CHAPTER 80 NUMERICAL METHODS FOR FIRST-ORDER

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

EXERCISE 303 Page 834

dy y
1. Use Euler’s method to obtain a numerical solution of the differential equation = 3 – , with
dx x

the initial conditions that x = 1 when y = 2, for the range x = 1.0 to x = 1.5 with intervals of 0.1.

Draw the graph of the solution in this range.

dy y
= y '= 3 −
dx x
2
If initially x 0 = 1 and y0 = 2, (and h = 0.1), then (y') 0 = 3 − =1
1
Line 1 in the table below is completed with x = 1.0 and y = 2

For line 2, where x 0 = 1.1 and h = 0.1:

y1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 2.0 + (0.1)(1) = 2.1

y0 2.1
and (y') 0 = 3 – =3– = 1.0909
x0 1.1

For line 3, where x 0 = 1.2: y 1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 2.1 + (0.1)(1.0909) = 2.209091

y0 2.209091
and (y') 0 = 3 – =3– = 1.159091
x0 1.2

For line 4, where x 0 = 1.3: y 1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 2.209091 + (0.1)(1.15909) = 2.325000

The remaining lines of the table are completed in a similar way.

1230 © 2014, John Bird

 dy y
A graph of the solution of = 3 − , with initial conditions x = 1 and y = 2 is shown below
dx x

1 dy
2. Obtain a numerical solution of the differential equation + 2y = 1, given the initial
x dx

conditions that x = 0 when y = 1, in the range x = 0(0.2)1.0

1 dy dy
Since + 2y = 1 then = x(1 – 2y) or y´ = x(1 – 2y)
x dx dx

If initially x 0 = 0 and y0 = 1, (and h = 0.2), then (y') 0 = 0(1 – 2) = 0

Line 1 in the table below is completed with x = 0, y = 1 and (y')0 = 0

x y (y') 0
0 1 0
0.2 1 –0.2
0.4 0.96 –0.368
0.6 0.8864 –0.46368
0.8 0.793664 –0.469824
1.0 0.699692

For line 2, where x 0 = 0.2 and h = 0.2:

y1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 1.0 + (0.2)(0) = 1

and (y') 0 = x 0 (1 – 2y 0 ) = 0.2(1 – 2) = –0.2

For line 3, where x 0 = 0.4: y 1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 1.0 + (0.2)(– 0.2) = 0.96

and (y') 0 = x 0 (1 – 2y 0 ) = 0.4(1 – 2(0.96)) = –0.368

1231 © 2014, John Bird

For line 4, where x 0 = 0.6: y 1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 0.96 + (0.2)(– 0.368) = 0.8864

and (y') 0 = x 0 (1 – 2y0 ) = 0.6(1 – 2(0.8864)) = –0.46368

For line 5, where x 0 = 0.8: y 1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 0.8864 + (0.2)(–0.46368) = 0.793664

and (y') 0 = x 0 (1 – 2y0 ) = 0.8(1 – 2(0.793664)) = –0.4698624

For line 6, where x 0 = 1.0: y 1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 0.793664 + (0.2)(– 0.4698624) = 0.699692

1 dy
Hence a numerical solution to the differential equation + 2y = 1 is given by the first two
x dx
columns in the above table.

dy y
3. (a) The differential equation + 1 = – has the initial conditions that y = 1 at x = 2. Produce a
dx x

numerical solution of the differential equation in the range x = 2.0(0.1)2.5

4 x
(b) If the solution of the differential equation by an analytical method is given by y = – ,
x 2

determine the percentage error at x = 2.2

dy y dy y
(a) + 1 =− i.e. =y ' =−1 −
dx x dx x
1
If initially x 0 = 2.0 and y 0 = 1 (and h = 0.1), then (y') 0 = −1 − = –1.5
2.0
Line 1 in the table below is completed with x = 2.0 and y = 1

For line 2, where x0 = 2.1 and h = 0.1:

y1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 1 + (0.1)(–1.5) = 0.85

y0 0.85
and (y') 0 = –1 – = –1 – = –1.40476
x0 2.1

For line 3, where x0 = 2.2: y 1 = y 0 + h(y') 0 = 0.85 + (0.1)(–1.40476) = 0.709524

