sites were identified and included in our original publication. For instance, several publications only mention the
presence of bipolar cores in their assemblages; in these cases, the func­
tion attributed was Blank Production. Due to the previously mentioned
problems with functional attributions, all functions not related to blank
production in this group (wedging, etc.) were clustered into the Tool Use
category. This variable was included as it has had major relevance in
bipolar studies (see previous section).
Regarding Artifact Types, all cores mentioned in the literature that
were knapped on anvil were considered “bipolar cores”. This category
includes all types of cores regardless of their main reduction scheme (e.
g., Levallois cores knapped on anvil were considered bipolar cores). For
the “scaled pieces” group, all artifacts were considered and grouped
regardless of the nomenclature originally used (see previous section for
a list terms) or their use as cores or tools. As it is highly linked to
function, this variable sheds light on what activities were being con­
ducted at the site with bipolar methods.
In the Raw Material variable, only the raw materials that were used
for bipolar technology were recorded. The goal here was to look for
patterns in the application of bipolar methods to specific types of raw
material across space and time. Due to the large variation within this
variable, all types of quartz mentioned in the literature were compiled
into the Quartz category. Likewise, all types of flint, chert, and chal­
cedony were compiled into the Chert category, and so on. This variable
was considered due to the fact that several studies link raw material
availability, quality, and hardness to the use of bipolar technology (e.g.
Fig. 1. Flow chart of the sampling process.
Gurtov and Eren, 2014; Diez-Martín et al., 2011).

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

Table 1
Sites included in this study. The ID matches the numbers used in Fig. 2.
ID Site Chronology Relative chronology as in Reference
reference

