BASIC ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
PREFACE

This manual consists of the experiments of Basic Electrical Engineering prescribed for the 1st year
students of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology to be implemented from the academic
year 2018-19. The main objective of preparation of the manual is to have uniformity in the activities of
the laboratory. It is expected that this manual will also assist the teachers in guiding the experiments to
the students. This manual also contains pre lab and post lab questions. It is expected that students will
be allotted schedule of experiments beforehand and will come prepared with the fundamental concept
and theory of every experiment. The pre lab question will guide the students in this direction. Similarly
post lab questions will also help students to think about the experiment more critically.

This manual is a guideline for the laboratory activities of the laboratory of Basic Electrical Engineering.
There can be deviations based on the availability of facility, better and innovative methods available
with the institute.

This manual has been prepared taking help from the material available in different sources. This is highly
acknowledged. This manual is meant for the internal use of the faculty, teachers and students of
university. The users of the manual are requested to go thought it critically and offer suggestions and
comments for the correctness and improvement of the manual.

The task of preparation of this manual was given to the coordinator of BOS of Electrical Engineering by
the university. The untiring effort put by Prof. T.K. Basu , Retd. Professor of IIT, Kharagpur and Member,
BOS of Electrical Engineering, is highly acknowledged and appreciated.

Coordinator

16-07-2018 [email protected]

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 CONTENTS:
Title Page no.
Introduction to basic safety precaution 6

Laboratory Safety Information 8

Guidelines for Laboratory notebook 9

Trouble shooting hints 11

Introduction and uses of Ammeter, Voltmeter, Multimeter and Oscilloscope 12

Determination of the stated value of a resistor by interpreting the color code 17

indicated on the resistor

Study of the different types of capacitors and understand the different types of 21
color coding schemes.

Study about inductor. 24

Study about autotransformer 25

Demonstration of cut-out sections of machines: DC machine, Induction machine, 29

Synchronous machine and single phase induction machine.

Calibration of wattmeter with the help of standard voltmeter and ammeter. 32

Calibration of an ammeter with the help of a standard ammeter 35

Determination of steady state and transient response of R- L circuit to a step 40

change in voltage.

Determination of steady state and transient response of R- C circuit to a step 43

change in voltage
Determination of steady state and transient response of R- L-C circuit to a step 46
change in voltage.

Determination of steady state response of R-L-C circuit and calculation of 49

impedance and power factor.
Determination of steady state response of R-L circuit and calculation of 53
impedance and power factor.
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Determination of steady state response of R-C circuit 57

Determination of the resonance frequency and quality factor of series RLC circuit 61

Determination of the resonance frequency and quality factor of parallel RLC 65

circuit

Open circuit (OC) and short circuit (SC) test of a single-phase transformer and 70
determination of efficiency and regulation.

Measurement of power in a three phase unbalanced load by two-wattmeter 78

method

Determination of Torque –Speed characteristics of separately excited DC 83

motor.
Determination of Torque-Speed characteristics of 3 –phase Induction motor. 87

Demonstration of operation of DC-DC converter 91

Demonstration of components of LT switchgear 96

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 List of Experiments:

Basic Electrical Engineering Laboratory:

1. First activity: Introduction to basic safety precautions and mentioning of the do’s and Don’ts.
Noting down list of experiments to be performed, and instruction for writing the laboratory
reports by the students. Group formation. Students are to be informed about the modalities of
evaluation.
2. Introduction and uses of following instruments :
(a) Voltmeter
(b) Ammeter
(c) Multimeter
(d) Oscilloscope

Demonstration of real life resistors, capacitors with color code , inductors and
autotransformer.
3. Demonstration of cut-out sections of machines: DC machine, Induction machine, Synchronous
machine and single phase induction machine.
4. Calibration of ammeter and Wattmeter.
5. Determination of steady state and transient response of R-L, R-C and R-L-C circuit to a step
change in voltage.
6. Determination of steady state response of R-L and R-C and R-L-C circuit and calculation of
impedance and power factor.
7. Determination of resonance frequency and quality factor of series and parallel R-L-C circuit.
8. (a) Open circuit and short circuit test of a single-phase transformer
(b) Load test of the transformer and determination of efficiency and regulation
9. Demonstration of three phase transformer connections. Voltage and current relationship,
phase shifts between the primary and secondary side.
10. Measurement of power in a three phase unbalanced circuit by two wattmeter method.
11. Determination of Torque –Speed characteristics of separately excited DC motor.
12. Determination of Torque speed characteristics and observation of direction reversal by change
of phase sequence of connection of Induction motor.
13. Determination of operating characteristics of Synchronous generator.
14. Demonstration of operation of (a) DC-DC converter (b) DC-AC converter (c) DC-AC converter for
speed control of an Induction motor
15. Demonstration of components of LT switchgear.

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Introduction to basic safety precaution:

The following general rules and precautions are to be observed at all times in the laboratory.
These rules are for the benefit of the experimenter as well as those around him/her. Additional
rules and precautions may apply to a particular laboratory.

1. There must be at least two (2) people in the laboratory while working on live circuits or
chemical processing.

2. Shoes must be worn at all times.

3. Remove all loose conductive jewelry and trinkets, including rings (for both boys and girls),
which may come in contact with exposed circuits. (Do not wear long loose ties, scarves, or other
loose clothing around machines.)

4. Consider all circuits to be "hot" unless proven otherwise.

5. When making measurements, form the habit of using only one hand at a time. No part of a live
circuit should be touched by the bare hand.

6. Keep the body, or any part of it, out of the circuit. Where interconnecting wires and cables are
involved, they should be arranged so people will not trip over them.

7. Be as neat as possible. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items not used in the
experiment.

8. Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the outlet. Also, turn
instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.

9. When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.

10. When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

11. "Cheater" cords and 3-to-2 prong adapters are prohibited unless an adequate separate ground
lead is provided, the equipment or device is double insulated, or the laboratory ground return is
known to be floating.

12. No ungrounded electrical or electronic apparatus is to be used in the laboratory unless it is

double insulated or battery operated.

13. Keep fluids, chemicals away from instruments and circuits.

14. Report any damages to equipment, hazards, and potential hazards to the laboratory instructor
as soon as you notice it.

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15. Do not move instruments from one-lab stations to another lab station without the permission
of the instructor

16. Do not tamper with or remove security straps, locks or other security devices.

17. If in doubt about electrical safety, seek advice from the laboratory instructor. Regarding
specific equipment, consult the instruction manual provided by the manufacturer of the
equipment. Information regarding safe use and possible- hazards should be studied carefully.

18. Any one violating any rule or regulations may be denied access to these facilities.

I have read and understood these rules and procedures. I agree to abide by
these rules and procedures at all times while using these facilities. I
understand that failure to follow these rules and procedures will result in my
immediate dismissal from the laboratory and additional disciplinary action
may be taken.

Signature: Name of the laboratory: Date:

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 Laboratory Safety Information
Introduction:

The danger of injury or death from electrical shock, fire or explosion is present while conducting
experiments in the laboratory. To work safely, it is important that you understand the good
practices necessary to minimize the risks and protect yourself in the event of an accident.
Electric Shock:
1. Avoid contact with conductors in energized electrical circuits. Electrocution has been
reported at DC voltage as low as 42 volts. Just 100 mA of current passing through the
chest is usually fatal. Muscle contractions can prevent the person from moving away
while being electrocuted.
2. Do not come in contact with someone who is being shocked while still in contact with
the electrical conductor or you may also be electrocuted.
3. Make sure that your hands are dry. The resistance of dry, unbroken skin is relatively high
and thus reduces the risk of shock. Skin that is broken , wet or damp with sweat has a low
resistance.
4. When working with an energized circuit, work with only your right hand, keeping your
left hand away from all conductive material. This reduces the likelihood of an accident
that results in current passing through your heart.
5. Be cautious of rings, watches and necklaces. Skin beneath a ring or watch is damp,
lowering the skin resistance. Shoes covering the feet are much safer than sandals.
Fire:
1. Transistors and other components can become extremely hot and cause severe burns if
touched. If resistors or other components on your worktable catch fire, turn off the power
supply and notify the same to the teacher in the laboratory.
2. If electronic instruments catch fire, switch off the supply. These small electrical fires
extinguish quickly after the power is shut off. Avoid using fire extinguishers on
electronic instruments.
Explosion:
When using electrolytic capacitors, be careful to observe proper polarity and do not exceed the
voltage rating. Electrolytic capacitors can explode and cause injury.

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 Guidelines for Laboratory notebook

The laboratory notebook is a record of all work pertaining to the experiment. This record should
be sufficiently complete. Record everything directly into notebook during the experiment. Do not
use scratch paper for recording data. Do not trust your memory to fill in the details later.
Organization of notebook is important. Descriptive headings should be used to separate and
identify the various parts of the experiment. Record data in chronological order. A neat,
organized and complete record of an experiment is just as important as the experimental work.

1. Title: The experiment identification (number) and name should be at the top of each
page. Your name and date should be at the top of the first page of each day’s
experimental work.

2. Objective: A brief but complete statement of what you intend to find out or verify in the
experiment should be at the beginning of each experiment.

3. Apparatus list: List those items of equipment that have a direct effect on the accuracy of
the data. It may be necessary later to locate specific items of equipment for recheck if
discrepancies develop in the results

4. Theory: A brief theory pertaining to the experiment should be written.

5. Circuit Diagram: A circuit diagram should be drawn and labeled so that the actual
experiment circuitry could be easily duplicated at any time in the future. Be especially
careful to record all circuit changes made during the experiment.

6. Procedure: In general, lengthy explanations of procedures are unnecessary. Be brief.

Keep in mind the fact that the experiment must be reproducible from the information
given in the notebook.

7. Observation table: Think carefully about what data is required and prepare suitable data
tables. Record instrument readings directly. Do not use calculated results in place of
direct data. However, calculated results may be recorded in the same table with direct
data. Data tables should be clearly identified and each data column labeled and headed by
proper units of measure.

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 8. Calculations: Not always necessary but equations and sample calculations are often
given to illustrate the treatment of experimental data in obtaining the results.

9. Graphs: Graphs are used to present large amounts of data in a concise visual form. Data
to be presented in graphical form should be plotted in the laboratory so that any
questionable data points can be checked while the experiment is still set up. The grid
lines in the notebook can be used for most graphs. If special graph paper is required, affix
the graph permanently in to the notebook. Give all graphs a short descriptive title. Label
and scale the axes. Use units of measure. Label each curve if more than one on graph.

10. Results: The results should be presented in a form which makes the interpretation easy.
Large amounts of numerical results are generally presented in graphical form. Tables are
generally used for small amounts of results. Theoretical and experimental results should
be on the same graph or produced in the same table in a way for easy correction of these
results.

11. Report: This is your interpretation of results of experiment as an Engineer. Be brief and
specific. Give reasons for important discrepancies.

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 Trouble shooting hints

1. Be sure that the power is turned on.

2. Be sure that the ground is common.
3. Be sure that the circuit you build is identical to that in the circuit diagram (Do a
node by node check).
4. Be sure that the power supply voltages are correct.
5. Be sure that equipments are set correctly and you are measuring the correct
parameters.
6. If steps 1 through 5 are correct, then you probably have used a component with
the wrong value or one that does not work. It is also possible that the equipment
does not work or you have some unwanted path between the nodes. To find the
problem you must trace through the voltages in your circuit node-by-node and
compare the signal you have with the signal you expect to have. If they are
different, use your engineering judgment to decide what is causing the difference
or ask your teacher.

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Title: Introduction and uses of Ammeter, Voltmeter, Multimeter and Oscilloscope

Ammeter:
The word ammeter is a contraction of the words ampere meter. That is exactly what it does. It
measures the amount of charge (in amperes) flowing through a circuit. The main and
only function of Ammeter is to measure current flowing through a circuit.

An ammeter is an instrument used for measuring electric current in units of amperes.

An ammeter must be connected in series with the path of the current being measured. Setting
the ammeter up in parallel will create a short circuit and will not measure the current correctly.