1232 © 2014, John Bird
 y0 0.709524
and (y') 0 = –1 – = –1 – = –1.322511
x0 2.2

For line 4, where x0 = 2.3: y 1 = y 0 + h(y')0 = 0.709524 + (0.1)(–1.322511) = 0.577273

The remaining lines of the table are completed in a similar way

4 x
(b) If y = − then when x = 2.2, y = 0.718182
x 2
From the Euler method, when x = 2.2, y = 0.709524

0.718182 − 0.709524 0.008658

Hence, percentage error = ×100%
= ×100%
0.718182 0.718182

= 1.206%

dy 2y
4. Use Euler’s method to obtain a numerical solution of the differential equation =x– ,
dx x

given the initial conditions that y = 1 when x = 2, in the range x = 2.0(0.2)3.0

x2
If the solution of the differential equation is given by y = , determine the percentage error by
4

using Euler’s method when x = 2.8

dy 2y
(a) = y '= x −
dx x
2(1)
If initially x 0 = 2.0 and y 0 = 1, (and h = 0.2), then (y') 0 = 2.0 − = 1.0
2.0
Line 1 in the table below is completed with x = 2.0 and y = 1

For line 2, where x0 = 2.2 and h = 0.2:

y1 = y0 + h(y') 0 = 1 + (0.2)(1.0) = 1.2

2(1.2)
and (y') 0 = 2.2 – = 1.109091
2.2

For line 3, where x0 = 2.4: y 1 = y 0 + h(y') 0 = 1.2 + (0.2)(1.109091) = 1.4218182

1233 © 2014, John Bird
 2(1.4218182)
and (y') 0 = 2.4 – = 1.2151515
2.4

For line 4, where x0 = 2.6: y 1 = y 0 + h(y') 0 = 1.4218182 + (0.2)(1.2151515) = 1.664849

The remaining lines of the table are completed in a similar way

x2
(b) If y = , then when x = 2.8, y = 1.96
4
From the Euler method, when x = 2.8, y = 1.928718

1.96 − 1.928718 0.031282

Hence, percentage error = ×100%
= ×100%
1.96 1.96

= 1.596%

1234 © 2014, John Bird

EXERCISE 304 Page 838

dy y
1. Apply the Euler–Cauchy method to solve the differential equation =3– for the range
dx x

1.0(0.1)1.5, given the initial conditions that x = 1 when y = 2

dy y
= y '= 3 −
dx x

x 0 = 1, y 0 = 2 and h = 0.1

y0 2
(y ′) 0 = 3 − =3 − =1
x0 1

x 1 = 1.1 and from equation (3), page 836, y P1 = y 0 + h(y′) 0 = 2 + 0.1(1) = 2.1

1 1 yP
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + f(x 1 , y P1 ) ] = y0 + h [ (y′) 0 + 3 − 1 ]
2 2 x1

1 2.1
=2+ (0.1) [ 1 + 3 − ]
2 1.1

= 2.10454546

yC1 2.10454546
(y′) 1 =−
3 =−
3 = 1.08677686
x1 1.1

Thus the first two lines of the table below have been completed

x y y′
1.0 2 1
1.1 2.10454546 1.08677686
1.2 2.216666672 1.152777773
1.3 2.33461539 1.204142008
1.4 2.457142859 1.244897958
1.5 2.5883333335

For line 3, x 1 = 1.2

y P1 = y 0 + h(y′) 0 = 2.10454546 + 0.1(1.08677686) = 2.213223146

1 yP
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + 3 − 1 ]
2 x1

1235 © 2014, John Bird

 1 2.213223146
= 2.10454546 + (0.1) [ 1.08677686 + 3 − ] = 2.216666672
2 1.2

yC1 2.216666672
(y ′) 1 =−
3 =−
3 = 1.152777773
x1 1.2

The remaining lines of the table are completed in a similar way

2. Solving the differential equation in Problem 1 by the integrating factor method gives

3 1
y= x+ . Determine the percentage error, correct to 3 significant figures, when x = 1.3 using
2 2x

(a) Euler’s method, and (b) the Euler–Cauchy method.