1 A.L.666 Hadar Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 2,36 Ma Goldman-Neuman and Hovers, 2012
2 Abri Blanchard Late Pleistocene 33 ka Bourrillon et al., 2018
3 Abri Pataud Late Pleistocene 40–27 ka Chiotti, 1999 Douka et al., 2020; Higham et al., 2011
4 Aghitu-3 Cave Late Pleistocene 32–24 ka cal BP Kandel et al., 2017
5 Ambrona Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 366–314 ka Terradillos-Bernal and Rodríguez, 2012
6 Apollo 11 Late Pleistocene 28–17 ka Bousman and Brink, 2017; Vogelsang et al., 2010
7 Arago cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene + 350 ka Byrne, 2004
8 Arbo Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS 7–5 Méndez-Quintas et al., 2019
9 Armiña cave Late Pleistocene 14–12 ka Rios-Garaizar et al., 2020
10 Bacho Kiro Late Pleistocene ~45 ka Hublin et. al 2020 Tsanova, 2006
11 Bailong Cave Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Early Middle Pleistocene Li et al., 2014
12 Baıraki Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 800–450 k Anissutkine et al., 2019
13 Barranco Leon Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,4–1,2 Ma Moyano et al., 2011
14 Batadomba-lena Late Pleistocene ~36–20 ka cal BP Lewis et al., 2014; Perera et al., 2011
15 Benzú Rockshelter Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 250–70 ka Ramos-Munoz et al., 2016
16 Bizat Ruhama Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,6–1,2 Ma Zaidner, 2013
17 Bois Laiterie Late Pleistocene 12 k cal BP Sano et al., 2011
18 Bolinkoba Late Pleistocene 30–14 ka Iriarte-Chiapusso and Arrizabalaga, 2015, 2011
19 Bone Cave Late Pleistocene 29-post 18 k Cosgrove, 1999
20 Boomplaas Late Pleistocene 37–12 ka Bousman and Brink, 2017; Pargeter et al., 2018
21 Border Cave Late Pleistocene 46–28 k a Bousman and Brink, 2017; Villa et al., 2012
22 Bordes-Fitte rockshelter Late Pleistocene 47–39 ka Aubry et al., 2014
23 Buiryokbastau-Bulak-1 Late Pleistocene 32–31 ka Kunitake and Taimagambetov, 2021
24 Bushman Rock Shelter Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 97–73 ka Porraz et al., 2018
25 Cá Belvedere di Monte Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1 Ma Arzarello et al., 2016
Poggiolo
26 Chaminade I Late Pleistocene ~41 ka Nightingale et al., 2019
27 Combe Brune 2 Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS 7–6 Mathias et al., 2020
28 Cova de les Malladetes Late Pleistocene 23–26 k cal BP Villaverde et al., 2021
29 Cretone Basin Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 600–500 k Ceruleo et al., 2015
30 Crvena Stijena Late Pleistocene MIS 3 Mihailović and Whallon, 2017
31 Cuesta de la Bajada Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS 9–8 Santonja et al., 2014
32 Cueva el Castillo Late Pleistocene 34 K Maíllo-Fernández and de Quirós, 2010
33 Cueva Morín Late Pleistocene 36–20 k Bradtmöller et al., 2016; Maíllo Fernández, 2003; Maíllo-
Fernández and de Quirós, 2010
34 Cueva Negra Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 990–772 k Walker et al., 2020
35 Danjiangkou Reservoir Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene Middle Pleistocene Li et al., 2017
Region
36 Diepkloof Rock Shelter Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 100–70,9k Igreja and Porraz, 2013
37 Dingcun - Lushi Basin Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 620–600 k Lu et al., 2011
38 Dmanisi Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,8–1,7 Ma Mgeladze et al., 2011
39 Donggutuo Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,1Ma Liu et al., 2013
40 Dursunlu Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Middle Pleistocene Slimak et al., 2008
41 Egerbakta Late Pleistocene Aurignacian and Gravettian Kozłowski et al., 2009
42 El Cierro Late Pleistocene 19–12 k cal BP Álvarez-Fernández et al., 2016
43 El Horno Cave Late Pleistocene 13–12 k Fano et al., 2020
44 El Palomar Late Pleistocene 31–25 k de la Peña Alonso and Toscano, 2013; de la Peña, 2013
45 Elands Bay Late Pleistocene 20–18 k Bousman and Brink, 2017; Porraz Guillaume et al., 2016
46 Esquicho-Grapaou Late Pleistocene ~ 41.9–38.7 ka cal BP Barshay-Szmidt et al., 2020
47 Fengshudao Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 803 k Wang et al., 2014
48 Fonte Santa Late Pleistocene ~24 k Zilhão, 1997
49 Foz Côa Late Pleistocene ~25 k Aubry, 1998
50 Fuente Nueva 3 Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,4–1,2 Ma Moyano et al., 2011
51 Gadeb Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,45–700 k de la Torre, 2011
52 Garm Roud 2 Late Pleistocene 28–12 ka Cal BP Berillon et al., 2007
53 Givat Rabi Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 198–95 ka Yaroshevich et al., 2018
54 Gorham’s Cave Late Pleistocene 33–24 ka Pacheco et al., 2012
55 Grotta di Castelcivita Late Pleistocene 48–40 ka Arrighi et al., 2020
56 Grotta di Fumane Late Pleistocene 46–40 ka Peresani et al., 2016
57 Grotta di Sant’ Agostino Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 55–43 ka Kuhn, 1991
58 Heuningneskrans Late Pleistocene ~29–16 k Bousman and Brink, 2017
59 Hoedjiespunt 1 Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 130–119 k Will et al., 2013
60 Houfang Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene Middle Pleistocene Li et al., 2014
61 Howieson’s Poort Shelter Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MSA Tabrett, 2017
62 Huanglong Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene ~100–40 k Li et al., 2014; Shen et al., 2016
63 Huayang Late Pleistocene 14 k cal BP Yue et al., 2020
64 Isernia la Pineta Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 610 ka Arzarello and Peretto, 2010
65 Isturitz Late Pleistocene ~42 ka Barshay-Szmidt et al., 2018
66 Jarama VI rock shelter Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene ~58–49 ka Ruiz et al., 2020
67 Jebel Gharbi Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene Aterian/MSA Spinapolice and Garcea, 2014
68 Jerimalai Late Pleistocene Post 42 k Marwick et al., 2016
69 Kalavan 1 Late Pleistocene 14 ka Montoya et al., 2013
70 Kanjera South Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene ~2 Ma Lemorini et al., 2014
(continued on next page)

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

Table 1 (continued )
ID Site Chronology Relative chronology as in Reference
reference