An ammeter in series with a load measures current to the load. Therefore, an ammeter reading is
the current indicated by the ammeter. The units are in Amperes or Amps for short. Sometimes
milliamps, microamps are used for small values.

It measures the voltage drop across a known resistance. The reason for ammeter resistance to
be low is because it can accurately read the current flowing in the circuit. When the ammeter
resistance is low, almost all the current in the circuit is allowed to pass through the ammeter.

Parallax error mainly happens when the object is viewed from an angle due to the wrong
positioning of eye. The first way to curb this error is to orient your eyes in a straight line. Your
eyes should be in a straight line directly above the marking on your device, be it a scale or a
Vernier caliper etc.
Fig.1 shows the image of typical ammeter. This ammeter is used to measure AC current. This is
evident from the symbol in the dial of the meter. Fig:2 shows the method to avoid parallax error.

Fig: 1. Image of a typical Ammeter.

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 Fig: 2. Methods to avoid parallax error

Voltmeter:

A voltmeter, also known as a voltage meter, is an instrument used for measuring the potential
difference, or voltage, between two points in an electrical or electronic circuit.
Some voltmeters are intended for use in direct current (DC) circuits; others are designed for
alternating current (AC) circuits.

The main principle of voltmeter is that it must be connected in parallel in which we want to
measure the voltage. Parallel connection is used because a voltmeter is constructed in such a way
that it has a very high value of resistance. Fig.3 shows the image of typical voltmeter.

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 Fig.3 Image of a typical voltmeter

Multimeter:

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a
microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings.

A digital multimeter or DMM is one of the most useful items of test equipment to diagnose
electrical or electronic problems. It’s a measuring device that takes analog information and
converts it into a digital signal , which reads out on the display.

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 Fig.4 Image of a typical Multimeter

Oscilloscope:

Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of an electrical signal over time, such that voltage
and time describe a shape that is continuously graphed against a calibrated scale. The observed
waveform can be analyzed for such properties as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time interval,
distortion and others.
An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the waveform
of electrical signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous signal voltage as
a function of time.
An oscilloscope's trigger function is important to achieve clear signal characterization, as it
synchronizes the horizontal sweep of the oscilloscope to the proper point of the signal.
The trigger control enables users to stabilize repetitive waveforms as well as capture single-shot
waveforms

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Most oscilloscopes can only directly measure voltage, not current. One way to
measure AC current with an oscilloscope is to measure the voltage dropped across a shunt
resistor. Fig. 5 shows image of a typical oscilloscope.

Fig.5 Image of typical oscilloscope

Procedure:

1. Draw the sketch of the ammeter, voltmeter, multimeter and Oscilloscope

available in the institute.
2. Discuss working principle of each instrument in short.
3. Take readings with ammeter and voltmeter avoiding parallax error.
4. Discuss how DC meter and AC meters are identified.
5. Determine the amplitude and frequency of unknown sinusoidal and
triangular waveform obtained from signal generator. Sketch the same in
the graph paper.

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Title: Determination of the stated value of a resistor by interpreting the color code indicated on
the resistor

Objective: To determine the stated value of a resistor by interpreting the color code indicated on
the resistor

Theory
There are two ways to find the value of a resistor. We can find out the value of the resistance by
its color code. As shown in the fig.1, there are 5-band resistors and 4-band resistors. Form both
5- and 4-band resistors; the last band indicates tolerance. The value of different band is shown in
table 2. The value of tolerance of resistor is shown in the table-2. There are five types of linear
resistors as under: (1) Carbon composition (2) Metal film (3) Carbon film (4) Wire wound (5)
cernet.

Fig.1. 5- Band and 4- Band resistors

Four band resistor: - Four band identification is the most commonly used color coding
scheme on resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the
resistor. The first two bands encode the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the
third is a power-of-ten multiplier or number of zeros, and the fourth is the tolerance accuracy, or
acceptable error, of the value. The first three bands are equally spaced along the resistor; the
spacing to the fourth band is wider.
For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56X10000 = 560K Ohm +/- 2%.

Five band resistor: - It is used for higher precision (lower tolerance) resistors (1%, 0.5%) to
specify a third significant digit. The first three bands represent the significant digits, the fourth is
multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. Five-band resistor with a gold or silver 4th band is
sometimes encountered, generally on older or specialized resistors. The fourth band is tolerance
and the 5th the temperature coefficient.

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 The value of the resistance = R ± R*(Tolerance)

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Based on the color bands determine the value of the resistor.
An example is given below:

The first band is a one (1), the second band is a zero (0), and the multiplier band or third band is
103.
Another way to tell the resistance value of a resistor is to actually measure it with the ohmmeter.

Procedure
Measure and record the value of the resistor in the tabular form as shown in the table below:

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Record resistor colors for the values given below:

4.7 KΩ ±5%, 910Ω±𝟏𝟎% , 12 Ω ±5%, 6.8KΩ ±20%

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Title: To study of the different types of capacitors and understand the different types of color
coding schemes.

Theory:
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by an
insulator. A capacitor is a physical device consisting of two pieces of conducting material
separated by an insulating material. This insulating material is referred to as the Dielectric.
Because the dielectric is an insulator, no current flows through the capacitor. If the dielectric
breaks down and becomes a conductor, the capacitor can no longer hold a charge and is useless.
The ability of a dielectric to hold a chare without breaking down is known as the dielectric
strength. The measure of the ability of the dielectric material to store energy is called dielectric
constant. It stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. The dielectric can be anything from
air to paper to plastic materials.
Types of capacitor

The capacitors are divided into two classes. 1) Fixed 2) Variable.

Fixed capacitors are further divided into Electrolytic and Non-Electrolytic (Non Polarized).
• A fixed capacitor is constructed in such a manner that it possesses a fixed value of
capacitance which cannot be adjusted.
• A variable capacitor is constructed in such a manner that its value can be varied. There
are various types of capacitors in above said groups depending on different types of
material used for dielectric electrode plates and method of their manufacturing and
internal construction.

Electrolytic capacitors are of two types: 1) Aluminum and 2) Tantalum. Non-electrolytic

capacitors are paper, Mica, Plastic, ceramic and glass.
• Aluminum Capacitor - A fixed type of electrolytic capacitor.
• Tantalum Capacitor – A fixed type of electrolytic capacitor.

• Paper Capacitor – A variable type of non-electrolytic capacitor.

• Glass capacitor - A variable type of non-electrolytic capacitor.

Color Coding of Capacitor

To understand about capacitor color code, primarily we must know various parameters of
capacitors such as capacitor value, tolerance of capacitor, working voltage of the capacitor, and
leakage current of the capacitor.

Method to know Capacitor Codes

Method1:
Similar to resistors some capacitors make use of color codes to indicate their value. There will be
usually 5 bands on the capacitor. The first and second band will represent a number

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• of the capacitor color code chart. Third band is the multiplier band; fourth band represents
the tolerance while the fifth band represents the voltage.

Method2:

• Some large capacitors will indicate their value on the capacitor itself. For example 47µF
means 47 microFarads.

Method3:
In smaller body capacitors sometimes, µF or pF will not be written. Only the value will be
indicated on the capacitor. In such a case,

• If the capacitor has a two digit number as the value, then the value will be in picoFarads. For
example if the capacitor has value 47 printed on it, it means 47pF.
• If the capacitor has a three digit number as the value, then first two digits represent the
capacitance value in picoFarads. While the third digit is the multiplier. If the multipler band
has a value from (1 to 7), then multiply by the corresponding number of zeros. It means that
if the multiplier band has a value of 5, then multiply by five zeros.Now, if the multipler band
has a value 0, then multiply by 1. For a value of 8 or 9 in the multipler band, multiply by
0.01 for 8 and 0.1 for 9. For example: Consider a capacitor with the value 103. It means that
the capacitor has a value of 10pF with a multiplier of 3 (means multiply by 1000). So the
actual value of the capacitor is 10000pF or 0.01µF.

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Method 4:

• Digit Character Digit Codes: If the capacitor has a value printed as 1n0, then the first digit
represents the value before decimal point and n represents the unit i.e., nanoFarad. While the
digit ‘0’ represents the value after the decimal point. So the capacitance value is 1.0nF.

Method 5:

• Sometimes capacitors come with values like 470K. This reads 47 as the capacitance value in
pF, ‘0’ represents the multiplier (multiply by 1) and K represents tolerance value. So the
actual value of the capacitor is 47pF with 10% tolerance.

Observation: The value of 10 capacitors to be found out from the color code.

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Title: Study about inductor.

Theory:

Inductor is a device which can store energy in the form of magnetic field. Inductor opposes
growth or fall of flow of current through it. The function of an inductor is to provide opposition
to a changing or varying current. Whenever a current change occurs within the coil windings, a
voltage is induced across the ends of the coil. The polarity of the induced voltage is such that it
opposes the change of current within the inductor. The basic unit of inductance is the Henry
(H).Figure shows the magnetic filed created due to current in the inductor.

Images of inductor:

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Title: Study about autotransformer
Theory: An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on a laminated
core. An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but differ in the way the
primary and secondary winding are interrelated. A part of the winding is common to both
primary and secondary sides. On load condition, a part of the load current is obtained directly
from the supply and the remaining part is obtained by transformer action. An Auto transformer
works as a voltage regulator.
There are two types of auto transformer based on the construction. In one type of transformer,
there is continuous winding with the taps brought out at convenient points determined by desired
secondary voltage and in another type of auto transformer, there are two or more distinct coils
which are electrically connected to form a continuous winding. The construction of Auto
transformer is shown in the figure below.

The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is taken, such that CB acts as a secondary
winding. The supply voltage is applied across AB, and the load is connected across CB. The
tapping may be fixed or variable. When an AC voltage V1 is applied across AB, an alternating
flux is set up in the core, as a result, an emf E1 is induced in the winding AB. A part of this
induced emf is taken in the secondary circuit.

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 Fig: 1 Single-phase tapped autotransformer with output voltage range of 40%–115% of input

Applications of Auto transformer

1. It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a squirrel cage
induction motor during starting.
2. It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage drop.
3. It is also used as a voltage regulator
4. Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in the audio system and railways.

Image of practical auto transformer:

Single phase auto transformer Three phase auto transformer

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Breadboard:

A breadboard is a rectangular plastic board with a bunch of tiny holes in it. These holes let you
easily insert electronic components to prototype (meaning to build and test an early version of)
an electronic circuit, like this one with a battery, switch, resistor, and an LED (light-emitting
diode). To learn more about individual electronic components,

The term breadboard comes from the early days of electronics, when people would literally
drive nails or screws into wooden boards on which they cut bread in order to connect their
circuits.

Image of breadboard

Breadboard labels: rows, columns, and buses

Most breadboards have some numbers, letters, and plus and minus signs written on them. What
does all that mean? While their exact appearance might vary from breadboard to breadboard, the
general purpose is always the same. These labels help you locate certain holes on the breadboard
so you can follow directions when building a circuit. Row numbers and column letters help you
to identify individual holes in the breadboard. For example, all of the highlighted holes are in
"column C."

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 Procedure:

1. Note down the color code of resistor and capacitors.

2. Observe the functioning of single phase and three-phase autotransformer.
3. Observe the construction of inductors available in the laboratory.
Observation:
1. Note down the value of the resistor based on the color code mentioned.
Compare the result with actual measurement with multimeter.
2. Note down the value of capacitor based on the color code mentioned.

Post Lab question:

1. What is the property of an Inductor?

2. How does an inductor behave in a steady DC circuit?
3. How an autotransformer is different from a two winding transformer?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an Autotransformer?

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 Title: Demonstration of cut-out sections of machines: DC machine, Induction machine,
Synchronous machine and single phase induction machine.

Fig: 1. Cut view of DC motor and generator.

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 Fig: 2 Cut view of 3 Phase Induction motor

Fig: 3 Cut view of single phase Induction motor

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 Fig: 4 Cut section view of synchronous generator (source: internet)

Procedure:

1. Observe critically the cut section view of the motors to identify different parts.
2. Sketch the cutaway view of the machines available in the laboratory with making of
different parts.
3. Write down working principle of each machine in short.