3 1
If y = x+ then when x = 1.3, y = 2.334615385
2 2x

(a) By Euler’s method, when x = 1.3, y = 2.325000

2.334615385 − 2.3250
Percentage error = ×100% = 0.412%
2.334615385

(b) By the Euler–Cauchy method, when x = 1.3, y = 2.33461539

2.334615385 − 2.33461539
Percentage error = ×100% = 0.000000214%
2.334615385

dy
3. (a) Apply the Euler–Cauchy method to solve the differential equation – x = y for the range
dx

x = 0 to x = 0.5 in increments of 0.1, given the initial conditions that when x = 0, y = 1

(b) The solution of the differential equation in part (a) is given by y = 2e x – x – 1. Determine the

percentage error, correct to 3 decimal places, when x = 0.4

dy
(a) = y' = y + x
dx

x 0 = 0, y 0 = 1 and h = 0.1

(y′) 0 = 1 + 0 = 1

x 1 = 0.1 and from equation (3), page 836, y P1 = y 0 + h(y ′) 0 = 1 + 0.1(1) = 1.1
1236 © 2014, John Bird
 1 1
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y ′) 0 + f(x 1 , y P1 ) ] = y0+ h [ (y′) 0 + y P1 + x 1 ]
2 2

1
=1+ (0.1) [ 1 + 1.1 + 0.1 ]
2

= 1.11

(y′) 1 = y C 1 + 0.1 = 1.11 + 0.1 = 1.21

Thus the first two lines of the table below have been completed

For line 3, x 1 = 0.2

y P1 = y 0 + h(y ′) 0 = 1.11 + 0.1(1.21) = 1.231

1
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + y P1 + x 1 ]
2

1
= 1.11 + (0.1) [ 1.21 + 1.231 + 0.2 ] = 1.24205
2

(y′) 1 = y C 1 + 0.2 = 1.24205+ 0.2 = 1.44205

The remaining lines of the table are completed in a similar way

(b) If y = 2 e x − x − 1 then when x = 0.4, y = 1.583649395

By the Euler–Cauchy method, when x = 0.4, y = 1.581804

1.583649395 − 1.581804
Hence, the percentage error = ×100% = 0.117%
1.583649395

1237 © 2014, John Bird

 1 dy
4. Obtain a numerical solution of the differential equation + 2y = 1 using the Euler–Cauchy
x dx

method in the range x = 0(0.2)1.0, given the initial conditions that x = 0 when y = 1

1 dy dy
Since + 2y = 1 then = x(1 – 2y) or y′ = x(1 – 2y)
x dx dx

If initially x 0 = 0 and y0 = 1 (and h = 0.2), then (y') 0 = 0(1 – 2) = 0

Line 1 in the table below is completed with x = 0, y = 1 and (y')0 = 0

x y (y') 0
0 1 0
0.2 0.98 – 0.192
0.4 0.925472 – 0.3403776
0.6 0.84854666 – 0.41825599
0.8 0.76433779 – 0.42294046
1.0 0.68609380

For line 2, x 1 = 0.2, and from equation (3), page 836, y P1 = y 0 + h(y′) 0 = 1 + 0.2(0) = 1

1 1
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + f(x 1 , y P1 ) ] = y0+ h [ (y′) 0 + x 1 (1 – 2y P1 ) ]
2 2

1
=1+ (0.2) [ 0 + 0.2(1 – 2(1)) ]
2

= 0.98

(y′) 1 = x 1 (1 – 2y C1 ) = 0.2(1 – 2(0.98)) = –0.192

Hence, line 2 is completed in the above table.