71 Karungu Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 94–45 k Faith et al., 2015

Karungu Late Pleistocene 94–45 k
72 Kashafrud Basin Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene Pre-Acheulean Biglari and Shidrang, 2006
73 Kilwa Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MSA Beyin and Ryano, 2020
74 Klasies River Cave 1A Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 68–59 ka Villa et al., 2010
75 Klipdrift Shelter Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 65,5–59,4k Henshilwood et al., 2014
76 Klipfonteinrand Late Pleistocene 22–13 ka Mackay et al., 2020
77 Klissoura Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 62–53 ka Darlas, 2007; Starkovich, 2017
78 Koobi Fora Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,9 Ma delaTorre et al., 2004
79 Kostenki 1 Late Pleistocene 43–35 ka Dinnis et al., 2021
80 Kozarnika Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 200–120 ka Tillier et al., 2017
81 La Boella Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1 Ma-800 ka Mosquera et al., 2016
82 La Cansaladeta Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 395–370 ka Rodríguez-Álvarez, 2016
83 La Noira Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 700–600 ka Moncel et al., 2020
84 Lagar Velho Late Pleistocene 24,5ka Carvalho, 2011
85 Le Grand Abri aux Puces Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS 5e Slimak et al., 2010
86 Leba Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MSA de Matos and Pereira, 2020
87 Les Fieux Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS 5–3 Faivre et al., 2017
88 Liang Bua Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 95–17 ka Moore et al., 2009
Liang Bua Late Pleistocene 95–17 ka Moore et al., 2009
89 Liangshan Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 600kA Li et al., 2014
90 Lingjing Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 125–90 ka Li et al., 2019
91 Llonin Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS 3 Sanchis et al., 2019
92 Lomekwi 3 Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 3,3 Ma Harmand et al. 2015
93 Longgupo Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,77–1 Ma Wei et al., 2014
94 Manzi River Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Oldowan Barham et al., 2011
95 Matupi Late Pleistocene 40–12 ka Cornelissen, 2002
96 Melikane Rockshelter Late Pleistocene ~post 40 k Mackay et al., 2014
97 Melka Kunture Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,5 Ma Gallotti, 2013
98 Menez-Dregan I Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 223 k Ravon et al., 2016
99 Mochena Borago Late Pleistocene ~43 ka cal BP Brandt et al., 2012
Rockshelter
100 Mohelno-Plevovce site Late Pleistocene 23–22 ka cal BP Rios-Garaizar et al., 2019
101 Mpila Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MSA Demayumba, 2021
102 Mugharet el-Zuttiyeh Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene ~260–106 ka Malinsky-Buller, 2016
103 Mughr el-Hamamah Late Pleistocene 45–39 ka cal BP Stutz et al., 2015
104 Mumba Rockshelter Late Pleistocene ~40–20 ka Marks and Conard, 2008
105 Nasera Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene ~56 ka Clark, 1988
106 Ngalue Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 105–42 ka Mercader et al., 2009
Ngalue Cave Late Pleistocene 105–42 ka Mercader et al., 2009
107 Notarchirico Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 670–610 ka Santagata et al., 2020
108 Oelknitz 3 Late Pleistocene ~12 ka Gaudzinski-Windheuser, 2015
109 Olduvai Gorge Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,8 Ma Arroyo and de la Torre, 2017; Diez-Martín, 2010
110 Omo Shungura Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Early Pleistocene Diez-Martín, 2010; Ludwig et al., 1998a,b
111 Orgnac 3 Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS9-MIS7 Moncel et al., 2012, Moncel et al., 2005
112 Pech-de-l’Azé II Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 180–140 ka Mathias et al., 2020
113 Peninj Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,6–1,4 Ma de la Torre et al., 2003
114 Petersfels Late Pleistocene 20–14 k Maier et al., 2020
115 Petit-Bost Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 340–270 ka Mathias et al., 2020
116 Pinilla de Valle Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 77–71 k Márquez et al., 2013
117 Pirro Nord Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,5–1,2 Ma Arzarello et al., 2016
118 Pockenbank Late Pleistocene 25–19 k Bousman and Brink, 2017
119 Pont de Lavaud Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene ~1Ma de Lombera-Hermida et al., 2016
120 Prince Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 220 ka Rossoni-Notter et al., 2016
121 Puig d’en Roca Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS12-MIS11 Rodríguez-Álvarez, 2016
122 Putslaagte 8 Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene and 76–50 ka Bousman and Brink, 2017; Mackay et al., 2015
Late Pleistocene
Putslaagte 8 Late Pleistocene 50–17 ka Bousman and Brink, 2017; Mackay et al., 2015
123 Qiaojiayao Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 620–600 ka Lu et al., 2011
124 Radomyshl I Late Pleistocene 24–22 ka cal BP Kononenko, 2021
125 Reception Rockshelter Late Pleistocene ~24 ka Bousman and Brink, 2017; Jayson et al., 2011
126 Remetea Somos I Late Pleistocene Gravettian Dobrescu et al., 2018
127 Revadim Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 780–460 ka Malinsky-Buller, 2016
128 Rhone Valley Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene MIS 5–4 Daujeard and Moncel, 2010
129 Rietputs 15 Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,7–1,2 Ma Kuman and Gibbon, 2017
130 Riparo Broion Late Pleistocene 44–42 ka Peresani et al., 2019
131 Rose Cottage Cave Late Pleistocene 29–17 ka cal BP Bousman and Brink, 2017; Lewis et al., 2014
132 Schöningen Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 478–424 k Van Kolfschoten et al., 2015
133 Sehonghong Late Pleistocene 26–20 k Bousman and Brink, 2017
134 Senga Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Early Pleistocene Diez-Martín et al., 2011; Ludwig et al., 1998a,b
135 Shangchen Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 2,12 Ma Zhu et al., 2018
136 Shlyakh Late Pleistocene 41–34 ka Hoffecker et al., 2019
137 Shuidonggou 2 Late Pleistocene 32–20 k cal BP Niu et al., 2016
138 Shuidonggou locality 7 Late Pleistocene 30–23 k cal BP Niu et al., 2016
139 Sima del Elefante Atapuerca Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,22 Ma de Lombera-Hermida et al., 2015
(continued on next page)

