Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Rajanukunte, Bangalore-560064
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: BASIC ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

SUBJECT CODE--[21ELN14/24]

MODULE - 5
Syllabus:
Cellular Wireless Networks - Introduction, cellular telephone system, cellular concept and
frequency reuse.
Wireless Network Topologies - First Generation (1G) Technology, Second Generation (2G)
Technology,
GSM Communications, GSM System architecture, Third Generation (3G) Technology, CDMA
Technology, High-level architecture of LTE, Fourth Generation (4G) Technology, Wireless LAN,
Bluetooth, Bluetooth Architecture.
Satellite Communication – Elements of Satellite Communication, Types of satellites – GEO, LEO,
MEO.
Optical Fiber Communication - A fiber optic Communication system.
Microwave Communication – Introduction, Frequency modulated microwave communication
system.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 1

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

5.1 Introduction:
To provide wireless communication within a particular geographic region, an integrated network of
base stations must be installed to provide sufficient radio coverage to all the mobile users. Also, base
station must be connected to a central hub called the mobile switching center (MSC). The key
principles of cellular telephone were provided in 1947 by the researchers at bell telephone
laboratories and other telecom companies throughout the world. For cellular communications, it was
determined that the large geographic area must be subdivided into small sections, called cells which
use the concept of frequency reuse to increase the capacity of a wireless and mobile telephone
channel.
5.2 Cellular Telephone System:
As shown in Fig 5.1 a cellular system comprises the following basic components.
Mobile Station (MS): This is the mobile handset, which is used by a user to communicate with
another user.
Cell: Each cellular service area is divided into small regions called cell (5 to 20 Km).

Fig 5.1 Schematic diagram of telephone system

Base Station (BS): Each cell contains an antenna, which is controlled by a small office.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Each base station is controlled by a switching office, called
mobile switching center.
5.3 Cellular Concept and Frequency Reuse:
5.3.1 Cellular Concept:
 In the early phase, mobile radio system normally used a high-power transmitter with an
antenna mounted on a tall tower. This approach gave very good coverage, but it was very

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 2

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

difficult to reuse these same frequencies, therefore that the network capacity is low.
 As the demand for mobile service increased, achieving high network capacity by the same
radio spectrum was more important than covering large areas:
 In order to solve the capacity problem, the cellular concept was proposed in 1970. The
fundamental principle of the cellular concept is to divide the coverage area into a number of
smaller areas which are served by their own radio base station.
 Radio channels are allocated to these smaller areas in an intelligent way so as to minimize the
interference and improve the performance, and cater to the traffic loads in these areas called
cells.
 The groups of cells in smaller areas are known as clusters. As the population grows, cells can
be added to accommodate that growth Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in
other cells.
 The cellular concept employs variable low power transmitters, which allow cells to be sized
according to the subscriber density and demand of a given area.
 Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in other cells. Small cells will increase the
network capacity, but on the other hand will increase the co-channel interference (CCI),
therefore affect the quality of service (QoS).
 In order to achieve high capacity while satisfying quality of service expectations, a cellular
architecture must be defined so as to be flexible to accommodate system growth.

Fig 5.2 Cellular concept in wireless and mobile networks.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 3

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Fig 5.3 Concept of frequency reuse

5.3.2 Frequency Reuse
 Frequency reuse is the core concept of the cellular mobile radio system. The total available
channels are divided into a number of channel sets (Actually, frequency reuse pattern is equally
to the number of channel sets). Each channel set is assigned to a cell.
 Cells are assigned a group of channels that is completely different from neighboring cell.
 Figure 5.3 illustrates the concept of frequency reuse. Cells with the same alphabet use the same
channel set. The same set of channels can be reused in another cell provided that the reuse
distance D is fulfilled. The reuse distance is the minimum separation of identical channels that
have the same carrier frequency, at which there is acceptable interference:
D = √3N R
Where N is the number of channel sets (cells in a cluster) (in Fig. N=7), R is the radius of a cell.
Reduction of Interference:
 Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is limited by co-channel
interference between cells, and the co-channel interference can become a major problem.
 One way to reduce co-channel interference (CCI) is to keep the separation between two co-
channel cells by a sufficient distance. Another way for controlling CCI is to use directional
antennas at the base station (BS), and we call it cell sectoring.
 The adjacent channel interference, coming from neighboring channels and next channels, is
another consideration in channel assignment.
 The adjacent channel interference depends on the separation of two adjacent channels, the
characteristic of receiver filters, and the distance of two adjacent channel users.
 The near-end ratio interference can occur among the neighboring channels. Therefore, if one
channel is assigned to a cell; its adjacent channels cannot be assigned to the same cell and
vice versa.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 4

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Transmitting and Receiving:

Basic operations of transmitting and receiving in a cellular telephone network are discussed in
this section.
Transmitting involves the following steps:
 A caller enters a 10-digit code (phone number) and presses the send button.
 The MS scans the band to select a free channel and sends a strong signal to send the number
entered.
 The BS relays the number to the MSC.
 The MSC in turn dispatches the request to all the base stations in the cellular system.
 The Mobile Identification Number (MIN) is then broadcast over all the forward control
channels throughout the cellular system. It is known as paging.
 The MS responds by identifying itself over the reverse control channel.
 The BS relays the acknowledgement sent by the mobile and informs the MSC about the
handshake.
 The MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call and call is established.
Receiving involves the following steps:
 All the idle mobile stations continuously listen to the paging signal to detect messages
directed at them.
 When a call is placed to a mobile station, a packet is sent to the callees home MSC to find
out where it is
 A packet is sent to the base station in its current cell, which then sends a broadcast on the
paging channel.
 The called MS responds on the control channel.
 In response, a voice channel is assigned and ringing starts at the MS.
Mobility Management:
 A MS is assigned a home network, commonly known as location area. When an MS migrates
out of its current BS into the footprint of another, a procedure is performed to maintain service
continuity, known as Handoff management.
 An agent in the home network, called home agent, keeps track of the current location of the
MS. The procedure to keep track of the user’s current location is referred to as Location
management.
 Handoff management and location management together are referred to as Mobility
management.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 5

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Handoff:
 At any instant, each mobile station is logically in a cell and under the control of the cells
base station.
 When a mobile station moves out of a cell, the base station notices the MSs signal fading
away and requests all the neighboring BSS to report the strength they are receiving.
 The BS then transfers ownership to the cell getting the strongest signal and the MSC changes
the channel carrying the call. The process is called handoff.
 There are two types of handoffs, hard handoff and soft handoff.
 In a hard handoff, which was used in the early systems, a MS communicates with one BS
As a MS moves from cell A to cell B. the communication between the AS and base station
of cell A is first broken before communication is started between the MS and the base station
of B. As a consequence, the transition is not smooth. For smooth transition from one cell
(say A) to another (say B), an MS continues to talk to both A and B.
 As the MS moves from cell A to cell B, at some point the communication broken with the
old base station of cell A. This is known as soft handoff.
Roaming:
 Two fundamental operations are associated with location management; location update and
paging.
 When a Mobile Station (MS) enters a new Location Area, it performs a location updating
procedure by making an association between the foreign agent and the home agent.
 One of the BSs, in the newly visited Location Area is informed and the home directory of
the MS is updated with its current location.
 When the home agent receives a message destined for the MS, it forwards the message to
the MS via the foreign agent. An authentication process is performed before forwarding the
message.
5.4 Wireless Network Topologies:
Wireless network topology is defined as the configuration in which a mobile terminal (MT)
communicates with other mobile terminals. Basically, there are two types of topologies used in
wireless networks as follows:
1. Ad-Hoc Network Topology:
 Ad-hoc wireless networks do not need any infrastructure to work Each node can communicate
directly with other nodes, so no base station is necessary.
 These networks are primarily used by military and also in a few commercial applications for
voice and data transmission: This topology is suitable for rapid deployment of a wireless network
Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 6
Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

in a mobile or fixed environment.

 Fig 5.4 shows a single-hop, ad-hoc network where every user terminal has the functional
capability of communicating directly with any other user terminal Nodes with an ad-hoc network
can only communicate if they can reach each other physically, i.e., if they are within each other’s
radio range or if other nodes can forward the message.

Fig 5.4 Single hop ad-hoc network

 In some ad-hoc networking applications, where users may be distributed over a wide area. a
given user terminal may be able to reach only a portion of the other users in the network due to
the transmitter signal power limitations.
 In this situation, user terminals will have to cooperate in carrying messages across the network
between widely separated stations. These networks are called multi hop ad-hoc networks as
shown in Fig 5.5.

Fig 5.5 Multi hop ad-hoc network.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 7
 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

2. Infrastructure Network Topology:

 In this topology, there is a fixed infrastructure that supports the communication between the
mobile terminals and between mobile and fixed terminals.
 This topology is often designed for large coverage areas and multiple base stations (BS) or
access point (AP) operations. Figure 5.6 shows the basic operation of an infrastructure network
with a single base station.
 Base station (BS) serves as the hub of the network and mobile terminals are located at different
positions at the ends of spokes.

Fig 5.6 Infrastructure network topology.

 Any communication from one wireless station user to another comes through the base station.
Thus, we can say that the hub is involved in managing the user access to the network.
FIRST GENERATION (1G) TECHNOLOGY:
 1G stands for "first generation," refers to the first generation of wireless telecommunication
technology, more popularly known as cell phones.
 A set of wireless standards developed in the 1980's, IG technology replaced 0G technology,
which featured mobile radio telephones and such technologies as Mobile Telephone System
(MTS), Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone Service
(IMTS), and Push to Talk (PTT). Its successor, 2G, which made use of digital signals, IG wireless
networks used analog radio signals.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 8

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 Through 1G, a voice call gets modulated to a higher frequency of about 150 MHz and up as it is
transmitted between radio towers. This is done using a technique called Frequency-Division
Multiple Access (FDMA).
 In terms of overall connection quality, IG compares unfavorably to its successors. It has low
capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links, and no security at all since voice calls were played
back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties.
 The first generation was designed for voice communication. One example is Advanced Mobile
Phone System (AMPS) used in North America.
 AMPS is an analog cellular phone system. It uses 800 MHz ISM band and two separate analog
channels; forward and reverse analog channels.

Fig 5.7 frequency bands used in AMPS system.

 The band between 824 to 849 MHz is used for reverse communication from MS to BS. The band
between 869 to 894 MHz is used for forward communication from BS to MS. Each band is
divided in to 832 30-KHz channels as shown in Fig 5.7.
 As each location area is shared by two service providers, each provider can have 416 channels,
out of which 21 are used for control. AMPS use Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-KHz channels as shown in Fig 5.8.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 9

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Fig 5.8 FDMA medium access control technique used in AMPS.