For line 3, x 1 = 0.4, and from equation (3), page 836, y P1 = y 0 + h(y′) 0 = 0.98 + 0.2(– 0.192)

= 0.9416

1 1
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + f(x 1 , y P1 ) ] = y0+ h [ (y ′) 0 + x 1 (1 – 2y P1 ) ]
2 2

1
= 0.98 + (0.2) [ – 0.192 + 0.4(1 – 2(0.9416)) ]
2

= 0.925472

1238 © 2014, John Bird

(y′) 1 = x 1 (1 – 2y C1 ) = 0.4(1 – 2(0.925472)) = –0.3403776

Hence, line 3 is completed in the above table

For line 4, x 1 = 0.6, and from equation (3), page 836, y P1 = y 0 + h(y′) 0

= 0.925472 + 0.2(–0.3403776)

= 0.85739648

1 1
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + f(x 1 , y P1 ) ] = y0+ h [ (y′) 0 + x 1 (1 – 2y P1 ) ]
2 2

1
= 0.925472 + (0.2) [ – 0.3403776 + 0.6(1 – 2(0.85739648)) ]
2

= 0.84854666

(y′) 1 = x 1 (1 – 2y C1 ) = 0.6(1 – 2(0.84854666)) = –0.41825599

Hence, line 4 is completed in the above table

For line 5, x 1 = 0.8, and from equation (3), page 836, y P1 = y 0 + h(y′) 0

= 0.84854666 + 0.2(–0.41825599)

= 0.764895461

1 1
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + f(x 1 , y P1 ) ] = y0 + h [ (y′) 0 + x 1 (1 – 2y P1 ) ]
2 2

1
= 0.84854666 + (0.2) [ –0.41825599 + 0.8(1 – 2(0.764895461)) ]
2

= 0.76433779

(y′) 1 = x 1 (1 – 2y C1 ) = 0.8(1 – 2(0.76433779)) = –0.42294046

Hence, line 5 is completed in the above table

For line 6, x 1 = 1.0, and from equation (3), page 836, y P1 = y 0 + h(y′) 0

= 0.76433779 + 0.2(–0.42294046)

= 0.679749698

1 1
y C1 = y 0 + h [ (y′) 0 + f(x 1 , y P1 ) ] = y0+ h [ (y′) 0 + x 1 (1 – 2y P1 ) ]
2 2

1239 © 2014, John Bird

 1
= 0.76433779 + (0.2) [ – 0.42294046 + 1.0(1 – 2(0.679749698)) ]
2

= 0.68609380

Hence, line 6 is completed in the above table.

1240 © 2014, John Bird

EXERCISE 305 Page 843

dy y
1. Apply the Runge–Kutta method to solve the differential equation: = 3 − for the range
dx x

1.0(0.1)1.5, given the initial conditions that x = 1 when y = 2

dy y
= 3−
dx x

1. x0 = 1, y0 = 2 and since h = 0.1, and the range is from x = 1 to x = 1.5, then

= =
x1 1.1, =
x2 1.2, =
x3 1.3, =
x4 1.4 and x5 1.5

Let n = 0 to determine y1 :

dy y 2
2. k1 = f ( x0 , y0 ) = f (1, 2); since = 3 − , f (1, 2) = 3 – = 1
dx x 1
 h h   0.1 0.1  2.05
3. k2 =f  x0 + , y0 + k1  =f 1 + , 2+ (1)  =f (1.05, 2.05 ) = 3 – = 1.047619
 2 2   2 2  1.05

 h h   0.1 0.1 
4. k3 =f  x0 + , y0 + k2  =f 1 + , 2+ (1.047619)  = f (1.05, 2.05238095 )
 2 2   2 2 
2.05238095
=3– = 1.045351476
1.05
5. k4 = f ( x0 + h, y0 + hk3 ) = f (1 + 0.1, 2 + 0.1(1.045351476) ) = f (1.1, 2.1045351476)

2.1045351476
=3– = 1.086786229
1.1
h
6. yn +1 = yn + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } and when n = 0:
6
h 0.1
y1 = y0 + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } = 2 + { 1 + 2(1.047619) + 2(1.045351476) + 1.086786229}
6 6
0.1
=2+ { 6.272727181 } = 2.10454545
6

n xn yn
0 1.0 2.0
1 1.1 2.104545
2 1.2 2.216667
3 1.3 2.334615
4 1.4 2.457143
5 1.5 2.533333
1241 © 2014, John Bird
Lines 1 and 2 have now been completed in the above table