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TITLE: Calibration of wattmeter with the help of standard voltmeter and ammeter.

OBJECTIVE: - To calibrate wattmeter with the help of standard voltmeter and ammeter.

APPARATUS:-

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Single phase auto transformer 01 no
Wattmeter dynamometer type 01 no
3. Ammeter moving iron type 01 no
4. Voltmeter moving iron type 02 no
5. Rheostat 01 no
6. Connecting wires 10-12 no

THEORY:-

Calibration is a comparison between two measurements of the same physical quantity.

1. One with an instrument of known correctness called Standard instrument.

2. Another measurement made in a similar way with a second device i.e. the device being
calibrated or the test instrument.

WATTMETERS:-

In d.c. circuit power is given by the product of voltage (V) and current (I). However, in case of
a.c. circuits it is not true. The real power in a.c. circuit is given by the expression V I Cosф ,
Where Cosф is power factor. The measurement of real power in a.c. circuits is done by using an
instrument, which is known as wattmeter. A wattmeter comprises of two coils namely current
coil and pressure coil. The current coil is connected in series with the load and the pressure coil
is connected across the load. The most commonly used wattmeters are of dynamometer
indicating type. The current coil is fixed and pressure coil is moving coil. The working of this
type of wattmeters depends up on the electromagnetic forces exerted between the current coil
and pressure coil. Wattmeter are also available in triple range for voltages as well as for current
e.g. 2.5/5A, 125/250/500V. There is only one scale on the wattmeter. For different combinations
of ranges of voltage s and currents, the ratings of wattmeter would be different. In order to take
down the correct reading from wattmeter a multiplying factor is to be used. The various value of
multiplying factors are mentioned on the meter. These are in accordance to the range used for
voltages and currents. Many a times it happens that the wattmeter gives –ve reading. In such a
case, the connections of either the current coil or the pressure coil should be reversed. Then the
wattmeter will start reading +ve . The readings so indicated should be recorded with a –ve sign.
The terminals of current coil are marked as M – L abbreviation for mains and load. The terminals
of pressure coil are marked V1 and V2. The terminals M of the current coil and V1 of the
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pressure coil are joined together, and junction is known as common terminal. The current coil of
wattmeter has a low resistance and hence the symbol is inductive. The pressure coil of wattmeter
has high resistance and hence the symbol is resistive

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

(A) Connect the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter to the load through single phase
autotransformer according to the circuit diagram and set single phase auto transformer to zero
position.

(B) Switch on the single-phase a.c. supply and adjust the autotransformer till a suitable voltage.
At this stage note down all the readings of equipments.

(C) Vary or increase the voltage by autotransformer and note the various reading and calculate
the power by wattmeter and voltmeter, ammeter and then find out limiting error for wattmeter.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

S Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading Wattmeter Power True %

No. in Volt (V) in Volt (I) reading in P=W1* power Error
Watt. (W1) MF =(v*I)
1.
2.
3.
4.
CALCULATION: Power P = (W1) X Multiplying Factor of Wattmeter (in watt)

Actual Value = Voltmeter Reading X Ammeter Reading

% Limiting Error = (Measured Value – Actual Value) / (Actual Error)

33
RESULT: The power measure in the circuit is shown in test and actual value calculated by
voltmeter reading into ammeter reading and there corresponding limiting error (%) in last
column.

REPORT: Limiting error for wattmeter in above case is:

A graph showing percentage error versus measured value for the complete range of the test
instrument is known as the calibration graph of the instrument. Unlike in other graphs, the data
points is a calibration curve are joined by straight line segments. The graph will enable the user
to know the true value for a given measured value.

PRECAUTION:

• Power supply should be made on in presence of Lab Instructor.

• The scale of the standard ammeter should be chosen higher than that of the test ammeter.
• All connected wire should be tight
• Proper current and voltage range must be selected before putting the Instruments
/Equipments in circuit.
• Take observations carefully. Don’t touch live wires.
• Wattmeter should be connected as per circuit diagram.
• If any wattmeter reads backwards reverse its pressure coil connection and record the
reading as –ve.
• As the supply voltage fluctuates it is not possible to observe the readings correctly

Pre lab questions

1. How Ammeter and Voltmeter are connected in a circuit.

2. What will happen if Ammeter is connected in parallel and voltmeter in series?
3. Why should a voltmeter have a high resistance and an ammeter a low resistance?
4. What is parallax error? How can it be avoided?
5. What is the use of wattmeter?
6. What is the meaning of MLCV in a Wattmeter?
7. How a wattmeter is connected in an AC circuit?

Post lab questions:

1. What is the necessity of calibration of wattmeter?

2. What is the information received from the calibration curve?
3. What are the different types of errors occur in a Wattmeter?
4. Name the type of Wattmeter used in the experiment.
5. Will there be any change of the reading of the Wattmeter if the position of the wattmeter
is changed?
6. How are specification (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment?.

34
TITLE: Calibration of an ammeter with the help of a standard ammeter.
OBJECTIVE: - To calibrate an ammeter with the help of a standard ammeter.

APPARATUS:-

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Single phase auto transformer 01 no
3. Ammeter moving iron type 02 no
5. Rheostat 01 no
6. Connecting wires 10-12 no

THEORY:-
Calibration is a comparison between two measurements of the same physical quantity.

1. One with an instrument of known correctness called Standard instrument.

2. Another measurement made in a similar way with a second device i.e. the device being
calibrated or the test instrument.

Ammeters used for measurement of AC current are generally of moving iron type.

There are two general type of moving iron instruments (i) Repulsion (or double iron) type
(ii) Attraction (or single-iron) type.

The brief description of different components of a moving-iron instrument is given below.

1. Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod
2. Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also to magnetize
the iron pieces.
3. In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with the same polarity.
4. Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity)
5. Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of an air chamber and
a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
6. Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.

The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small piece of
magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current. In
repulsion (Fig.1) type moving–iron instrument consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes
mounted within a fixed current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame
and other is free to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic
field produced by the coil that consists of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter
or of many turns if the instrument is a voltmeter. Current in the coil induces both vanes to

35
 become magnetized and repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a
proportional rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in
the coil, making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a
hairspring that produces the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil carries load current, and
it is constructed so as to withstand high transient current. Moving iron instruments having
scales that are nonlinear and somewhat crowded in the lower range of calibration.
Another type of instrument that is usually classed with the attractive types of instrument
is shown in Fig.2

Fig: 1 Repulsion type

Fig: 2 Attraction type.

This instrument consists of a few soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to the spindle (D),
pivoted in jeweled bearings. The spindle (D) also carries a pointer (P), a balance weight

36
 (W1), a controlling weight (W2) and a damping piston (E), which moves in a curved fixed
cylinder (F). The special shape of the moving-iron discs is for obtaining a scale of
suitable form.

Torque Expressions: Torque expression may be obtained in terms of the inductance of the
instrument. Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument inductance L and the deflection
θ. Then let I change to I + dI , being a small change of current; as a result let θ changes
to(θ+dθ ) and L to L dL. In order to get an incremental change in current dI, there must
be an increase in the applied voltage across the coil.
𝑑(𝐿𝐼) 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐼
Applied voltage 𝑣 = = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 L (1)
𝑑𝑡

The electric energy supplied to the coil in dt is

𝑣𝐼𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼 2 dL+ILdt (2)

1 1
Increase in energy stored in the magnetic field = 2 (𝐼 + 𝐷𝐼 2 )(𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿) − 2 𝐼 2 𝐿

1
=𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐼 + 2 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿

(neglecting second and higher terms in small quantities)

If 𝑇is the value of the control torque corresponding to deflection θ, the extra energy
stored in the control due to the change, dθ, is 𝑇dθ . Then, increase in stored energy =
1
𝐼𝑙𝑑𝐼 + 2 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝑇𝑑𝜃 ( 3)

From principle of the conservation of energy, one can write the following expression
Electric energy drawn from the supply = increase in stored energy + mechanical work

1
𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝑇𝑑𝜃
2
1 𝑑𝐿
𝑇(Torque) =2 𝐼 2 𝑑𝜃 (Nm) ( 4)

The best method of calibration is to measure the true value of current in the circuit with some
meter of superior quality and compare it with the value measured by the given ammeter. The
percentage error of the instrument may be calculated as follows.

Error=(Test meter reading-Standard meter reading)

% Error= Error / (Standard meter reading)}*100

37
The error may be positive or negative.

A graph showing percentage error versus measured value for the complete range of the test
instrument is known as the calibration graph of the instrument. Unlike in other graphs, the data
points is a calibration curve are joined by straight line segments. The graph will enable the user
to know the true value for a given measured value.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

A A
Test Standard

Load

PROCEDURE:-

(A) Connect the test ammeter and standard ammeter to the load through single phase
autotransformer according to the circuit diagram and setup single phase auto transformer to zero
position.

(B) Switch on the single-phase a.c. supply and adjust the autotransformer till suitable current
flows through the load. At this stage note down all the readings of equipments.

(C) Vary or increase the voltage by autotransformer and note the various reading and then find
out limiting error for ammeter.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:-

Ammeter Reading Error =

AT -AS Percentage Error = (AT
Sl No Test Ammeter Standard -AS/AS )x100
(AT) Ammeter (AS) (Amp)
(Amp) (Amp)
1

38
 2

CALCULATION:-

REPORT: - Limiting error for wattmeter in above case is:

𝐴 −𝐴
% full scale error = (𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑠
𝑋100)
𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

PRECAUTION:-

1. Power supply should be made on in presence of Lab Instructor.

2. The scale of the standard ammeter should be chosen higher than that of the test
ammeter.
3. All connected wire should be tight
4. Proper current and voltage range must be selected before putting the Instruments
/Equipments in circuit.
5. Take observations carefully. Don’t touch live wires.
6. Ammeters should be connected as per circuit diagram.
7. As the supply voltage fluctuates it is not possible to observe the readings correctly

Pre lab questions

1. How Ammeters are connected in a circuit.

2. What will happen if Ammeter is connected in parallel with the circuit?
3. Why an ammeter should has a low resistance?
4. What is parallax error? How can it be avoided?
5. What is the nature of scale of the moving iron type ammeter?
6. Can moving type ammeter be used for measurement of AC.?
7. How an ammeter to be used for measurement of dc or ac is identified by inspection.

Post lab questions:

1. What is the necessity of calibration of ammeter?

2. What is the information received from the calibration curve?
3. What are the different types of errors occur in an ammeter?
4. Name the type of ammeter used in the experiment.
5. Can direct current be measured with moving iron instrument?
6. How are specification (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment.

39
Title: Determination of steady state and transient response of R- L circuit to a step change in voltage.

Objective: To study steady state and transient response of RL circuit

Theory:

Transient response of a series R-L circuit having DC excitation.

Let a dc voltage V be applied suddenly (i.e at t=o) by closing a switch in a series R-L circuit.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law yields,

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑅 𝑉
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 = 𝑉 or +𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿

However, before switching , there was no current through the inductor and hence at time t=0+( i.e
just after the switching ) the current through the inductor will also be zero.i(0+)=0.
𝑅
𝑉
This gives 𝑖 = 𝑅 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )A

The voltage drops across the resistance and inductance during the transient period is given by
𝑅
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )

𝑅
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑒 𝐿

Circuit diagram:

Inductor
Ch

Signal Resistor
Generator Oscilloscope

40
 Resistor
Ch

Signal Inductor
Generator Oscilloscope

Fig: 1 Circuit diagram of R-L circuit

Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Function generator 01 no
2. Oscilloscope 01 No
3. Resistor 01 No 10 Ω
4.. Inductor 01 No 1 0mH
5. Bread board 01 No
6. Connecting wires ----------------------

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit according to the Fig. & switch ‘ON’ the Supply.
2. Feed square wave from function generator (VP-P=10 V, f=500 Hz) to the input terminal
of the circuit
3. Connect the CRO across the output terminal & note down the voltage wave form.
4. Draw the input and output wave on the graph paper.