SECOND GENERATION (2G) TECHNOLOGY:
 2G is short for "second-generation" wireless telephone technology. It cannot normally transfer
data, such as email or software, other than the digital voice call itself, and other basic ancillary
data such as time and date.
 The first-generation cellular network was developed for analog voice communication.
 To provide better voice quality, the second generation was developed for digitized voice
communication. Nevertheless, SMS messaging is also available as a form of data transmission
 for some standards.
 Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM
standard in Finland in 1991. GSM service is used by over 2 billion people across more than 212
countries and territories. The ubiquity of the GSM standard makes international roaming very
common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts
of the world.
 2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) based and Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) based standards depending on the type of multiplexing used.
 2G makes use of a CODEC (Compression-Decompression Algorithm) to compress and
multiplex digital voice data. Through this technology, a 2G network can pack more calls per

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 10

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

amount of bandwidth as a 1G network. 2G cell phone units were generally smaller than IG units,
since they emitted less radio power.
 Some benefits of 2G where Digital signals require consume less battery power, so it helps mobile
batteries to last long, Digital coding improves the voice clarity and reduces noise in the line.
Digital signals are considered environment friendly. The use of digital data service assists mobile
network operators to introduce short message service over the cellular phones.
 Digital encryption has provided secrecy and safety to the data and voice calls. The use of 2G
technology requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network
coverage in any specific area, digital signals would be weak.
 Three major systems were evolved as follows:
 IS-136 (D-AMPS)
 IS-95 (CDMA)
 Global System for Mobile (GSM)
D-AMPS:
 D-AMPS is essentially a digital version of AMPS and it is backward compatible with AMPS.
 It uses the same bands and channels and uses the frequency reuse factor of 1/725 frames per
second each of 1994 hits, divided in 6 slots shared by three channels.
 Each slot has 324 bits-159 data, 64 control, 101 error correction as shown in Fig 5.9.
 As shown in the figure it uses both IDMA and IDMA medium access control techniques.

Fig 5.9 D-AMPS

 IS-95 (CDMA): IS-95 CDMA: IS-95 is based on CDMA/DS-SS and FDMA medium access
control techniques.
 The forward and backward transmissions are shown in Fig 5.9.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 11

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

GSM:
 The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication is a European standard developed to
replace the first-generation technology. Uses two bands for duplex communication.
 Each voice channel is digitized and compressed to a 13Kbps digital signal. Each slot carries
156.25 bits, 8 slots are multiplexed together creating a FDM frame, 26 frames are combined to
form a multi frame, as shown in Fig 5.10.

Fig 5.10 Multi frame Components

 For medium access control, GSM combines both TDMA and FDMA. There is large amount of
overhead in TDMA; 114 bits are generated by adding extra bits for error correction. Because of
complex error correction, it allows a reuse factor as low as 1/3.
Global System for Mobile (GSM) Communications:
 The first GSM system developed was GSM-900 (Phase 1). Now, GSM is known as Global
Systems for Mobile Communications Phase I operates in 900 MHz band for voice only.
 Phases 2 introduced in 1993 which included facsimile, video and data communication services.
 The system architecture of GSM is shown in the Fig 5.11. It consists of three major subsystems
that interact with each other and with the subscribers through specified network interfaces. The
three subsystems are as follows:
 Mobile station (MS)
 Base station subsystem (BSS)
 Network and switching subsystem (NSS)

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 12

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Mobile Station (MS):

 The MS consists of the physical equipment used by the subscriber to access a mobile network
for offered telecommunication services.
 Functionally, the MS includes a Mobile Terminal (MT) and, depending on the services it can
support, various Terminal Equipment (TE), and combinations of TE and Terminal Adaptor (TA)
functions (the TA acts as a gateway between the TE and the MT).
 Various types of MS, such as the vehicle mounted station, portable station, or handheld station,
are used.

Fig 5.11 GSM architecture.

 Basically, a MS can be divided into two parts. The first part is the Mobile equipment (ME) which
contains the hardware and software to support radio and human interface functions.
 The second part contains terminal/user specific data in the form of a smart card known as
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), which can effectively be considered a sort of logical terminal.
 The SIM card plugs into the first part of the MS and remains in for the duration of use. Without
the SIM card, the MS is not associated with any user and cannot make or receive calls (except
possibly an emergency call if the network allows).
 The SIM card is issued by the mobile service provider after subscription, while the first part of
the MS would be available at retail shops to buy or rent. This type of SIM card mobility is
analogous to terminal mobility, but provides a personal-mobility-like service within the GSM
mobile network.
 An MS has a number of identities including the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI),
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), and the ISDN number. The IMSI is stored
in the SIM. The SIM card contains all the subscriber-related information stored on the user’s side
of the radio interface.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 13