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

Table 1 (continued )
ID Site Chronology Relative chronology as in Reference
reference

140 Son valley – Rampur and Late Pleistocene Upper Paleolithic Jones and Pal, 2009
Patpara
141 Sterkfontein Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 2–1,7 Ma McNabb and Kuman, 2015
142 Tabun Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene ~263 ka Malinsky-Buller, 2016
143 Teixoneres Cave Late Pleistocene ~ >51–33 ka Picin et al., 2020
144 Ter River basin Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene ~350–90 ka Garcia, 2015
145 Thomas Quarry Hominid Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 500–360 k Raynal et al., 2010
Cave
146 Tian Shan Mountains Late Pleistocene ~32–27 ka Kolobova et al., 2021
147 Toka Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene Middle Pleistocene Chauhan, 2007
148 Transbaikal Region Sites Late Pleistocene ~33–16 ka cal BP Terry et al., 2016
149 Txina Txina Late Pleistocene 14 k cal BP Bicho et al., 2018; Raja, 2021
150 Uçagızlı Cave Late Pleistocene 42–29 ka Kuhn, 2004; Kuhn et al., 2009
151 Umbeli Belli Rock Shelter Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 40–29 ka Bader et al., 2016
152 Umhlatuzana Late Pleistocene 38–27 ka Bousman and Brink, 2017
153 Untermassfeld Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Early Pleistocene Roebroeks et al., 2018
154 Urtiaga cave Late Pleistocene 17–16 ka Fontes 2016 Fontes, 2016
155 Ushboulak Late Pleistocene 45–44 ka cal BP Shunkov et al., 2017
156 Vale Boi Late Pleistocene 32–11 ka cal BP Horta et al., 2019
157 Vallparadís Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1 Ma-600 ka Garcia et al., 2012
158 Warwasi Rockshelter Late Pleistocene Upper Paleolithic/ Baradostian Tsanova, 2013
159 Xiaochangliang Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 1,36 Ma Ma et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2016
160 Xuchang Man Late Pleistocene 13 k Li and Ma, 2016
161 Yafteh Cave Late Pleistocene 35–24 ka Tsanova 2013
162 Yarımburgaz Cave Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene Middle Pleistocene Slimack, 2008
163 Yenisey Valley Late Pleistocene 13–12 k Kolobova et. al, 2021
164 Yujiagou Late Pleistocene 11 k Liu et al., 2013
165 Zaozer’e Late Pleistocene UP Pavlov, 2002
166 Zhiyu Late Pleistocene 33–28 k Liu et. al 2013
167 Zhoukoudian 1 Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene 770–240 k Li, 2016; Shen et al., 2016