RESULTS: Transient response of RL circuit has been studied and the results obtained are shown on
the graph

VP1 VP2

12

10

0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Time (s)

41
 Fig: 2 Wave forms of square wave generator and current through inductor

Fig3: Wave form of square wave generator and voltage across inductor

Fig 4: Waveform of step voltage and current under steady state condition.

Pre lab questions:

1. What is the function of signal generator?

2. What is a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)?
3. What is the function of oscilloscope?
4. How is CRO superior to ordinary measuring instruments?
5. What are the essential components of CRO?
6. What is Lissajous pattern?
7. What is meant by transient response and steady state response?

Post lab question:

1. What is time constant of R-L circuit?

2. What is the effect of frequency of input voltage on the response of the R-L circuit?
3. How the response will change with the application of sinusoidal input voltage?
4. Explain the nature of voltage waveform across the inductor for square wave input.

42
Title: Determination of steady state and transient response of R- C circuit to a step change in
voltage.
Objective: To study and plot the transient response of RC circuit

Theory:

Transient response of a series R-C circuit having DC excitation.

Let a dc voltage V be applied suddenly (i.e at t=o) by closing a switch in a series R-L circuit.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law yields,

1 𝑑𝑖 𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉 or 𝑅 + = 0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

With application of voltage and assuming no initial charge across the capacitor, there will be no
voltage across the capacitor at time t=0+( i.e just after the switching ) acting as a short circuit
−𝑡
𝑉 𝑉
causing the current to be 𝑅 , This gives 𝑖 = 𝑅 (𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )A

The voltage drops across the resistance and inductance during the transient period is given by
𝑡 −𝑡
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉 (𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 ) V and 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ) V

Circuit diagram:

Resistor
Ch

Signal Capacitor
Generator Oscilloscope

43
 Capacitor
Ch

Signal Resistor
Generator Oscilloscope

Fig: 1 Circuit diagram of R-C circuit

Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Function generator 01 no
2. Oscilloscope 01 No
3. Resistor 01 No 1000 Ω
4.. Capacitor 01 No 1 uF
5. Bread board 01 No
6. Connecting wires ----------------------

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit according to the Fig.4 & switch ‘ON’ the Supply.
2. Feed square wave from function generator (VP-P=10 V, f=500 Hz) to the input terminal
of the circuit
3. Connect the CRO across the output terminal & note down the voltage wave form.
4. Draw the input and output wave on the graph paper.

RESULTS: Transient response of RL circuit has been studied and the results obtained are shown on
the graph

Fig: 2 Wave form of square wave generator and voltage across the capacitor

44
 Fig: 3 Wave form of square wave generator and current through the capacitor.

Fig: 4 Waveform of step voltage and current under steady state condition.

Pre lab questions:

1. What is the function of signal generator?

2. What is a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)?
3. What is the function of oscilloscope?
4. How is CRO superior to ordinary measuring instruments?
5. What are the essential components of CRO?
6. What is Lissajous pattern?
7. What is meant by transient response and steady state response?

Post lab question:

1. What is time constant of R-C circuit?

2. What is the effect of frequency of input voltage on the response of the R-C circuit?
3. How the response will change with the application of sinusoidal input voltage?
4. Explain the nature of voltage waveform across the capacitor for square wave input.

45
Title: Determination of steady state and transient response of R- L-C circuit to a step change in
voltage.

Objective : To study and plot the transient response of RLC circuit

Theory:

Transient response of a series RLC circuit having DC excitation.

Let a dc voltage V be applied suddenly (i.e at t=o) by closing a switch in a series RLC circuit.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law yields,

𝑑𝑖 1 𝑑2 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑖 𝑅 1
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉 or 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 = 0 or 𝑃2 + 𝐿 𝑃 + 𝐿𝐶 = 0 (2)

Equation (2) is a second order , linear, homogeneous differential equation. The characteristic
𝑅 1
equation then becomes: 𝑃2 + 𝐿 𝑃 + 𝐿𝐶 = 0 where coefficients are constant. The roots of the
𝑅 𝑅 24
− ±√( ) −
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐶
characteristics equation then becomes 𝑃1 ,𝑃2 = 2

𝑅 2 1
Case 1: When ( 𝐿 ) > 𝐿𝐶 , Hence roots P1 and P2 are real and unequal. The current response is
over damped.

𝑅 2 1
Case 2: When ( 𝐿 ) < 𝐿𝐶 , Hence roots P1 and P2 are complex conjugate. The current response is
under damped or oscillatory

𝑅 2 1
Case 3: When ( 𝐿 ) = 𝐿𝐶 , Hence roots P1 and P2 are real and equal. The current response is
critically damped .

Circuit diagram:

Inductor Capacitor
Ch

Signal Resistor Oscilloscope

Generator

Fig: 1 Circuit diagram of RLC circuit

46
Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Function generator 01 no
2. Oscilloscope 01 No
3. Resistor 01 No 100 Ω
4. Inductor 01 No 10mH
5. Capacitor 01 No 1 000uF
6. Bread board 01 No
7. Connecting wires ----------------------

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit according to the Fig.4 & switch ‘ON’ the Supply.
2. Feed square wave from function generator (VP-P=10 V, f=500 Hz) to the input terminal
of the circuit
3. Connect the CRO across the output terminal & note down the voltage wave form.
4. Draw the input and output wave on the graph paper.

RESULTS: Transient response of RLC circuit has been studied and the results obtained are shown on
the graph for Case1 and case 2.

Case1: L=10mH, C=1000uF, R=100 Ohm. Over damped.

Case2: L=1mH, C=1uF, R=10 Ohm. Oscillatory

47
Pre lab questions:

1 What is the function of signal generator?

2 What is a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)?
3 What is the function of oscilloscope?
4 How is CRO superior to ordinary measuring instruments?
5 What are the essential components of CRO?
6 What is Lissajous pattern?
7 What is meant by transient response and steady state response?

Post lab question:

1. How the response of R-L-C circuit changes with the nature of roots of characteristics
equation?
2. What is the effect of frequency of input voltage on the response of the R-L-C circuit?
3. How the response will change with the application of sinusoidal input voltage?
4. Explain the nature of voltage waveform across the inductor and capacitor for
sinusoidal input voltage.

48
Title: Determination of steady state response of R-L-C circuit and calculation of impedance and
power factor.

Object: To determine the steady state response and to calculate the impedance and power factor
of R-L-C circuit.

Theory:
When an A.C. voltage (RMS) is applied to RLC series circuit as shown in circuit diagram of
𝑉
series circuit, it establishes RMS current I given by equation, 𝐼 = 𝑍 ,
Where 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2, Z-is the overall impedance of series combination.
In the circuit diagram the RMS value of supply voltage is equal to the vector addition of the
voltage across inductor (VL), voltage across resistance (VR) & voltage across capacitor (Vc ).
The phasor diagram for the circuit can be drawn which shows the magnitude as well as the phase
relationship between the various voltages (VR, VL, Vc, Vs) & the total current I. The phasor
diagrams will be of different nature for the cases
𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 (Inductive circuit) &
𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 (Capacitive circuit)
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 is said to be condition of resonance & the circuit will be resistive only. For the case,
𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 , when power factor of the circuit is lagging in nature, since the current I lags behind V
𝑋 −𝑋
by an angle φ where 𝜑 = tan−1 ( 𝐿 𝑍 𝐶)
In an inductor, the copper losses take place due to the internal resistance of its coil. In capacitor,
the losses take place in the dielectric medium used for making it but usually it is ignored.

Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Auto transformer 01 no
2. Rheostat 01 no 1000 Ω
3. Inductor 01 no 1 0mH
4. Capacitor 01 no 10uF
5. Voltmeter 04 nos
6. Ammeter 01 no
7. Multimeter 01 no
8. Connecting wires

49
Circuit diagram:

Fig: 1. Circuit diagram of R-L-C circuit

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram

2. Set the rheostat for maximum resistance.
3. Set the auto transformer to zero output & switch on the mains.
4. Adjust the auto transformer so as to apply a suitable voltage to the circuit, measure the current
I & voltages VR, VL, Vc, VRL and supply voltage Vs at the output of variac.
5. Take different sets of reading by applying different voltage.
6. Make the calculations as shown in table.
7. Draw phasor diagram taking I(current) as reference vector

Observation table:
RLC Series circuit:
r-internal resistance of coil = Ω

Sl no Position VS I VR VL VC VRL
of Volts Amp Volts Volts Volts Volts
Rheostat
1 Middle 100 V
position
2 Maximum 100 V
position

50
Calculations -RLC Series circuit:

Sl 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑆 Φ from Φ
no.
𝑅= 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿 = √(𝑍𝐿 2 − 𝑟 2 ) |𝑍 = |
calculation From
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝑅+𝑟 phasor
Φ=cos −1 ( 𝑍 )
diagram

Procedure for Drawing Series circuit phasor diagram:

1. Choose suitable scale for voltages & voltage drops.
2. Take current I as reference & draw Vr in phase with I (Vr= OA)
3. Draw the arcs AB=Vl & OB =Vrl intersecting each other at point B
4. Join A with B & O with B.
5. Draw OD=Vc at an angle 90 lagging to I.
6. Draw a vertically downwards line from B i.e. BC = Vc= OD. Join OC=VS
7. Find the p.f. angle φ between Vs & I.

Fig: 2. Phasor diagram of R-L-C circuit

51
Pre lab questions:
1. What is meant by steady state response?
2. What is power factor of a circuit?
3. What is impedance of a circuit?
4. What are different forms of representation of a phasor?
5. How is reference phasor chosen to draw a phasor diagram?
6. What is the function of auto transformer?
7. What is the function of multimeter?
8. What is the difference between ideal inductor and practical inductor?
9. What is the difference between ideal capacitor and practical capacitor?

Post lab questions:

1. Sketch current and voltage waveforms across elements of R-L-C circuits.
2. State whether the R-L-C circuit is inductive or capacitive in nature,
3. Can voltage across capacitor or inductor be more than the input voltage?
4. How are specification (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment.
5. Why is phasor, Vl (Voltage across inductor), not perpendicular to current phasor?

52
Title: Determination of steady state response of R-L circuit and calculation of impedance and
power factor.
Object: To determine the steady state response and to calculate the impedance and power factor of
R-L circuit

Theory:
When an A.C. voltage (RMS) is applied to RL series circuit as shown in circuit diagram of series
𝑉
circuit, it establishes RMS current I given by equation, 𝐼 = 𝑍 ,
Where 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2, Z-is the overall impedance of series combination.
In the circuit diagram the RMS value of supply voltage is equal to the vector addition of the
voltage across inductor (VL), voltage across resistance (VR). The phasor diagram for the circuit
can be drawn which shows the magnitude as well as the phase relationship between the various
voltages (VR, VL, Vs) & the total current I. The power factor of the circuit is lagging in nature,
𝑋
since the current I lags behind V by an angle φ where 𝜑 = tan−1 ( 𝐿 )
𝑅
In an inductor, the copper losses take place due to the internal resistance of its coil but usually it
is ignored.

Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Auto transformer 01 no
2. Rheostat 01 no 1000 Ω
3.. Inductor 01 no 1 0mH
4. Voltmeter 03 nos
5. Ammeter 01 no
6. Multimeter
7. Connecting wires ----------------------

53
Circuit diagram:

Fig: 1. Circuit diagram of R-L circuit

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram
2. Set the rheostat for maximum resistance.
3. Set the auto transformer to zero output & switch on the mains.
4. Adjust the auto transformer so as to apply a suitable voltage to the circuit, measure the current
I & voltages VR, VL, VRL and supply voltage Vs at the output of variac.
5. Take different sets of reading by applying different voltage.
6. Make the calculations as shown in table.
7. Draw phasor diagram taking I(current) as reference vector

Observation table:
RL Series circuit:
r-internal resistance of coil = Ω

Sl no Position VS I VR VL VRL
of Volts Amp Volts Volts Volts
Rheostat
1 Middle 100 V
position
2 Maximum 100 V
position

54
Calculations –RL Series circuit:

Sl 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑆 Φ from Φ
no.
𝑅= 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿 = √(𝑍𝐿 2 − 𝑟 2 ) |𝑍 = |
calculation From
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝑅+𝑟 phasor
Φ=cos −1 ( 𝑍 )
diagram

Procedure for Drawing Series circuit phasor diagram:

1. Choose suitable scale for voltages & voltage drops.
2. Take current I as reference & draw VR in phase with I (VR= OA)
3. Draw AC=Vr=Ir
3. Draw the arcs AB=VL
4. Join A with B
3. Draw CB=Vl=IXL at an angle 90 leading to I.
4. Join OB=VS
5. Find the p.f. angle φ between Vs & I.