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

 The BSS is the physical equipment that provides radio coverage to prescribed geographical areas,
known as the cells. It contains equipment required to communicate with the MS.
 Functionally, a BSS consists of a control function carried out by the base station controller (BSC)
and a transmitting function performed by the BTS.
 The BTS is the radio transmission equipment and covers each cell. A BSS can serve several cells
because it can have multiple BTSs.
 The BTS contains the Transcoder Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU), In TRAU, the GSM-specific
speech encoding and decoding is carried out, as well as the rate adaptation function for data. In
certain situations, the TRAU is located at the MSC to gain an advantage of more compressed
transmission between the BTS and the MSC
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS):
 The NSS includes the main switching functions of GSM, databases required for the subscribers,
and mobility management.
 Its main role is to manage the communications between GSM and other network users. Within
the NSS, the switching functions are performed by the MSC Subscriber information relevant to
provisioning of services is kept in the home location register (HLR).
 The other database in the NSS is the visitor location register (VLR). The MSC performs the
necessary switching functions required for the MSs located in an associated geographical area,
called an MSC area.
 The MSC monitors the mobility of its subscribers and manages necessary resources required to
handle and update the location registration procedures and to carry out the handover functions.
The MSC is involved in the interworking functions to communicate with other networks such as
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and ISDN.
 The interworking functions of the MSC depend upon the type of the network to which it is
connected and the type of service to be performed. The call routing and control and echo control
functions are also performed by the MSC.
Home location registers (HLR):
 The HLR is the functional unit used for management of mobile subscribers.
 The number of HLRs in a PLMN varies with the characteristics of the PLMN.
 Two types of information are stored in the HLR: subscriber information and part of the mobile
information to allow incoming calls to be routed to the MSC for the particular MS.
 Any administrative action by the service provider on subscriber data is performed in the HLR.
The HLR stores IMSI, MS ISDN number, VLR address, and subscriber data.
Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 14
 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Visitor Location Register (VLR):

 The VLR is linked to one or more MSCs. The VLR is the functional unit that dynamically stores
subscriber information when the subscriber is located in the area covered by the VIR.
 When a roaming MS enters an MSC area, the MSC informs the associated VLR about the MS;
the MS goes through a registration procedure.
 The registration procedure for the MS includes these activities:
▪ The VLR recognizes that the MS is from another MN.
▪ If roaming is allowed, the VLR finds the MS's HLR in its home MN.
▪ The VLR constructs a Global Title (GT) from the IMSI to allow signaling from the VLR to
the MSS HLR via the PSTN/ISDN networks.
▪ The VLR generates a Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number (MSRN) that is used to route
incoming calls to the MS.
▪ The MSRN is sent to the MS's HLR.
 The information in the VLR includes MSRN, TMSI, the location area in which the MS has been
registered, data related to supplementary service. MS ISDN number, IMSI, HER address or GT,
and local MS identity, if used.
 The NSS contains more than MSCs, HLRs, and VLRs In order to deliver an incoming call to a
GSM user, the call is first routed to a gateway switch, referred to as the Gateway Mobile Service
Switching Center (GMSC).
 The GMSC is responsible for collecting the location information and routing the call to the MSC
through which the subscriber can obtain service at that instant (i.e., the visited MSC).
 The GMSC first finds the right HER from the directory number of the CSM subscriber and
interrogates it.
 The GMSC has an interface with external networks for which it provides gateway fiction, as well
as with the 57 signaling network for interworking with other NSS entities.
Operation and Maintenance Subsystem (OMSS):
 The OMSS is responsible for handling system security based on validation of identities of various
telecommunications entities. These functions are performed in the Authentication Center (AuC)
and Equipment identity register (EIR).
 The AuC is accessed by the HLR to determine whether an MS will be granted service. The EIR
provides MS information used by the MSC. The EIR maintains a list of legitimate, fraudulent,
or faulty MSS.
 The OMSS is also in charge of remote operation and maintenance functions of the MN. These
functions are monitored and controlled in the OMSS.
Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 15
Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 The OMSS may have one or more Network Management Centers (NMCs) to centralize MN
control.
 The Operational and Maintenance Center (OMC) is the functional entity through which the
service provider monitors and controls the system. The OMC provides a single point for the
maintenance personnel to maintain the entire system. One OMC can serve multiple MSCs.
THIRD GENERATION (3G) TECHNOLOGY:
 The third-generation systems support high speed packet switched data (up to 2Mbps).
 In fact, GPRS is considered to be a transition step from second generation cellular systems to
third generation cellular systems.
 The 3G systems are accepted world-wide and the subscriber is able to get the mobile services
from anywhere in the world without replacing his handset or SIM card.
 The subscriber also gets the same environment and services in the visiting network as in his
home network also being independent of the terminal. Apart from this, the modern generation
cellular systems provide with the framework to build various kind of services (like VPN and
conferencing) on the top of core cellular networks.
 Currently the 3G cellular systems are being evolved from the existing cellular networks. Despite
the efforts of standardization, UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) and
CDMA-2000 are the two main 3G networks which are being used. Both these systems use
CDMA technology.
 The UMTS system is being promoted by ETSI (European Telecommunication Standards
Institute) and is a successor of GSM while CDMA 2000 is successor of IS-95.
CDMA TECHNOLOGY
 CDMA offers several advantages over FDMA and TDMA. Error control coding, spreading of
the spectrum, soft handoffs and strict power control are some of those advantages.
 CDMA is primarily an air-interface and access technique that is based on direct sequence-spread
spectrum (DS-SS).
 The air interface is significantly different in the case of CDMA compared with TDMA technique.
 The core fixed network infrastructure of CDMA supports the wireless interface is very similar
to the structure of the GSM core network.
 After 2000, third generation (3G) systems are being standardized all over the world currently by
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) under the banner of International Mobile
Telecommunications beyond 2000 (IMT-2000).
 Both IS-136 and IS-95 use CDMA as the air interface and the access method.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 16