Lastly, a Blank Size variable was created to understand, whether different sizes (see previous section for the links between bipolar tech­
bipolar methods were used to reduce small or large cores with the goal of nology and lithic miniaturization and others). Due to the highly sub­
producing small or large blanks. This variable was included to see if jective nature of size, and as only a handful of papers present
there were any trends in the use of bipolar methods for artifacts of quantitative data on size, the respective authors’ labels as being small or
large blanks were followed.
Table 2 Overall, the choice to consider these variables was made to under­
Variables recorded from the analysis of lithic bipolar methods literature used in stand large generic patterns in the use of bipolar methods through space
this study. and time. Naturally, given the diversity of consulted sources, some de­
Variable Attributes Observations gree of subjectivity is inherent to the classification of the selected at­
Site Name tributes. We argue that, despite this, the broad harmonization of the data
Coordinates Latitude and Due to the lack of precision in the has little impact on the large-scale results and interpretations of our
Longitude literature, several sites show coordinates of study.
the nearby settlements.Due to minor
representation Oceania was merged with
Asia.
3.3. Data availability
Chronology Late Pliocene and Between 3.3 and 0.78 million of years ago
Early Pleistocene
Middle to mid-Late Between 780 and 50 thousand years ago Analyses and data processing were accomplished in R. Following
Pleistocene recent concerns on the reproducibility and transparency of archaeo­
Late Pleistocene Between 50 and 12 thousand years ago logical analysis we include the R code used for all the analysis contained
Function Blank Production On anvil knapping for blank extraction
Tool use Wedging, chiseling, and others
in this paper as well as the raw database in our online research com­
Not Available No interpretation is given in the study pendium which can be accessed at: www.https://doi.org/10.17605/
Artifact Bipolar Cores Any core reduced on anvil OSF.IO/2KXDP.
Type
Scaled Pieces Any artifact in the scaled piece category
Bipolar Cores and Both categories of artifacts are present at 4. Results
Scaled pieces the site
Bipolar Blank Only bipolar blanks are present at the site Bipolar methods and technology have been identified and described
Others Non-specified artifacts with bipolar across different chronological and ecological contexts. The analyzed
damage or with very low representation (e.
g., split cobbles, bipolar fragments, or tools
sample is comprised of a total of 167 sites of which 18.8% have Late
with bipolar damage) Pliocene to Early Pleistocene occupations, 35.9% have Middle to Mid-
Raw Chert Includes flint and chalcedony Late Pleistocene occupations, and 45.3% have Late Pleistocene occu­
Material Quartz Includes all types of quartz pations, as shown in Table 3.
Quartzite
Currently, the end of the Pliocene marks the earliest evidence for the
Limestone
Obsidian use of stone tools in the archaeological record, corresponding to the
Others oldest evidence for the use of bipolar methods dating to c. 3.3 Ma
Blank Size Large According to the literature (Harmand et. al, 2015). Site concentration in this phase is higher in
Medium According to the literature Africa (40.6%) followed by Europe (31.3%) and Asia (28.1%) (Fig. 2,
Small According to the literature
Table 3). Bipolar cores dominate the representation in all regions, with