Fig: 2. Phasor diagram of R-L circuit

Pre lab questions:

1. What is meant by steady state response?
2. What is power factor of a circuit?
3. What is impedance of a circuit?
4. What are different forms of representation of a phasor?
5. How is reference phasor chosen to draw a phasor diagram?
6. What is the function of auto transformer?
7. What is the function of multimeter?
8. What is the difference between ideal inductor and practical inductor?

55
Post lab questions:

1. Sketch current and voltage waveforms across elements of R-L circuits.

2. Whether the loss in the inductor will be same if used in DC circuit?
3. How are specification (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment?
4. Why is phasor, VL (Voltage across inductor), not perpendicular to current phasor?

56
Title: Determination of steady state response of R-C circuit

Objective: To determine the steady state response of R-C circuit

Theory:
When an A.C. voltage (RMS) is applied to RC series circuit as shown in circuit diagram of series
𝑉
circuit, it establishes RMS current I given by equation, 𝐼 = 𝑍 ,

Where 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2, Z-is the overall impedance of series combination.

In the circuit diagram the RMS value of supply voltage is equal to the vector addition of the
voltage across capacitor (VC), voltage across resistance (VR). The phasor diagram for the circuit
can be drawn which shows the magnitude as well as the phase relationship between the various
voltages (VR, VC, Vs) & the total current I. The power factor of the circuit is leading in nature,
𝑋
since the current I leads V by an angle φ where 𝜑 = tan−1 ( 𝑅𝐶 )
In capacitor, the losses take place in the dielectric medium used for making it but usually it is
ignored

Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Auto transformer 01 no
2. Rheostat 01 no 1000 Ω
3. Capacitor 01 no 1 0mH
4. Voltmeter 03 no
5. Ammeter 01 no
6. Connecting wires

57
Circuit diagram:

Fig: 1. Circuit diagram of R-C circuit

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram

2. Set the rheostat for maximum resistance.
3. Set the auto transformer to zero output & switch on the mains.
4. Adjust the auto transformer so as to apply a suitable voltage to the circuit, measure the current
I & voltages VR, VC, VRC and supply voltage Vs at the output of variac.
5. Take different sets of reading by applying different voltage.
6. Make the calculations as shown in table.
7. Draw phasor diagram taking I(current) as reference vector

Observation table:

RC Series circuit:

Sl no Position VS I VR VC VRC
of Volts Amp Volts Volts Volts
Rheostat
1 Middle 100 V
position
2 Maximum 100 V
position

58
Calculations –

RC Series circuit:

Sl 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑆 Φ from Φ
𝑅= 𝑋𝐶 = |𝑍 = |
no. 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 calculation From
𝑅 phasor
Φ=cos −1 (𝑍 )
diagram

Procedure for Drawing Series circuit phasor diagram:

1. Choose suitable scale for voltages & voltage drops.

2. Take current I as reference & draw VR in phase with I (VR= OA)
3. Draw AB=VC at an angle 90 lagging to I.
4. Join OB=VS
5. Find the p.f. angle φ between Vs & I.

Fig: 2. Phasor diagram of R-C circuit

59
Pre lab questions:
1. What is meant by steady state response?
2. What is power factor of a circuit?
3. What is impedance of a circuit?
4. What are different forms of representation of a phasor?
5. How is reference phasor chosen to draw a phasor diagram?
6. What is the function of auto transformer?
7. What is the function of multimeter?
8. What is the difference between ideal capacitor and practical capacitor?

Post lab questions:

5. Sketch current and voltage waveforms across elements of R-C circuits.

6. Whether the loss in the capacitor will be same if used in DC circuit?
7. How are specification (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment?
8. Why is phasor, VC (Voltage across capacitor), perpendicular to current phasor?

60
Title: Determination of the resonance frequency and quality factor of series RLC circuit
Object: To determine the resonance frequency and quality factor of series RLC circuit
Theory: In RLC circuit, the frequency at which the inductive reactance of the inductor
becomes equal to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor is called resonance frequency (fC ) of
the circuit. At the resonance frequency, maximum current will flow through the circuit.

At resonance frequency: - 𝑋𝐿 =𝑋𝐶 (1)

1
2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝐿 = (2)
2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝐶
𝑓𝑐= 1 (3)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

The frequency response curve (Figure 1) of a series resonance circuit (Figure 2) shows that the
magnitude of the current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows that the
response starts at near to zero, reaches maximum value at the resonance frequency and then
drops again to nearly zero as ƒ becomes infinite. The voltages across the inductor L and the
capacitor C can become many times larger than the supply voltage, when the circuit is close to
and at resonance, but as they are equal and in opposition, they cancel each other, leaving behind
only the resistive voltage drop, which will equal the supply voltage in magnitude. Thus, the
Kirchhoff voltage Law is not violated. The Quality Factor, Q of the circuit, measures the
sharpness of the peak of frequency response curve quantitatively.

Fig.1: Frequency response of RLC circuit.

61
Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Function generator 01 no
Oscilloscope 01 no
3. Digital multimeter 01 no
4. Resistor 01 no 500 Ω
5. Inductor 01 no 1 mH
6. Capacitor 01 no 0,1 μF
5. Potentiometer 01 no 1kΩ
6. Connecting wires

Circuit Diagram:

Fig.2
Procedure:

A. Find the resonance frequency:

1. Wire the RLC circuit of Fig. 2. The value of the circuit components are taken as: L=1 mH
, C=1μ F and , 𝑅 ′ =500Ω and a 1 kΩ potentiometer.
2. Set the value of potentiometer (variable resistance), using a digital multimeter to adjust its
resistance.
3. Connect the channel 1 of DSO to the point CH 1 of circuit. It gives the voltage across the
potentiometer .
4. Apply an input through the function generator whose internal resistance is Rs=50Ω.
5. Now vary the frequency of the function generator from 500 Hz to 500 kHz and calculate
the value of circuit current for each frequency. Plot I vs f to get a curve similar to Fig.1 on
semi log paper.

62
 6. Find the frequency at which current I is maximum. This frequency is called the resonance
frequency of the circuit.
7. Now, verify the observed resonance frequency with the frequency calculated by equation3.

B. Find the Q factor of the circuit.

1. Set the potentiometer value 𝑅𝑝 =500Ω

2. In the I vs f response plot made above, vertical axis is the current value and horizontal axis
is the log of the corresponding frequency value.
𝑓𝑐
3. Q factor is defined as 𝑄 = 𝐵𝑊 where Bw = fH –fL , fH is the higher cut off frequency, the
1
frequency above fc when the current is equal to ( ) 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . Similarly, fL is the lower cut off
√2
1
frequency, the frequency below fc when the current is equal to ( ) 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
√2
𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
4. Verify the calculated Q factor against the theoretical value, 𝑄 = = , where
𝑅 𝑅
R=Rp +Rs + R’ is the total resistance of circuit,.

Observation table:

Sl no. Frequency Vp Vp /Rr

Current (mA)

The value of Q from experiment:

The theoretical value of Q :

Conclusion:
At resonance frequency, the current is maximum because the circuit impedance is minimum and
equal to the value of the resistance.

Pre lab questions:

1. What is meant by resonance?
2. In a series LCR circuit, at resonance point, what is the value of the energy stored in the
inductor and capacitor?
3. What does Quality factor-Q of a resonant circuit signify?
4. What is semi log paper?
5. What is the function of function generator?
6. What is a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)?
7. What is the function of oscilloscope?

63
 8. How is CRO superior to ordinary measuring instruments?
9. What is digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)?
10. What is the function of multimeter?

Post Lab questions

1. What is the phase difference between the current in the capacitor and the current in the
resistor?
2. What is the phase difference between the current in the capacitor and the current in the
inductor?
3. What is the phase difference between the current in the circuit and the voltage across the capacitor?
4. What is the nature of the angle (lead/lag) between the current in the inductor and
voltage above and below the resonant frequency in a series RLC circuit?
5. How is bandwidth related with the quality factor of a series LCR circuit?
6. How is voltage multiplication take place in series resonant circuit?

64
Title: Determination of the resonance frequency and quality factor of parallel RLC circuit

Object: To determine the resonance frequency and quality factor of parallel RLC circuit
Theory:
The circuit having an inductor & capacitor connected in parallel is called parallel resonant
circuit If Xc < XL, then Ic >IL & the circuit acts capacitively . If XL < Xc , then IL >Ic & the
circuit acts inductively. If XL = Xc, then IL =Ic & hence the circuit acts as a pure resistor.
In parallel resonant circuit, at resonance condition
1. Phase difference between the circuit current and the applied voltage is zero
2. Maximum impedance
3. Minimum line current.
As in series resonance, all resonance circuit have the property of discriminating between the
frequency at resonance frequency (fr) and these not at resonance . this property of the resonant
circuit is expressed in terms of it’s bandwidth (BW)
The frequency response curve of a parallel resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the
current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response starts
at its maximum value, reaches its minimum value at the resonance frequency when IMIN = IR and
then increases again to maximum as ƒ becomes infinite.
The result of this is that the magnitude of the current flowing through the inductor, L and the
capacitor, C tank circuit can become many times larger than the supply current, even at
resonance but as they are equal and at opposition ( 180o out-of-phase ) they effectively cancel
each other out.
As a parallel resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is also
known as an Rejecter Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its
maximum thereby suppressing or rejecting the current whose frequency is equal to its resonant
frequency. The effect of resonance in a parallel circuit is also called “current resonance”.
The calculations and graphs used above for defining a parallel resonance circuit are similar to
those we used for a series circuit. However, the characteristics and graphs drawn for a parallel
circuit are exactly opposite to that of series circuits with the parallel circuits maximum and
minimum impedance, current and magnification being reversed. Which is why a parallel
resonance circuit is also called an Anti-resonance circuit.

Resonant Frequency using Impure Inductor

1 2
𝑓𝑅 = √ 1 − (𝑅𝑆 )
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝐿

Where: L is the inductance of the coil, C is the parallel capacitance and RS is the DC resistive
value of the coil.
Bandwidth & Selectivity of a Parallel Resonance Circuit
The bandwidth of a parallel resonance circuit is defined in exactly the same way as for the series
resonance circuit. The upper and lower cut-off frequencies given as: ƒupper and ƒlower respectively

65
denote the half-power frequencies where the power dissipated in the circuit is half of the full
power dissipated at the resonant frequency 0.5( I2 R ) which gives us the same -3dB points at a
current value that is equal to 70.7% of its maximum resonant value, ( 0.707 x I )2 R
As with the series circuit, if the resonant frequency remains constant, an increase in the quality
factor, Q will cause a decrease in the bandwidth and likewise, a decrease in the quality factor
will cause an increase in the bandwidth as defined by:
BW = ƒr /Q or BW = ƒupper - ƒlower
Also changing the ratio between the inductor, L and the capacitor, C, or the value of the
resistance, R the bandwidth and therefore the frequency response of the circuit will be changed
for a fixed resonant frequency. This technique is used extensively in tuning circuits for radio and
television transmitters and receivers.
The selectivity or Q-factor for a parallel resonance circuit is generally defined as the ratio of the
circulating branch currents to the supply current and is given as:
𝑅 𝐶
Quality factor= 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑅 = 𝑅√𝐿

Note that the Q-factor of a parallel resonance circuit is the inverse of the expression for the Q-
factor of the series circuit. Also in series resonance circuits the Q-factor gives the voltage
magnification of the circuit, whereas in a parallel circuit it gives the current magnification.