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 In CDMA, all user data, the control channel and signaling information are transmitted on the
same frequency at the same time. Also, CDMA employs powerful error control codes.
 The quality of voice is also improved and the multipath and fading problems are also reduced in
CDMA technology.
Capacity of a Mobile Telecommunication System:
 In 1948, Claude Shannon discovered a theoretical limit on the data rate that can be achieved
from any communication system. We will write it in its simplest form, as follows:
C = B log₂ (1 + SINR)
 Here, SINR is the signal to interference plus noise ratio, in other words the power at the
receiver due to the required signal, divided by the power due to noise and interference. B is
the bandwidth of the communication system in Hz, and C is the channel capacity in bits.
 It is theoretically possible for a communication system to send data from a transmitter to a
receiver without any errors at all, provided that the data rate is less than the channel capacity.
 In a mobile communication system, C is the maximum data rate that one cell can handle and
equals the combined data rate of all the mobiles in the cell.
FROM UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM (UMTS) TO LONG-
TERM EVOLUTION (LTE):
High Level Architecture of Long-Term Evolution (LTE):
 In 2004, 3GPP began a study into the long-term evolution of UMTS. The aim was to keep 3GPP's
mobile communication systems competitive over timescales of 10 years and beyond, by
delivering the high data rates and low latencies those future users would require.
 Fig 5.12 shows the resulting architecture and the way in which that architecture developed from
that of UMTS.
 In the new architecture, the evolved packet core (EPC) is a direct replacement for the packet
switched domain of UMTS and GSM. It distributes all types of information to the user, voice as
well as data, using the packet switching technologies that have traditionally been used for data
alone.
 The evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network (E-UTRAN) handles the EPC's radio
communications with the mobile, so is a direct replacement for the UTRAN mobile is still known
as the user equipment, though its internal operation is very different from before.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 17

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Fig 5.12 Evolution of the system architecture from GSM and UMTS to LTE
 The new architecture was designed as part of two 3GPP work items, namely system architecture
evolution (SAE), which covered the core network, and long-term evolution (LTE), which
covered the radio access network, air interface and mobile.
 Officially, the whole system is known as the evolved packet system (EPS), while the acronym
LTE refers only to the evolution of the air interface. Despite this official usage, LTE has become
a colloquial name for the whole system, and is regularly used in this way by 3GPP. We will use
LTE in this colloquial way.
FOURTH GENERATION (46) TECHNOLOGY
 4G is short for "fourth-generation" wireless telephone technology.
 It is the latest technology which is started to be used in many countries. LTE or Long-Term
Evolution is the brand name given to the efforts of 3GPP 4th Generation technology development
efforts mostly in Europe and UMB (Ultra-Mobile Broadband) is the brand name for similar
efforts by 3GPP2 in North America.
 The High-Level requirements for a 4G technology were identified as:
▪ Higher spectral efficiency.
▪ Reduced cost per bit.
▪ Increased service provisioning by lowering the cost and increasing efficiency.
▪ Open interfaces as against closed technologies of the past.
▪ Power consumption efficiency.
▪ Scalable and flexible usage of frequency bands.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 18

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 The technical specifications approved by 3GPP for the LTE project include the use of Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and advanced antenna technologies such as MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output).
 It specifies downlink peak speeds of 326 Mbps and uplink peak speeds of 86Mbps, both in a 20
MHz bandwidth. It also mandates the roundtrip latency between the base station and handsets to
10-milliseconds.
 The LTE-advanced is now de facto 4G mobile communications system, and it is likely to remain
so. It does not have a serious competitor in sight 3GPP2 has given up its UMB initiative, and
mobile WIMAX (802.16m) has not been able to gain significant market share, though it fulfills
the 4G criteria set by the ITU.
 In order to understand LTE-A, it is better to have a look at LTE first. LTE is a very different
system from UMTS, as both its architecture and the technologies used are either new or greatly
enhanced versions of the old entities.
LTE-A System Architecture:
 Figure 5.13 gives a high-level description of the LTE-A network architecture, Readers who are
more familiar with 2G/3G networks may notice the simplicity of the LTE-A architecture.
 In the old GSM there were base transceiver stations (BTS) and base station controllers (BSC),
and in UTRA networks, we have NodeBs and radio network controllers (RNC), and several
different entities in the core network.