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

blanks and others having minor representation in Africa and Asia combination of both. Small blank production can be considered the
(Fig. 3). The application of bipolar methods during this period was likely primary goal of bipolar methods across all regions. As far as raw material
targeting blank production in a wide variety of raw materials across all reduction is concerned, there are notable differences across regions. In
regions. While small blanks tend to be more common for this period, Africa, there is a clear dominance of quartz reduction, and minor rep­
there is evidence for the use of bipolar methods for producing large resentation of other raw materials. In both Asia and Europe, a rise is
blanks in all regions. noted in chert reduction, with other raw material reduction displaying
The Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene period marks the expansion of lesser representation.
Mode 2 industries, as well as the emergence of Homo sapiens and Mode 3 While most variables suggest similar trends across time, artifact type
industries. During this time frame, site representation is higher in seems to indicate a pattern of change. As function is a variable that is
Europe (47.5%) followed by Africa (27.9%) and Asia (24.6%) (Table 3, directly linked to artifact type, we proceeded to run simple Correspon­
Fig. 2). As can be observed in Fig. 4, bipolar cores dominate represen­ dence Analysis on the data to confirm whether there were trends
tation in Europe and Asia, with minor representation of scaled pieces. In through time. As Fig. 6 suggests, there is a trend of different function­
Africa, while bipolar cores are still the most represented artifact type in ality across time. Most of the variability in the data can be explained in
this period, the combination of both bipolar cores and scaled pieces the first dimension of the biplot (93%). This dimension clearly separates
shows very similar frequencies, followed by a minor representation of the Late Pleistocene sample from the Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene
sites only containing scaled pieces. While small blanks tend to dominate and Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene samples, as the former is dominated
the assemblages in all regions, there are cases of large blank production by wedging and the combination of blank production and wedging,
in Africa and Asia. As far as raw materials are concerned, the trend of while the later are dominated by the use of bipolar methods to produce
reduction of multiple raw materials carries on from the previous period blanks.
during this time frame in Africa. In Europe and Asia, there is a preference
for the use of chert and quartz for bipolar reduction. 5. Discussion
The Final Late Pleistocene marks the definitive spread of Homo sa­
piens throughout the Old World. Site representation in this period is The technological means by which hominins achieved and evaluated
higher in Europe (49.4%), followed by Asia (28.6%), and lastly Africa efficiency in the use of stone tools for adapting to different pressures in
(22%) (Fig. 2, Table 3). Artifact types show the highest variability the environment remains an important question in human evolution
during this period, with an increase in the combination of bipolar cores studies. Furthering our understanding of these issues is crucial if we are
and scaled pieces noted across all regions (Fig. 5). As in the previous to evaluate how different types of technologies and techniques struc­
period, bipolar cores tend to dominate the sample with the combination tured hominin survival and expansion. While the basic principles of
of bipolar cores and scaled pieces rising in Africa. In Asia, while bipolar flaking remained the same, different techniques were applied
cores are the most represented artifact type, it is closely followed by sites throughout space and time, and bipolar methods were no exception. The
with scaled pieces and, subsequently, the combination of both bipolar fact that these methods are constantly present across 3.3 million years of
cores and bipolar blanks. In Europe, occupations with only scaled pieces flaking (spanning multiple hominin species and ecological settings)
show the highest representation, followed by bipolar cores and the makes it evident that it was both a successful and impactful factor in

Fig. 2. Location of sites considered in this study. Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene sites marked in red triangles; Middle to mid-Late Pleistocene sites marked in
blue squares; and Final Late Pleistocene sites marked in green circles. Numbers match the IDs of the sites presented in Table 1.