Bandwidth of a Parallel Resonance Circuit

66
Impedance in a Parallel Resonance Circuit

Apparatus required:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Signal generator 01 no
2. Mili ammeter 01 No
3. Digital multimeter 01 No
4. LED 01 No 500 Ω
5. Inductor 01 No 1 mH
6. Capacitor 01 No 0,1 μF
7. Bread board 01 No.
8. Connecting wires

67
Circuit diagram:

Ic

90degree L 1uH C 0.1uF

Vs Signal
Generator
90degree

Oscilloscope

Il

Fig 1: Circuit for resonance of parallel LC circuit

Where IC and IL are currents through the capacitor and inductor respectively.

Procedure:
1. The inductance (L), is connected in parallel to the capacitor (C).
2. The Signal generator are connected as shown in Fig.1
3. The capacitance (C) and inductance (L) are set to be 0.1 μF and 1 μH and the resistance of
the inductor is measured with a multimeter and recorded as R= Ω.
4. The audio frequency oscillator is adjusted for a minimum value of f = 1 kHz.
5. The current in the circuit is noted with oscilloscope.
6. Keeping the C, L and R values to be constant, the frequency is increased in steps of 500 Hz
and the currents are noted.
7. The procedure is repeated for different values of frequency and readings are tabulated.
8. Increase the frequency gradually and record the resonance frequency Fr at which the circuit
current becomes minimum (that is LED does not glows or glows very dimly.).(This is the
resonance frequency of the parallel resonance circuit because at parallel resonance , current I
through parallel LC circuit will be minimum)
9. A graph is drawn with the frequency along the X-axis and the current along the Y-axis.

Observation table:
Sl no. frequency Current (mA)

Pre lab question:

1. What is meant by resonance?

2. What is the difference between series resonance and parallel resonance?
3. What does Quality factor-Q of a resonant circuit signify?

68
 4. What is semi log paper?
5. What is the function of signal generator?
6. What is a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)?
7. What is the function of oscilloscope?
8. How is CRO superior to ordinary measuring instruments?
9. What is digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)?
10. What is the function of multimeter?
11. What is LED?

Post lab question:

1. If the Q factor of a parallel resonant circuit is halved, what will be the effect on the
bandwidth?
2. How is the impedance referred to in a parallel resonant circuit at resonance?
3. What will be the nature of impedance at a frequency below and above the resonant
frequency?
4. What would be the value of impedance of a parallel resonant circuit at resonance
condition?
5. What is the application of parallel resonance?
6. Why is the parallel resonance circuit called rejecter circuit?
7. How is current multiplication take place in parallel resonant circuit?

Conclusion:
At resonance frequency, the current is minimum because the circuit impedance is maximum and
equal to the value of the resistance.

69
TITLE: (a) Open circuit (OC) and short circuit (SC) test of a single-phase transformer
(b) Determination of efficiency and regulation.

OBJECTIVE: (a) To obtain equivalent circuit parameters from OC and SC test and
(b) To determine efficiency and regulation of the transformer.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. A single phase transformer 01 no
3. Ammeter 02nos
4. Voltmeter 02 nos
5. Loading arrangement 01 no
6. Connecting wires 10-12 nos

THEORY:

The physical basis of the transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic field. Transformer is required to pass electrical energy from one circuit to
another via the medium of the pulsating magnetic field. This could be achieved using either iron
or steel which serves as a good permeable path for the mutual flux.

Let an alternating voltage v1 be applied to a primary coil of N1 turns linking a suitable iron core.
A current flows on the coil, establishing a flux φp in the core. This flux induces an emf e1 in the
coil to counter balance the applied voltage v1. This emf is

𝑑𝜑𝑝
𝑒1 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
Assuming sinusoidal time variation of the flux, let 𝜑𝑝 = 𝜑𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 . Then 𝑒1 = 𝑁1 𝜔𝜑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ,
where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓. The rms value of this voltage is given by: 𝐸1 = 4.44 𝑓𝑁1 𝜑𝑚

Now if there is a secondary coil of 𝑁2 turns, wound on the same core, then by mutual inductance,
an emf e2 is developed therein. This rms valoe of this voltage is given by 𝐸2 = 4.44 𝑓𝑁2 𝜑 ′ 𝑚

Where 𝜑 ′ 𝑚 is the maximum value of the (sinusoidal) flux linking the secondary coil.

If it is assumed that 𝜑𝑝 = 𝜑𝑠 , then the primary and secondary emf’s bear the following ratio:

𝑒1 𝐸2 𝑁2
= =
𝑒2 𝐸1 𝑁1

70
It may be noted that in actual practice, 𝜑𝑝 ≠ 𝜑𝑠 , since some of the paths linking the primary coil
do not link with the secondary and similarity some of the flux paths linking the secondary coil do
not link the primary coil. The fluxes which do not link both the coils are called the leakage flux
of the primary and the secondary coil. In a practical transformer a very large proportion of the
primary and secondary flux paths are common and leakage fluxes are comparately small.
Therefore, 𝜑𝑝 ≈ 𝜑𝑠 = 𝜑𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 and 𝜑𝑚 ≈ 𝜑 ′ 𝑚 . If in addition, winding resistances are
neglected, being usually small in practical transformer, then,𝑉1 = 𝐸1, similarly, 𝑉2 = 𝐸2

Although the iron core is highly permeable, it is not possible to generate a magnetic field in it
without the application of a small mmf. Thus even when the secondary winding is open
circuited, a small magnetizing current is needed to maintain the magnetic flux. The current of the
primary circuit on lo load is of the order of 5% of full load current. Also the flux in the core
results core loss, due to hysteresis and eddy currents.
If a load of finite impedance is connected across the secondary coil, a current i 2 will flow
through it. This tends to alter the mmf and thereby the flux in the core. But this is provided by an
immediate and automatic adjustment of the primary current i1 thereby maintaining flux φ at the
original value.
The practical transformer has coil of finite resistance. Though this resistance is actually
distributed uniformly, it can be conceived as concentrated. Also, all the flux produced by the
primary current cannot be confined in to desired path completely as an electric current. Though a
greater proportion links both the coils (known as mutual flux), a small proportion called the
leakage flux links one or other winding, but not both. It does not contribute to transfer of energy
from primary to secondary. On account of the leakage flux, both the winding have a voltage drop
which is due to leakage reactance. The transformer can be resolved in to an equivalent circuit as
shown in Fig.1(a) in which the resistance and leakage reactance of the primary and secondary
respectively are represented by lumped R1, X1, R2 and X2. This equivalent circuit can be further
simplified by referring all quantities in the secondary side of the transformer to primary side and
as shown in Fig. 1 (b). These referred quantities are given by:

𝑁 2 𝑁 2 𝑁 𝑁
𝑅 ′ 2 = 𝑅2 (𝑁1 ) , 𝑋 ′ 2 = 𝑋2 (𝑁1 ) , 𝐼 ′ 2 = 𝐼2 (𝑁2 ) , 𝑉 ′ 2 = 𝑉2 (𝑁1 )
2 2 1 2

Generally the voltage drop I1R1 and I1X1are small and magnitude of E1 is approximately equal to
that of V1. Under this condition, the shunt branch (comprising Xm and Ro ) can be connected
across the supply terminals. This approximate equivalent circuit simplifies the computation of
currents and other performance characteristics of a practical transformer.
The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 1 (b) or in Fig. 2 can be used to predict the performance of
the transformer. All the circuit parameters must be known so that the equivalent circuit can be
used for the above purpose. These parameters can be easily determined by performing tests that
involve little power consumption. Two tests, a no load test (Open circuit test) and short circuit
test will provide information for determining the parameters of the equivalent circuit.

71
 Fig: 1 (a) Equivalent circuit of the transformer

Fig: 1 (b) Simplified equivalent circuit referred to the primary side.

Fig: 2 Approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer

Open Circuit (OC) test:

The shunt branch parameters can be determined by performing this test. Since, the core loss and
the magnetizing current depend on applied voltage, this test is performed by applying the rated
voltage to one of the windings keeping the other winding open (generally HV winding is kept
open and rated voltage is applied to LV winding). The circuit diagram to conduct this test is
shown in Fig.3 (a). The relevant equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3 (b). Since the secondary
terminals are open ( no load is connected across the secondary), current drawn from the source is

72
called as no load current. Under no load condition, the power input to the transformer is equal to
the sum of losses in the primary winding resistance R1 and core loss. Since, no load current is
very small, the loss in winding resistance is neglected. Hence, on no load, the power drawn from
the source is dissipated as heat in the core. If Io and Pi are the current and input power drawn by
the transformer at rated voltage V1 respectively, then
𝑃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜁𝑜 = 𝑉 𝐼𝑖 , 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜁𝑜 , 𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜁𝑜 .
1 𝑜
𝑉 𝑉
Therefore: 𝑅𝑜 = 𝐼 1 and 𝑋𝑚 = 𝐼 1
𝐶 𝑚

Short Circuit test (SC) test:

In this test, the secondary of the transformer is short circuited and rated current is allowed to
flow The input voltage is reduced to a small fraction of rated value. A current will circulate in
the secondary winding. Since a small fraction of rated voltage is applied to the primary winding,
the flux in the core and hence the core loss is very small. Hence , the power input on the short
circuit is dissipated as heat in the winding. The circuit diagram to conduct the test is shown in
Fig. 4 (a). The relevant equivalent circuit is shown in Fig 3(b). In this test, the LV terminals of
the transformer are short circuited . The primary voltage is gradually applied till the rated current
flows in the winding. Since the applied voltage is very small ( may be of the order of 5% -8% ),
the magnetizing branch can now be eliminated from the equivalent circuit. The modified
equivalent circuit is shown. If Vsc is the applied voltage to circulate the rated current ( 𝐼2 ′ ) on
short circuit and Pc is the power input to the transformer then,
𝑉 𝑃
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑐′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑉 𝑐𝐼 ′ , Therefore, (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ′ ) = 𝑍𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , (𝑋 + 𝑋2 ′ ) = 𝑍𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 𝑠𝑐 2

Efficiency:
Efficiency of the transformer is defined as:
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂=
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
In terms of losses:
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂=
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Let S be the rated VA of the transformer, x is the fraction of full load the transformer is
supplying and ζ is the load power factor angle. Under this condition, the output power of the
transformer is . If Pc is the copper loss (loss in winding resistance) at rated current, the
corresponding loss while supplying the fraction of load is𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐 . With transformer’s normal
design, the flux in the core varies only a few percent between no load to full load. Consequently,
it is permissible to regard the core loss (iron loss) as constant regardless of load. Let this loss be
𝑥𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜁
Pi. Therefore equation becomes: 𝜂 = 𝑥𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜁+𝑃 +𝑃 𝑥2
𝑖 𝐶

Regulation:
𝐼2 ′ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜁 ± 𝐼2 ′ 𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜁
%𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉2 ′

73
Where 𝐼2 ′ = load current, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ′ , 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ′ + sign for lagging pf and – sign
for leading pf. Fig. 5 shows the equivalent circuit to determine the regulation.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: 3(a) Circuit diagram for open circuit test.

Fig. 3(b) Equivalent circuit of open circuit test.

Fig: 4(a) Circuit diagram for short circuit test.

74
 Fig: 4(b) Equivalent circuit on short circuit test.

Fig. 5 Equivalent circuit to determine regulation

Procedure:

Note down the name plate readings and determine the rated currents for both the windings

Open circuit test:

1. Apply voltage to the LV side in steps up to the rated voltage and for each case record
primary current and power drawn from the source.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Sl No: Primary Ammeter reading (Io) (A) Wattmeter reading (W)

Voltage Watts
(v)

Short circuit Test:

75
 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 4 (a). Set the autotransformer output to zero. It is
extremely important to note that a low voltage is to be applied to the primary winding.

2. Adjust the output of the autotransformer such that rated current flows through the
windings. Record the applied voltage, current and input power.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Sl No: Primary Ammeter reading (Io) (A) Wattmeter reading (W)

Voltage Watts
(v)

Report:

1. Determine the equivalent circuit parameters from the test results and draw the equivalent
circuit.
2. Using equivalent circuit parameters compute the following:
(a) Regulation at 25%, 75% and full load for power factor =1, 0.6 lag and 0.6 lead.
(b) Efficiency at 25%, 50%, 75% and full load for power factor =1, 0.8 lag and 0.6 lead.