Fig 5.13 LTE system architecture

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 19

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Fig 5.14 ULTRAN system architecture

WIRELESS LAN (WLAN)
 To know about WLAN, first we need to know the definition of LAN, which is simply a way of
connecting computers together within a single organization, and usually in a single site.
 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices using a wireless
communication method. It usually provides a connection through an Access Point (AP) to the
wider internet. This gives users the ability to move around within a local coverage area while
still be connected to the network. Just as the mobile phone frees people to make a phone call
from anywhere in their home, a WLAN permits people to use their computers anywhere in the
network area.
 In WLAN, connectivity no longer implies attachment. Local areas are measured not in feet or
meters, but miles or kilometers. An infrastructure need not be buried in the ground or hidden
behind the walls, so we can move and change it at the speed of the organization.
 The major standards for WLANs are IEEE 802.11 and HIPERLAN.
WLAN Specifications:
The IEEE 802.11 specifications were developed specifically for Wireless Local Area
Networks (WLANS) by the IEEE and include four subsets of Ethernet-based protocol standards:
802.11. 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g.
802.11
802.11 operated in the 2.4 GHz range and was the original specification of the 802.11 IEEE
standard. This specification delivered 1 to 2 Mbps using a technology known as phase-shift
keying (PSK) modulation. This specification is no longer used and has largely been replaced by
other forms of the 802.11 standard.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 20

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

802.11a
 802.11a operates in the 5-6 GHz range with data rates commonly in the 6 Mbps, 12 Mbps,
or 24 Mbps range. Because 802.11a uses the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM) standard, data transfer rates can be as high as 54 Mbps.
 OFDM breaks up fast serial information signals into several slower sub-signals that are
transferred at the same time via different frequencies, providing more resistance to radio
frequency interference. The 802.11a specification is also known as Wi-F15, and though
regionally deployed, it is not a global standard like 802.11b.
802.11b
 The 802.11b standard (also known as Wi-Fi) operates in the 2.4 GHz range with up to 11
Mbps data rates and is backward compatible with the 802.11 standard.
 802.11b uses a technology known as complementary code keying (CCK) modulation, which
allows for higher data rates with less chance of multi-path propagation interference.
 The overall benefits include:
▪ Up to twice the data rate of conventional 11 Mbps 802.11b standard products.
▪ Greater WLAN coverage.
▪ Improved security over standard 802.11b.
802.11g
 802.11g is the most recent IEEE 802.11 draft standard and operates in the 2.4 GHz range
with data rates as high as 54 Mbps over a limited distance.
Advantages of WLAN over Wired LAN:
 Installation: Wireless LANs are very easy to install. There is no requirement for wiring
every workstation and every room. This case of installation makes wireless LANS inherently
flexible. If a workstation must be moved, it can be done easily and without additional wiring,
cable drops or reconfiguration of the network.
 Portability: If a company moves to a new location, the wireless system is much easier to
move than ripping up all of the cables that a wired system would have snaked throughout
the building. It provides a useful complement to radio-based systems, particularly for
systems requiring low cost, light weight, moderate data rates, and only requiring short
ranges.
BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth is a standard used in links of radio of short scope, destined to replace wired
connections between electronic devices like cellular telephones, Personal Digital Assistants
(PDA), computers, and many other devices.
Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 21
Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 Bluetooth technology can be used at home, in the office, in the car, etc. This technology allows
to the user’s instantaneous connections of voice and information between several devices in real
time. The way of transmission used assures protection against interferences and safety in the
sending of information.
 The Bluetooth is a small microchip that operates in a band of available frequency throughout the
world. Communications can realize point to point and point multipoint.
 The standard Bluetooth operates in the band of 2,4 GHz. This band is available worldwide,
however, the width of the band can differ in different countries.
Bluetooth Architecture - Piconets and Scatternets:
▪ Up to seven slaves can be active and served simultaneously by the master.
▪ If the master needs to communicate with more than seven devices, it can do so by first
instructing active slave devices to switch to low-power park mode and then inviting other
parked slaves to become active in the piconet.
▪ This juggling act can be repeated, which allows a master to serve a large number of slaves.

Fig 5.15 Illustration of the concept of piconet and scatternet in Bluetooth

▪ Most envisioned Bluetooth applications involve local communication among small groups
of devices.
▪ A piconet configuration consisting of two, three, or up to eight devices is ideally suited to
meet the communication needs of such applications.
▪ When many groups of devices need to be active simultaneously, each group can form a
separate piconet. The slave nodes in each piconet stay synchronized with the master clock
and hop according to a channel-hopping sequence that is a function of the master’s node
address.
▪ Since channel-hopping sequences are pseudorandom, the probability of collision among
piconets is small. Piconets with overlapping coverage can coexist and operate
Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 22
Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

independently. Nonetheless, when the degree of overlap is high, the performance of each
piconet starts to degrade. In some usage scenarios, however, devices in different piconets
may need to communicate with each other.
▪ Bluetooth defines a structure called scatternet to facilitate interpiconet communication. A
scatternet is formed by interconnecting multiple piconets. As shown on the right side of fig
5.15.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:
The basic elements of a satellite communication system are shown in the Fig.5.16. Basic elements
are:
 User: The user generates the baseband signal that proceeds through a terrestrial network and
transmitted to a satellite at the earth station.
 Satellite: The satellite consists of a large number of repeaters in the space that perform the
reception of modulated RF carrier in its uplink frequency spectrum from all the earth stations
in the present networks, amplifiers. They retransmit them back to the earth stations in the down
link frequency spectrum. To avoid interference, downlink and uplink frequency spectrums
should be separate and different.