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

hominin adaptations. A major focus on these questions is needed if we Regarding wedging, its mechanical concept is the same as bipolar
are to better understand hominin migrations and adaptations to knapping, albeit with different purposes. This technique allowed bone,
different ecological settings. stone, wood, and antler to be worked in a variety of new ways, including
Although this paper focused primarily on the Paleolithic record, bi­ carcass processing, grease rendering, or organic tool production (e.g., de
polar methods were continuously used in Stone Age periods all around la Peña, 2011; Horta et al., 2019; Igreja and Porraz, 2013; LeBlanc,
the world (Binford and Quimby, 1963; Binford, 1968; Carvalho, 2007; 1992; Shott, 1999). This new array of possibilities provided hominins
LeBlanc, 1992; Shott, 1989). Furthermore, modern-day chimpanzees with adaptational advantages that previously did not exist, allowing for
and capuchins have been recorded using on-anvil percussion for nut- a better chance of survival in new ecological settings. The current
cracking activities (e.g. Fragaszy et al., 2004; Sakura and Matsuzawa, published body of evidence shows no mention of wedging activities in
1991). In these cases, the nut is placed on an anvil and hit with a rock. non-modern human occupations. While evidence for carcass processing
While the goal is to crack the nuts themselves, the same principles of dates as early as the Oldowan (Arroyo and de la Torre, 2017; Chazan and
bipolar methods are followed. These activities are very likely to have Horwitz, 2006; Niven, 2013; Pickering and Egeland, 2006), there is no
been performed by early hominins, possibly leading to the original published evidence of bone splintering through wedging that predates
“discovery” of bipolar knapping and its reoccurrence (e.g. Bril et al., the late Middle Stone Age. The same pattern can be observed regarding
2015, 2012; Carvalho et al., 2009; Goren-Inbar et al., 2002). bone tools. While there is evidence for bone tools in pre-modern human
Our results show a widespread presence of bipolar methods through occupations (d’Errico and Backwell, 2003; Gaudzinski, 1999; Soressi
space and time within our sample. Due to the large scale of the chro­ et al., 2013), their frequency and complexity rises considerably in the
nological groups used in this study, smaller representation patterns may late Middle Stone Age, Late Stone Age and the European Upper Paleo­
be invisible in data. More in-depth regional studies addressing bipolar lithic (Backwell et al., 2008; Brooks et al., 1995; d’Errico et al., 2012).
industries may further consolidate interpretations hypothesized in this We have no data suggesting that Neanderthals were recurrently
study. employing bipolar methods for any other activity than knapping
One trend that our results suggest is that the use of bipolar methods (Márquez et al., 2013; Moncel et al., 2012b; Tillier et al., 2017; Van
shifts through time. In the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene, bipolar Kolfschoten et al., 2015; Villa et al., 2018).
methods were being used exclusively for raw material reduction through The fact that wedging has only been identified in modern human
blank production, as bipolar cores and blanks are the only artifact types occupations may be because it was simply invisible to lithicists who
present in the assemblages. In the following period, blank production is were not trained to identify it. Due to its inherently close mechanical
still the dominant type of activity being performed across the Old World, concept with bipolar knapping (which, at this point, has been part of
albeit with a small difference: across all regions, scaled pieces start technological kits for a long-time span), it is unlikely that it requires a
appearing in the archaeological record. In Europe and Asia, the necessary cognitive structure for high-fidelity transmission. However, a
appearance of scaled pieces (in neglectable percentages) poses no hypothesis can be raised as to whether wedging may have emerged in
change in function, as blank production seems to be the main activity parallel to diverse and complex technologies of the Late Pleistocene as a
being performed. In Africa, however, the appearance of scaled pieces is latent solution (Tennie et al., 2017). In other words, the concept of
linked with wedging activities in sites where bipolar knapping is still wedging may have been created through individual low-fidelity social
being performed (see Section 2.1 for the link between scaled pieces and learning, where specific environmental stimuli or behavior recognition
wedging and/or knapping). This marks the first sighting of wedging as expressed by others leads to its conception (Tennie et al., 2017). This is
a—or variation of—bipolar technology. This innovation marked the particularly interesting due to wedging’s mechanical and conceptual
subsequent artifact and function variability verified in the Late Pleis­ similarity to nut cracking.
tocene across all regions. Interestingly, while in Africa, a combination of Another pattern that our results reveal is that bipolar knapping
bipolar blank production and wedging is present in this period. In Asia, seems to have been used as means to produce small and occasionally
and particularly in Europe, wedging became a rather popular activity, large blanks from small cores through space and time. Data suggests that
often out representing blank production. bipolar methods were used for the reduction of variable quality raw
This increase in functional and artifact variability in stone tool materials in different sizes, albeit these were mostly small. While pre­
techniques perfectly aligns with the results of Rezek et al. (2018). As the vious studies have mentioned that obtaining cutting edged bipolar
authors noted that in the Late Pleistocene the variation in blank sharp methods can be less efficient than freehand methods (Diez-Martín et al.,
edges considerably increases due to an increase in impact precision as a 2011; Morgan et al., 2015), its advantages may have been enough for
result of the introduction and widespread use of new flaking techniques. their recurrent use, especially when linked with highly mobile human
In turn, this raises the question of whether wedging spread through groups raw material conservation, and time-efficient knapping of hard
cultural diffusion or evolutionary convergence. On one hand, the raw materials (Gurtov et al., 2015; Hiscock, 2015, 1996; Pargeter and de
widespread of this technique across the Old World happens together la Peña, 2017; Shea, 2015). Lastly, free-hand knapping is often con­
with Later Stone Age technologies, which could suggest cultural diffu­ strained by raw material size volume due to the way the materials fit into
sion. On the other, other industries that have been historically consid­ the human hand, as volumes that are too big or too small cannot be
ered to have been left as a trail by Homo sapiens migrations out of Africa accurately gripped or hammered. This problem can be circumvented by
(e.g. Nubian) currently point to its emergence through evolutionary using bipolar methods, as the core is supported on the anvil or on the
convergence (Groucutt, 2020; Hallinan and Shaw, 2020). Therefore, it is ground, increasing the window of reduction of any raw material volume.
difficult to argue either theory with the current data. Interestingly, the data on bipolar knapping does seem not support
phenomena of cultural diffusion, but possibly evolutionary conver­
Table 3 gence. Data seems to suggest that the use of bipolar knapping will vary
Site distribution across region and time frame. Percentages shown in from site-to-site, as sites in the same region have different patterns.
parenthesis. Gurtov et al. (2015) argued that bipolar knapping appears in the
Chronology Africa Asia Europe Total archaeological record through recurrent convergent evolution, which is
possibly linked to its low skill requirement. In these scenarios, it is
Late Pliocene and Early 13 9 (28.1) 10 32(1 0 0)
Pleistocene (40.6) (31.3)
possible that the reoccurrence of bipolar knapping is due to it being a
Middle to Mi-Late Pleistocene 17 15 29 61 latent solution (Tennie et al., 2017), rather than cultural or technolog­
(27.9) (24.6) (47.5) (1 0 0) ical tradition.
Final Late Pleistocene 17 (22) 22 38 77 In human evolution, the decision-making process of using bipolar
(28.6) (49.4) (1 0 0)
methods opposed to freehand methods is an interesting point. Based on