3. Plot the variation of

(a) Efficiency with load VA for each power factor
(b) regulation with power factor.

Precaution:

1. Power supply should be made ON in presence of teacher.

2. All connected lead wire should be tight.
3. Proper current and voltage range must be selected before putting the Instruments
/Equipments in circuit.
4. Take observations carefully. Don’t Touch Live wires.
5. The open circuit test must be performed at rated voltage and frequency.
6. It is extremely important to note that a low voltage is to be applied to the primary
winding during short circuit test.

76
 Pre lab questions:

1. State the losses occurring in a transformer at no load and on what factors these
depend?
2. If a transformer is connected to dc supply, what will happen to the transformer?
3. What type of core is used in transformer?
4. Why laminations are provided in transformer core?
5. What is equivalent circuit of transformer? How it is derived?

Post lab questions:

1. Which winding (LV or HV) should be kept open while conducting OC test? Justify
your answer.
2. Assume that the transformer has the following name plate ratings: 50 KVA, 440 V/
11 KV, 50 Hz. What do these numbers imply?
3. If a transformer rated for 50 Hz is worked on 60 Hz, will the losses increase or
decrease for the same applied voltage?
4. Will the core loss of a transformer be same if the voltage ratings of the coils are
increased?
5. Why iron lessees are not considered in short circuit test calculations?
6. Can regulation be negative? What does it signify?
7. Assume that you have been given two transformers of identical VA and voltage
ratings. But one of them is a 10 kHz transformer and another is a 100 kHz
transformer. Just by inspection, how would you identify one is the high frequency
transformer? Justify your answer.
8. Describe the different factors affecting the regulation of transformer.
9. What is the condition of maximum efficiency of the transformer?
10. How are specifications (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment?

77
 TITLE: Measurement of power in a three phase unbalanced load by two-wattmeter
method

OBJECTIVE: To Measure the power in a three phase unbalanced load by two wattmeter
method

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Voltmeter 1

2 Ammeter 3

3 Wattmeter 2

4 Wattmeter 2

THEORY:

M L
v1
C V i1
R1
M L
v2
C i2
V R2
v3
i3
R3

Fig: 1 Measurement of power by 2 wattcmeters method.

78
Power consumed by a 3-phase balanced or unbalanced load (star connected or delta
connected) can be measured by using 2-wattmeters properly connected in the circuit. The
current coils of the wattmeter are connected in series with the load in any two lines. Whereas
the pressure coils are connected between these two lines and the third line. The power
consumed by the three phase system is the sum o the two individual wattmeters.

Instantaneous power consumed by load = 𝑣1 𝑖1 + 𝑣2 𝑖2 + 𝑣3 𝑖3

Let us consider two wattmeters connected to measure power in three phase circuits as shown
in Fig.

Instantaneous reading of 𝑃1 wattmeter 𝑝1 = 𝑖1 (𝑣1 − 𝑣3 )

Instantaneous reading of 𝑃2 wattmeter 𝑝2 = 𝑖2 (𝑣2 − 𝑣3 )

Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 =𝑣1 𝑖1 + 𝑣2 𝑖2 − 𝑣3 (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )

From Kirchhoff’s law 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 0 or 𝑖3 = −(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )

Hence sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters = 𝑣1 𝑖1 + 𝑣2 𝑖2 + 𝑣3 𝑖3

Therefore, the sum of the two wattmeter reading is equal to the power consumed by the load.
This is irrespective of whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.

79
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: 2 Circuit diagram for measurement of 3 phase power.

PROCEDURE:
1. Complete the circuit connection as shown in Fig.2 with an unbalanced 3-phase star or
delta-connected load.
2. Set autotransformer for zero output voltage and switch on the 3-phase 415 V, 50Hz
power supply.
3. Slowly increase the output voltage of the auto transformer by turning the regulating knob
forward till the voltmeter reads400V. The corresponding voltage across load will be
nearly 230V.
4. Note down all the meter readings
5. Note down 𝑉𝐴𝑁, 𝑉𝐵𝑁, 𝑉𝐶𝑁,
6. Repeat the experiment for 3 different loads.
7. Reduce the output voltage of the auto transformer to zero & switch off the supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE

80
 Total
𝑉 Total Power
Sl 𝐴𝐵 IA IB IC P1 P2 Power
VAN VBN VCN (∑ VPh X IPh)
no (V) (A) (A) (A) (W1) (W2) P1+P2
W
(V) (V) (V) (W)

CALCULATION: - Power P = (W1) X Multiplying Factor of Wattmeter (in watt)

For UPF Meters:

Step 1: Note the voltage range of the V terminal of the wattmeter. For example, the wattmeter
may have 75 V, 150 V and 300 V terminals. Of which, let’s say for single-phase power
measurement, 150 V terminal is connected to the neutral (75 V and 300 V are left unconnected),
then the voltage range is 150 V.

Step 2: Note the current range of the wattmeter. For example, the wattmeter may have two
current ranges of 5 A and 10 A depending of the connection of E1, E2, B1 and B2 terminals.
Usually, for the lower current range (in this case 5 A), B1 and B2 will be connected while E1
and E2 will be left unconnected. And for the higher current range (in this case 10 A), E1 will be
connected to B1 and E2 will be connected B2. So, by looking at the connection between the B1,
B2, E1 and E2 terminals, the current range can be determined.

Step 3: The Multiplication Factor (MF) of the wattmeter is:

MF = (voltage range x current range)/(range of the wattmeter scale)

For example, if the voltage range is 150 V, the current range is 10 A and the scale range is 750
W, then the Multiplication Factor (MF) is (150 x 10)/750 = 2. Therefore, the actual power
measurement is the scale reading multiplied by the Multiplication Factor (MF), which is 2 in this
case.

For LPF Meters (let's say cos phi = 0.2):

Step 1: Note the voltage range as described previously.

Step 2: Note the current range as described previously.

Step3: The Multiplication Factor (MF) is:

MF = (voltage range x current range x power factor)/(range of the wattmeter scale)

81
For example, if the voltage range is 300 V and the current range is 10 A and the LPF meter is a
0.2 cos phi meter having a scale range of 150 W, then the Multiplication Factor (MF) is (300 x
10 x 0.2) / 150 = 4. Therefore, the actual power measurement is the scale reading multiplied by
the Multiplication Factor (MF), which is 4 in this case.

Pre lab questions:

1. How Ammeter and Voltmeter are connected in a circuit.

2. What will happen if Ammeter is connected in parallel and voltmeter in
series?
3. Why should a voltmeter have a high resistance and an ammeter a low
resistance?
4. What is parallax error? How can it be avoided?
5. What is the use of wattmeter?
6. What is the meaning of MLCV in a Wattmeter?
7. How is a wattmeter connected in an AC circuit?
8. What are the areas of use of LPF wattmeter and UPF wattmeter?
9. What is three phase balanced and unbalanced load?

Post lab questions:

1. What is the cause of negative reading of the wattmeter?

2. Draw phasor diagram for balanced 3 phase reactive load.
3. What is the effect of power factor on the readings of two watt meters?
4. How are specifications (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment?

82
TITLE: Determination of Torque –Speed characteristics of separately excited DC motor.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the Torque –Speed characteristics of separately excited DC

motor.

APPARATUS:-

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. Separately excited DC motor 01 no
3. Ammeter 01 no
4. Voltmeter 02 nos
5. Loading arrangement 01 no
6. Connecting wires 10-12 nos

THEORY:-

Fig: 1 separately excited DC motor

A separately excited dc motor is shown in figure 1. The armature and the field winding are
excited from separate dc sources, 𝑉𝑎 and 𝑉𝑓 respectively. The effective resistance of the armature
winding is given by 𝑅𝑎 and current 𝐼𝑎 flowing into the armature. The motor back emf or speed
voltage is given by Eb. The KVL for the separately excited motor from figure 1 will be
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 . The armature induced voltage with motor rotating at a speed ω is given by𝐸𝑏 =
𝐾𝑒 𝜑𝜔, where φ is the field flux and Ke is the machine constant. Similarly the motor torque is
given by𝑇 = 𝐾𝑒 𝜑𝐼𝑎 . Using the above equations, the expression for speed ω in terms of torque T
𝑉 𝑅𝑎
can be obtained as 𝜔 = 𝐾 𝑎 − 2 𝑇𝑎 . If we plot the torque-speed expression for the separately
𝑒𝜑 (𝐾𝑒 𝜑 )

83
excited dc motor, torque-speed characteristics as shown in figure 2 will be obtained. As the
torque developed is increased, as given by the torque-speed relation, speed will fall with a
𝑅𝑎
gradient of 2 .
(𝐾𝑒 𝜑 )

Fig: 2 T-ω characteristics of a separately excited dc motor

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Fig: 3 Circuit diagram of separately excited DC motor connected with load.

84
PROCEDURE:

1) Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3

2) Switch ON the power supply and start the motor with help of 3 point starter.
3) Gradually increase the load (mechanical or break load) step by step.
4) Note down the voltage, current, tension F1 and F2, speed N for every step.
5) Disconnect the motor from power supply.
6) Draw the Torque –Speed characteristics of dc shunt motor.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:-

S No. Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading Force (Kgf) Speed

in Volt (V) in Volt (I) (N)
F1 F2 F = F1 - F2 RPM

1.
2.
3.
4.

CALCULATION:-

Assuming 100% coupling efficiency, the above input power is the output of the motor T-ω
characteristic of the motor is found out.

Diameter of pulley, d = m.

Input to the motor = VI

Output of the motor = Taω
𝑑 𝑁
Where 𝑇𝑎 = 𝐹𝑋 2 𝑋9.81and 𝜔 = 2𝜋 60

PRECAUTION:-

• Power supply should be made ON in presence of teacher.

• All connected lead wire should be tight.
• Proper current and voltage range must be selected before putting the Instruments
/Equipments in circuit.
• Take observations carefully. Don’t Touch Live wires.
• Care must be taken to ensure that drum and belt are not over heated. This may lead to
burning of belt. Regular water to be sprinkled to it.

85
Pre lab questions:

1. Why is a 3-point starter used for starting a dc motor?

2. How is the rating of the motor specified?
3. What is the function of the brush and commutator of the machine?
4. Does the motor runs at the constant speed?
5. What is the effect of armature reaction in the motor?

Post lab questions:

1. What is the rating of the motor?

2. What are the specifications provided in the nameplate of the motor?
3. How is DC voltage obtained in the laboratory to run the motor?
4. What is the cause of drooping characteristics of the motor?
5. What are the methods of speed control of DC separately excited motor?
6. How can the armature and field terminals of the motor identified in the absence of any
marking?
7. How are specification (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment.

86
TITLE: Determination of Torque-Speed characteristics of 3 –phase Induction motor.

OBJECTIVE: To determine of Torque –Speed characteristics of 3-phase Induction motor.