Fig 5.16 Basics elements of a satellite communication system

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 23

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 Terrestrial network: This is a network on the ground which carries the signal from user to
earth station. It can be a telephone switch or a dedicated link between the user and the earth
station.
 Earth Station: It’s a radio station located on the earth and used for relaying signals from
satellites; It governs all the activities and transmissions happening in the satellite
communication.
TYPES OF SATELLITES (BASED ON ORBITS):
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites:
 GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point from Earth,
these satellites appear to be stationary.
 These satellites are placed in the space in such a way that only three satellites are sufficient to
provide connection throughout the surface of the Earth. The orbit of these satellites is circular.
 There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime expectancy of these
satellites is 15 years. The satellite should be placed 37,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms)
above the surface of the earth.
 These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of motion of
earth, that is eastward.
 The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 00.
 Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are multiple factors
which make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary condition.
 Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit.
 Over the period of time, they go through a drag. (Earth's gravitational force has no effect on
these satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth). These satellites experience
the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth, making them deviate from their orbit.
 The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of speed of satellite from
the earth station.
 These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also, these satellites
are opening as backbones for the telephone networks.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites:
 These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth.
 As LEO satellites circulate on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that is 95
to 120 minutes.
 LEO system try to ensure a high elevation for every spot-on earth to provide a high quality
communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around ten
Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 24
 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

minutes.
 Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be enough
for voice communication.
 LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with Omni-directional antennas using
low transmit power in the range of IW.
 The delay for packets delivered via a LEO is relatively low. Smaller footprints of LEOs allow
for better frequency reuse, similar to the concepts used for cellular networks. LEOs can provide
a much higher elevation in Polar Regions and better global coverage. These satellites are mainly
used in remote sensing and mobile communication services (due to lower latency).
Disadvantages:
 The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global coverage is to
be reached.
 Several concepts involve 50-200 or even more satellites in orbit. The high number of satellites
combined with the fast movements resulting in a high complexity of the whole satellite system.
 The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional mechanisms for conviction
handover between different satellites.
 One general problem of LFOs in the short lifetime of about five to eight years due to
atmospheric drag and radiation.
 Other factors are the need for routing of data packets from satellite to if a user wants to
communicate around the world.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites:
 MEO satellites can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOS, both in terms of their
orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages. Using orbits around 10,000 km, the system
only requires a dozen satellites which is more than a GEO system, but much less than a LEO
system.
 These satellites move more slowly relative to the Earth's rotation allowing a simpler system
design (satellite periods are about six hours). Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover
larger populations, so requiring fewer handovers.
Disadvantages:
Due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70-80 ms.
 These satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 25

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

A Fiber-Optic Communication System:

A generalized configuration of a fiber-optic communication system is shown in brief description of
each block in this figure 5.17 will give us an idea of the prime employed in this system.

Fig 5.17 Generalized configuration of a fiber optic communication system.

Information Input:
 The information input may be in any of the several physical forms, e.g., voice, video, or data.
Therefore, an input transducer is required for converting the non-electrical input into an
electrical input.
 For example, a microphone converts a sound signal into an electrical current, a video camera
converts an image into an electric current or voltage, and so on. In situations where the fiber-
optic link forms a part of a larger system, the information input is normally in electrical form.
 Examples of this type include data transfer between different computers or that between
different parts of the same computer. In either case, the information input must be in the
electrical form for onward transmission through the fiber-optic link.
Transmitter:
 The transmitter for the modulator, as it is often called) comprises an electronic stage which in
converts the electric signal into the proper form and (i) impresses this signal onto the
electromagnetic wave (carrier) generated by the optoelectronic source
 The modulation of an optical carrier may be achieved by employing either an analog or a digital
signal.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 26

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 An analog signal varies continuously and reproduces the form of the original information input,
whereas digital modulation involves obtaining information in the discrete forms.
 In the latter the signal is either on or off, with the on state representing a digital 1 and the off
state representing a digital 0. These are called binary digits for bits of the digital system. The
number of bits per second (bps) transmitted is called the data rate. If the information input is in
the analog form, it may be obtained in the digital forms by employing an analog-to-digital
converter.
 Analog modulation is much simpler to implement but requires higher signal-to-noise ratio at
the receiver end as compared to digital modulation. Further, the linearity needed for analog
modulation is not always provided by the optical source, particularly at high modulation
frequencies. Therefore, analog fiber-optic systems are limited to shorter distances and lower
bandwidths.
Optoelectronic Source:
 An optoelectronic (OE) source generates an electromagnetic wave in the optical range
(particularly the near-infrared part of the spectrum), which serves as an information carrier.
 Common sources for fiber-optic communication are the light-emitting diode (LED) and the
injection laser diode (ILD). Ideally, an optoelectronic source should generate a stable single
frequency electromagnetic wave with enough power for long-haul transmission.
 However, in practice, LEDs and even laser diodes emit a range of frequencies and limited
power. The favorable properties of these sources are that they are compact, lightweight,
consume moderate amounts of power, and are relatively easy to modulate. Furthermore, LEDs
and laser diodes which emit frequencies that are less attenuated while propagating through
optical fibers are available.
Channel Couplers:
 In the case of open channel transmission, for example, the radio or television broadcasting
system, the channel coupler is an antenna. It collects the signal from the transmitter and directs
this to the atmospheric channel. At the receiver end again the antenna collects the signal and
routes it to the receiver. In the case of guided channel transmission, e.g., a telephone link, the
coupler is simply a connector for attaching the transmitter to the cable:
 In fiber-optic systems, the function of a coupler is to collect the light signal from the
optoelectronic source and send it efficiently to the optical fiber cable. Several designs are
possible. However, the coupling losses are large owing to Fresnel reflection and limited light
gathering capacity of such couplers. At the end of the link again a emipler is required to collect
the signal and direct it onto the photodetector.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 27