Let n = 1 to determine y2 :

dy y 2.104545
2. k1 = f ( x0 , y0 ) = f (1.1, 2.104545); since = 3 − , f (1.1, 2.104545) = 3 –
dx x 1.1
= 1.08677727
 h h   0.1 0.1 
3. k2 = f  x0 + , y0 + k1  = f 1.1 + , 2.104545 + (1.08677727)  = f (1.15, 2.15888386 )
 2 2   2 2 
2.15888386
=3– = 1.1227097
1.15
 h h   0.1 0.1 
4. k3 = f  x0 + , y0 + k2  = f 1.1 + , 2.104545 + (1.1227097)  = f (1.15, 2.1606805 )
 2 2   2 2 
2.1606805
=3– = 1.1211474
1.15
5. k4 = f ( x0 + h, y0 + hk3 ) = f (1.1 + 0.1, 2.104545 + 0.1(1.1211474) ) = f (1.2, 2.2166597)

2.2166597
=3– = 1.15278355
1.2
h
6. yn +1 = yn + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } and when n = 0:
6
h
y1 = y0 + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 }
6
0.1
= 2.104545 + { 1.08677727 + 2(1.1227097) + 2(1.1211474) + 1.15278355}
6
0.1
= 2.104545 + { 6.72727045 } = 2.216667
6
Line 3 has now been completed in the above table. In a similar manner y3 , y4 and y5 can be

calculated.

1dy
2. Obtain a numerical solution of the differential equation: + 2y =
1 using the Runge–Kutta
x dx
method in the range x = 0(0.2)1.0, given the initial conditions that x = 0 when y = 1

1dy 1dy dy
If + 2y =
1 then = 1− 2 y and = x(1 − 2 y )
x dx x dx dx

1. x0 = 0, y0 = 1 and since h = 0.2, and the range is from x = 0 to x = 1.0, then

1242 © 2014, John Bird

= =
x1 0.2, =
x2 0.4, =
x3 0.6, =
x4 0.8and x5 1.0

Let n = 0 to determine y1 :

dy
2. k1 = f ( x0 , y0 ) = f (0, 1); since = x(1 − 2 y ) , f (0, 1) = 0(1 – 2) = 0
dx
 h h   0.2 0.2 
3. k2 =f  x0 + , y0 + k1  =f 0+ , 1+ (0)  =f ( 0.1, 1) = 0.1(1 – 2) = –0.1
 2 2   2 2 
 h h   0.2 0.2 
4. k3 = f  x0 + , y0 + k2  = f  0 + , 1+ (−0.1)  = f ( 0.1, 0.99 )
 2 2   2 2 
= 0.1(1 – 1.98) = –0.098
5. k4 = f ( x0 + h, y0 + hk3 ) = f ( 0 + 0.2, 1 + 0.2(−0.098) ) = f (0.2, 0.9804)

= 0.2(1 – 2(0.9804)) = –0.19216

h
6. yn +1 = yn + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } and when n = 0:
6
h 0.2
y1 = y0 + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } = 1 + { 0 + 2(−0.1) + 2(−0.098) + −0.19216 }
6 6
0.2
{ − 0.58816 } = 1 + = 0.980395
6

Let n = 1 to determine y2 :

dy
2. k1 = f ( x1 , y1 ) = f (0.2, 0.980395); since = x(1 – 2y),
dx
f (0.2, 0.980395) = 0.2(1 – 2(0.980395)) = –0.192158
 h h   0.2 0.2 
3. k2 = f  x1 + , y1 + k1  = f  0.2 + , 0.980395 + (−0.192158)  = f ( 0.3, 0.9611792 )
 2 2   2 2 
= 0.3(1 – 2(0.9611792) = –0.27670752
 h h   0.2 0.2 
4. k3 = f  x1 + , y1 + k2  = f  0.2 + , 0.980395 + (−0.27670752) 
 2 2   2 2 
= f ( 0.3, 0.952724248 ) = 0.3(1 – 2(0.952724248)) = –0.271634548

5. k4 = f ( x1 + h, y1 + hk3 ) = f ( 0.2 + 0.2, 0.980395 + 0.2(−0.271634548) )

= f (0.4, 0.92606809) = 0.4(1 – 2(0.92606809)) = –0.340854472

h
6. yn +1 = yn + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } and when n = 1:
6
h
y2 = y1 + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 }
6