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

Fig. 3. Barplots of artifact types, blank size, and raw material types by region across the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. Data retrieved from 32 sites.

Fig. 4. Barplots of artifact types, blank size, and raw material types by region across the Middle to Mid-Late Pleistocene. Data retrieved from 61 sites.

the evidence presented, it is clear that efficiency evaluation played a role territories, rapid environmental changes, resource stress, competition
in hominin decision-making, even in early periods. This is especially the and increases in demography because they were applying bipolar
case when both biotic and abiotic resources are scarce or of lower methods. Despite often being characterized as simple, expedient, and of
quality. In these moments, efficiency plays an important role, as re­ low cognitive meaning, bipolar technology should be considered when
sources need to be managed and economized. Previous studies have attempting to understand hominin decision making and problem solv­
proposed that hominins understood the advantages of using bipolar ing. The fact that the evaluation of stone tool efficiency was present in
methods by recognizing its advantages as a low-cost solution for early periods has interesting implications for the evolution of hominin
obtaining sharp edges, its time efficiency, and lack of skill constraints cognition. This is particularly important when the concept of wedging is
(de la Torre, 2011; Diez-Martín et al., 2011; Gurtov and Eren, 2014; introduced and apparently used by a single species. Wedging allowed for
Jones et al., 1994; Ludwig et al., 1998a,b; Whiten et al., 2009). Based on further enhancement of the effectiveness of carcass processing, bone
our results and the available data, it seems reasonable to argue that marrow extraction, antler and woodworking, and bone/wood tool pro­
hominins showed a degree of understanding in the evaluation of effi­ duction. At the same time, it can be argued that bipolar methods for
ciency to achieve specific goals early-on. This likely played a pivotal role wedging allowed for a flexible and efficient resource exploration, which
in shaping hominin expansion, survival, and adaption strategies. significantly contributed to modern humans’ unique ecological plas­
Taking all data into consideration, the application of bipolar ticity (Roberts and Stewart, 2018). As such, these methods helped shape
methods through time provided a flexible way to improve the efficiency both the survival and expansion of human groups to new territories, or
of resource exploitation. Whether for expediency or economization, in periods where resources were scarce or unpredictable. Based on this
hominins were better prepared for episodes of migration to new body of evidence, bipolar methods can be considered both a

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P. Horta et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103263

Fig. 5. Barplots of artifact types, blank size, and raw material types by region across the Final Late Pleistocene. Data retrieved from 77 sites.

and cultural contexts of these applications through space and time. By

doing this, we will be able to further reconstruct how bipolar methods
structured hominin survival and expansion.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Célia Gonçalves (ICArEHB) for aiding with

the creation of the map. We would also like to thank two anonymous
reviewers whose feedback helped improve the contents of the paper.

Funding

Most research presented here was possible due to funding from

Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, through the PhD fellowship
Fig. 6. Simple Correspondence Analysis biplot summarizing the relationship SFRH/BD/143454/2019 and the Project “ALG-01-0145-FEDER-027833
between the Function and Chronology variables. – EvHe – “Origens e Evolução da Cognição Humana e o impacto da
ecologia costeira no SW Ibérico“. JC is funded by Fundação para a
technological and cognitive response to problem solving. This is Ciência e para a Tecnologia (FCT), contract reference DL57/2016/
particularly evident when considering that these methods allowed CP1361/CT0026.
hominins to achieve higher efficiency levels when performing a single
task, whether it is for expedient solutions, raw material conservation, or Appendix A. Supplementary data
exploiting other organic resources. The continuous evolution of how
these methods were employed through time can also be considered an Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
important marker for understanding technological innovation and org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103263.
adaptation strategies.
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