APPARATUS:-

S.No Name of Apparatus Quantity required Specification

(Range and type)
1. 3 phase Induction motor 01 no
3. Ammeter 01 no
4. Voltmeter 02 no
5. Loading arrangement 01 no
6. Connecting wires 10-12 no

THEORY:-

An induction motor compared to a dc motor has some major advantages such as - absence of
brushes, commutator segments, rugged construction, being cheap, lesser maintenance
requirements and smaller size for the same power output. Due to these advantages, induction
machines have become more popular in industrial applications. For any motor load application, it
is imperative to know the torque speed characteristic of the motor. Consider a three-phase
squirrel cage induction motor whose stator has three windings displaced in space by 1200. When
they are excited with currents that are displaced in time by 1200, a rotating magnetic field
rotating at a speed called synchronous speed Ns is set up. The synchronous speed, Ns is given by
120𝑓
𝑁𝑆 = 𝑃 (1)
where, f is the frequency of the currents and P is the number of poles. If the rotor of the induction
𝑁
motor rotates at a speed, Nr, then the slip, s is defined by 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑁−𝑁𝑟 (2)
𝑆
The torque developed by the Induction motor is given by
𝑅
3𝐼2 2 𝑅2 3𝑉𝑆 2 2
𝑆
𝑇= = 𝑅2 2
(3)
𝑆𝜔𝑆 (𝑅1 − ) +(𝑋1 −𝑋2 )2
𝑆
where 𝜔𝑆 is the synchronous speed in rps, 𝑉𝑆 is the voltage applied to the stator, 𝐼2 , 𝑅2 , 𝑋2 are
the rotor current, resistance and reactance referred to stator respectively. 𝑅1 , 𝑋1 are the stator
resistance and reactance respectively. If (3) is plotted, we get the T-Nr characteristics for
motoring zone as shown in Fig. 1.
The maximum torque developed, 𝑇𝑚 and the slip, 𝑆𝑚 at which 𝑇𝑚 occurs, is given by
3𝑉𝑆 2
𝑇𝑚 = (4)
2𝜔𝑆 𝑅1 ±√𝑅1 2 ±(𝑋1 −𝑋2 )2
𝑅2
𝑆𝑚 = (5)
√𝑅1 2 +(𝑋1 −𝑋2 )2

87
If voltage applied to the stator of the induction motor is varied, developed torque will vary with a
relation𝑇 ∝ 𝑉𝑆 2 . The maximum torque developed, Tm is also proportional to square of the
applied voltage as in (4), but 𝑆𝑚 is independent of applied voltage.

Fig: 1 Torque slip curve for threeb phase Induction motor

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: 2 Circuit diagram of 3 phase Induction motor connected with load.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2. In this experiment, the motor is loaded with a
mechanical system.
2. Initially no load is applied to the motor. Set the output of the autotransformer to zero and
switch on the three-phase supply.
3. Vary the voltage applied to the stator using autotransformer. Increase the voltage to half
the rated value. Increase the load slowly to get different torque and speed points to get the

88
 T-Nr characteristics at half the rated voltage. Make sure that the motor is not loaded
above its rated current.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:-

S No. Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading Force (Kgf) Speed

in Volt (V) in Volt (I) (N)
F1 F2 F = F1 - F2 RPM

1.
2.
3.
4.

CALCULATION:-

Assuming 100% coupling efficiency, the above input power is the output of the motor T-ω
characteristic of the motor is found out.

Diameter of pulley, d = m.

Output of the motor = Tω

𝑑 𝑁
Where 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑋 2 𝑋9.81and 𝜔 = 2𝜋 60

PRECAUTION:-

1. Power supply should be made ON in presence of teacher.

2. All connected lead wire should be tight.
3. Proper current and voltage range must be selected before putting the Instruments
/Equipments in circuit.
4. Take observations carefully. Don’t Touch Live wires.
5. Care must be taken to ensure that drum and belt are not over heated. This may lead to
burning of belt. Regular water to be sprinkled to it.

Pre Lab questions:

1. Can induction motor runs at synchronous speed?

2. What is the function of 3phase autotransformer?
3. How is the speed of rotor of induction motor related to number of poles and supply
frequency?
4. Why is induction motor called singly excited motor?
5. How is the rating of Induction motor specified?

89
Post Lab questions:

1. How are motoring region, braking region and generating region achieved in the torque speed
characteristics.
2. What is the slip at the starting of the motor?
3. At what slip does the maximum torque occur?
4. How does the nature of torque speed characteristic of induction motor vary with change of input
voltage and with the change of supply frequency?
5. Mention an application of induction generator.
6. Mention the reasons of extensive use of induction motor in industries.
7. What are the specifications mentioned in the nameplate of standard Induction motor.
8. How are specification (range and type) of apparatus chosen in the experiment

90
Title: Demonstration of operation of DC-DC converter

Objective: To demonstrate the operation of DC-DC converter

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Power electronic trainer

2 Oscilloscope

3 Connecting wires

THEORY:

In many DC-DC applications, multiple isolated outputs are required. Input to output isolation
may be required to meet safety standards and / or provide impedance matching. To meet the
need for constant, regulated power supply modern electronic equipments and energy storage
devices require transformer-coupled power conditioning equipment; these are called as
isolated DC-DC converters.

Pulse Width Modulation:

It is one way to control average power to the load by controlling the average voltage applied
𝑡𝑜𝑛
to it. The average voltage seen by the load resistor R is given as 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑇

𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 is converter output voltage, 𝑉𝑠 is converter input voltage, 𝑡𝑜𝑛 is switch on-time, and T is
the device switching time in seconds. The average output voltage depends on the value of 𝑡𝑜𝑛 .
Buck converter is one of the basic DC-DC converter topology. This converter circuit provides an
output voltage lesser than the input voltage with same polarity. It consists of a DC input source
Vs, L, controlled MOSFET switch S, filter capacitor C and load resistor, R. The state of the
converter in which the inductor current is never zero for any period is called the continuous conduction
mode (CCM). It can be seen from the circuit (Fig.1) that when the switch S is on, the diode D
is reversed biased. When the switch S is off, the diode conducts to support an uninterrupted current
in the inductor. We have (𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑂 )𝐷𝑇 = 𝑉𝑂 (1 − 𝐷)𝑇

The output voltage and current are 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐷𝑉𝑆 and 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐷𝐼𝑂 and the ripple inductor current ∆𝐼 is:

91
 𝐷𝑉𝑆 (1 − 𝐷)
∆𝐼 =
𝑓𝐿
𝐷𝑉𝑆 (1−𝐷)
The ripple capacitor voltage is: ∆𝑉𝑐 = 8𝐶𝐿𝑓2

92
 Fig: 1 Schematic diagtam and time plot of different waveforms of of Buck converter.

Step Up (Boost) converter:

It consists of dc input voltage source𝑉𝑠 , inductor L, controlled switch S, diode D, filter capacitor C
and load resistance R. The converter waveforms in the CCM are shown in Fig.
When switch S in the on state, the current in the inductor increases linearly and the diode is off
at that time. When the switch S is turned off, the energy stored in the inductor is released
through the diode to the output RC circuit,
We have 𝑉𝑆 𝐷𝑇 = (𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑆 )(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑂
The output voltage and current are 𝑉𝑂 = and 𝐼𝑆 =
1−𝐷 1−𝐷
𝐷𝑉𝑆
The ripple inductor current is: ∆𝐼 = 𝑓𝐿

𝐷𝐼𝑂
The ripple capacitor voltage is: ∆𝑉𝑐 = 𝐶𝑓

93
 Fig: 2 Schematic diagtam and time plot of different waveforms of of Buck converter.

Procedure:

1. Connect the step down DC-DC converter circuit on the power electronic trainer.
2. Turn on the power
3. Plot the waveform of the control circuit used to regulate the output voltage.

94
 4. By use of oscilloscope, plot the inductor current voltage and output waveform on the graph
paper.
5. Measure the average output voltage across load resistance.
6. Turn off the power and repeat steps for step up converter.

Pre Lab question:

1. What do you mean by pulse width modulation in connection with DC- DC converter?
2. What do you mean by filter?
3. What are the applications of DC -DC converters?
4. What do you mean by duty cycle of DC –DC converter?

Post Lab question:

1. What is the range of duty cycle of DC- DC converter?
2. What is a chopper?
3. If T is the time period for a chopper circuit and α is its duty cycle, then find the
frequency of the chopper.
4. How can output voltage of a chopper be controlled?
5. “A DC-DC converter can be thought as a DC equivalent of a transformer.” Explain

95
Title: Demonstration of components of LT switchgear.

The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is
known as switchgear. During normal operations, switch gear permits to switch on or switch off the
generators, transmission lines, distributors and other electrical equipments. On the other hand, when a
failure occurs (e.g. short circuit) on any part of the power system , a heavy currents flow through the
equipment, threatening damage to the equipment and interruption to the service to the customer.
However, the switch gear detects the fault and disconnects the unhealthy section from the system. In
this way switch gear protects the system from damage and ensures the continuity of the supply.

Switchgear Equipment

Switchgear covers a wide range of equipment concerned with switching and interrupting
currents under both normal and abnormal conditions. It includes switches, fuses, circuit
breakers, relays and other equipment.

1. Switches

A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a convenient way. It
can be used under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault currents.
When the contacts of a switch are opened, an arc is produced in the air between the contacts.
This is particularly true for circuits of high voltage and large current capacity.

The switches may be classified into

1. air switches
2. oil switches.
The contacts of the former are opened in air and that of the latter are opened in oil.
(i) Air-break switch - It is an air switch and is designed to open a circuit under load. In order
to quench the arc that occurs on opening such a switch, special arcing horns are provided.
(ii) Isolator or disconnecting switch - It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a
circuit under no load.
(iii) Oil switches. As the name implies, the contacts of such switches are opened under oil,
usually transformer oil.

96
 Fig: 1. Image of switches, plug and regulator used for household application.

2. Fuses
A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows through it
for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected. When a short circuit
or overload occurs, the current through the fuse element increases beyond its rated capacity.
This raises the temperature and the fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the circuit
protected by it.

Fig: 2 Image of different types of fuse used in household applications

97
Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs):
A miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies complete enclosure in a
molded insulating material. All fuses need to be replaced with MCB for better safety and
control. Unlike a fuse, an MCB operates as automatic switch that opens in the event of
excessive current flowing through the circuit and once the circuit returns to normal, it can be
reclosed without any manual replacement. MCBs are used primarily as an alternative to the
fuse switch in most of the circuits. A wide variety of MCBs have been in use nowadays with
breaking capacity of 10KA to 16 KA, in all areas of domestic, commercial and industrial
applications as a reliable means of protection.

Fig: 3. Image of different types of MCB used in household applications.

98
a

Fig: 4 Image of internal structure of MCB used in household applications

3. Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is equipment which can open or close a circuit under all conditions viz. no
load, full load and fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by
remote control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions. For the
latter operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker

99
 Fig: 5 Image of a typical SF6 circuit breaker
4. Relays
A relay is a device which detects the fault and supplies information to the breaker for circuit
interruption. When a fault occurs the relay contacts are closed and the trip coil of the circuit
breaker is energized to open the contacts of the circuit breaker.

Fig: 6. Image of a typical replay

100
Classification of Switchgear

Switchgear can be classified on the basis of voltage level in to the following:

1. Low voltage Switchgear.

2. Medium voltage Switchgear
3. High voltage Switchgear.

1. Low Voltage Switchgear

Generally electrical switchgear rated upto 1 kV is termed as low voltage switchgear. The term
LV Switchgear includes low voltage circuit breakers, switches, off load electrical isolators, HRC
fuses, earth leakage circuit breaker, miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and molded case circuit
breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV system. The most
common use of LV switchgear is in LV distribution board.

2. Medium Voltage Switchgear

From 3 kV to 36 kV switchgear system is categorized as medium voltage switchgear or MV
switchgear. These switchgears are of many types. They may metal enclosed indoor type, metal
enclosed outdoor type, outdoor type without metal enclosure, etc. The interruption medium of
this switchgear may be oil, SF and vacuum.

3. High Voltage Switchgear

The power system deals with voltage above 36kV, is referred as high voltage. As the voltage
level is high the arcing produced during switching operation is also very high. So, special care to
be taken during designing of high voltage switchgear. High voltage circuit breaker, is the main
component of HV switchgear, hence high voltage circuit breaker should have special features
for safe and reliable operation.

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 Fig: 7 A typical power supply system

Fig: 8 Wiring diagram of a typical distribution scheme in a residential building.

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Procedure:

1. Draw the diagram of the different type of switches, fuses and MCBs available in the
laboratory.
2. Write down the working and application of each item.
3. Prepare a simple circuit with fuse, switch and lamp and test the same.
4. Visit any electrical substation situated in the institute and prepare a report on it.

Post lab question:

1. What do you understand by switchgear?

2. Discuss various types of switches.
3. What is the difference between
(a) a switch and circuit breaker?
(b) a fuse and circuit breaker?
4. What are the limitations of a fuse?
5. Draw a line diagram of simple electrical wiring.

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