1243 © 2014, John Bird

 0.2
= 0.980395 + { − 0.192158 + 2(−0.27670752) + 2(−0.271634548) + −0.340854472 }
6
0.2
= 0.980395 + { − 1.629696608 } = 0.926071779
6

This completes the third row of the table below. In a similar manner y3 , y4 and y5 can be

calculated.

dy y
3. (a) The differential equation: + 1 =− has the initial conditions that y = 1 at x = 2.
dx x

Produce a numerical solution of the differential equation, correct to 6 decimal places, using

the Runge–Kutta method in the range x = 2.0(0.1)2.5

4 x
(b) If the solution of the differential equation by an analytical method is given by: y= − ,
x 2

determine the percentage error at x = 2.2

dy y dy y y 
(a) If + 1 =− then =− − 1 =−  + 1
dx x dx x x 

1. x0 = 2, y0 = 1 and since h = 0.1, and the range is from x = 2.0 to x = 2.5, then

= =
x1 2.1, =
x2 2.2, =
x3 2.3, =
x4 2.4 and x5 2.5

Let n = 0 to determine y1 :

dy y  1 
2. k1 = f ( x0 , y0 ) = f (2, 1); since, =
−  + 1 , f (2, 1) = −  + 1 = –1.5
dx x  2 
 h h   0.1 0.1   0.925 
3. k2 = f  x0 + , y0 + k1  = f  2.0 + ,1.0 + (−1.5)  = f ( 2.05, 0.925 ) = −  + 1
 2 2   2 2   2.05 
= –1.451219512

1244 © 2014, John Bird

  h h   0.1 0.1 
4. k3 = f  x0 + , y0 + k2  = f  2.0 + , 1.0 + (−1.451219512)  = f ( 2.05, 0.927439024 )
 2 2   2 2 
 0.927439024 
= − + 1 = –1.45240928
 2.05 
5. k4 = f ( x0 + h, y0 + hk3 )= f ( 2.0 + 0.1, 1.0 + 0.1(−1.45240928) ) = f (2.1, 0.854759072)

 0.854759072 
= − + 1 = –1.40702813
 2.1 

h
6. yn +1 = yn + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } and when n = 0:
6
h
y1 = y0 + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 }
6
0.1
= 1.0 + { − 1.5 + 2(−1.451219512) + 2(−1.45240928) + (−1.40702813) }
6
0.1
= 1.0 + { − 8.714285714 } = 0.854762
6
Let n = 1 to determine y2 :

dy y 
2. k1 = f ( x1 , y1 ) = f (2.1, 0.854762); since =
−  + 1 ,
dx x 
 0.854762 
f (2.1, 0.854762) = −  + 1 = –1.407029524
 2.1 
 h h   0.1 0.1 
3. k2 = f  x1 + , y1 + k1  = f  2.1 + , 0.854762 + (−1.407029524) 
 2 2   2 2 
 0.784410523 
= f(2.15, 0.784410523) = −  + 1 = –1.364842104
 2.15 
 h h   0.1 0.1 
4. k3 = f  x1 + , y1 + k2  = f  2.1 + , 0.854762 + (−1.364842104) 
 2 2   2 2 
 0.786519894 
= f ( 2.15, 0.786519894 ) = −  + 1 = –1.365823207
 2.15 
5. k4 = f ( x1 + h, y1 + hk3 ) = f ( 2.2, 0.854762 + 0.1(−1.365823207) )

 0.718179679 
= f (2.2, 0.718179679) = −  + 1 = –1.326445309
 2.2 
h
6. yn +1 = yn + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 } and when n = 1:
6
h
y2 = y1 + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 }
6

1245 © 2014, John Bird

 0.1
= 0.854762 + { − 1.407029524 + 2(−1.364842104) + 2(−1.365823207) − 1.326445309 }
6
0.1
= 0.854762 + { − 8.194805455 } = 0.718182
6

This completes the third row of the table below. In a similar manner y3 , y4 and y5 can be

calculated and the results are as shown

4 x
(b) If y = − when x = 2.2, y = 0.718182
x 2

By the Runge–Kutta method, when x = 2.2, y = 0.718182 also

Hence, there is no error

1246 © 2014, John Bird