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Fiber-optic Information Channel:

 In communication systems, the term 'information channel' refers to the path between the
transmitter and the receiver.
 In fiber-optic systems, the optical signal traverses along the cable consisting of a single fiber
or a bundle of optical fibers.
 An optical fiber is an extremely thin strand of ultra-pure glass designed to transmit optical
signals from the optoelectronic source to the optoelectronic detector.
 In its simplest form, it consists of two main regions: (1) a solid cylindrical region of diameter
8-100 µm called the core and (ii) a coaxial cylindrical region of diameter normally 125 µm
called the cladding.
 The refractive index of the core is kept greater than that of the cladding. This feature makes
light travel through this structure by the phenomenon of total internal reflection. In order to
give strength to the optical fiber, it is given a primary or buffer coating of plastic, and then a
cable is made of several such fibers. This optical fiber cable serves as an information channel.
 For clarity of the transmitted information, it is required that the information channel should
have low attenuation for the frequencies being transmitted through it and a large light-gathering
capacity. Furthermore, the cable should have low dispersion in both the time and frequency
domains, because high dispersion results in the distortion of the propagating signal.
Repeater:
 As the optical signals propagate along the length of the fiber, they get attenuated due to
absorption, scattering, etc. and broadened due to dispersion.
 After a certain length, the cumulative effect of attenuation and dispersion causes the signals to
become weak and indistinguishable.
 Therefore, before this happens, the strength and shape of the signal must be restored. This can
be done by using either a regenerator or an optical amplifier, eg, an erbium-doped fiber
amplifier (EDFA), at an appropriate point along the length of the fiber.
Optoelectronic Detector:
 The reconversion of an optical signal into an electrical signal takes place at the OE detector.
Semiconductor p-i-n or avalanche photodiodes are employed for this purpose.
 The photocurrent developed by these detectors is normally proportional to the incident optical
power and hence to the information input.
 The desirable characteristics of a detector include small size, low power consumption, linearity,
flat spectral response, fast response to optical signals, and long operating life.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 28

 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

Receiver:
 For analog transmission, the output photocurrent of the detector is filtered to remove the de
bias that is normally applied to the signal in the modulator module, and also to block any other
undesired frequencies accompanying the signal.
 After filtering, the photocurrent is amplified if needed. These two functions are performed by
the receiver module.
 For digital transmission, in addition to the filter and amplifier, the receiver may include decision
circuits. If the original information is in analog form, a digital-to-analog converter may also be
required.
 The design of the receiver is aimed at achieving high sensitivity and low distortion. The signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR) and bit-error rate (BER) for digital transmission are important factors for
quality communication.
Information Output:
 Finally, the information must be presented in a form that can interpreted by human observer.
For example, it may be required to transform the electrical output into a sound wave or a visual
image.
 Suitable output transducers are required for achieving this transformation In some cases, the
electrical output of the receiver is directly usable This situation arises when a fiber optic system
forms the link between different computers or other machines.

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION
Introduction:
 "Microwaves' is a descriptive term finds its origin in the frequencies used for its
communication. The term microwaves used to identify e, waves in the frequency spectrum
ranging approximately from 1 GHz (10 Hz) to 30 GHz. This corresponds to wavelengths from
30 cm to 1 cm. Sometimes higher frequencies (extending upto 600 GHz) are also called
microwaves.
 These waves present several interesting and unusual features not found in other portions of
frequency spectrum. These features make microwaves' uniquely suitable for several useful
applications.
 A significant advantage associated with the use of microwaves for communications is their
large bandwidth.
 Microwave techniques are now being introduced in fast computer operations. Pulses with very
small widths are used in high-speed logic circuits.
Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 29
 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 Microwaves are extensively used for information relay systems in communication, especially
for line-of-sight transmission systems. They also find application in RADAR. The most
common use of the microwave systems is to communicate over rough or inaccessible terrain.
Besides their most common use in RADAR systems and point-to-point radio communications,
microwaves are applied extensively in Research laboratories servicing microwave test
equipment and components eg.. microwave oven which typically operates at 2.45 GHz.
 Microwave communication systems cover distances ranging from 15 miles to 4000 miles.
Microwave can be categorized as short haul for intrastate communication and long and for
interstate communication systems.
 They generally use advanced modulation techniques much as phase shift keying (PSK) or
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
 Microwave communications are widely used for telephone networks, in broad cast and
television systems and several other communication applications by services, railways, etc.
Frequency Modulated Microwave Communication System
 FM microwave systems, when equipped with suitable multiplexing technology are capable of
carrying hundreds of voice and data channels. In addition to point-to-point communications.
The FM microwave systems can also be extended to broadcasting television audio signals.

Fig 5.18 Block diagram of FM transmitter

 The baseband input signal can be anything from a FDM voice channel to a TDM channel or

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 30

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

from a composite video signal to a wideband data signal.

 The baseband signal is first applied to the preemphasis network that, in general, provides extra
amplification to high frequency baseband signals.
 When the signal coming out of the preemphasis circuit is applied to the FM modulator, the low
frequencies get frequency modulated by the Intermediate Frequency (IF) carrier and the high
frequencies get phase modulated.
 This ensures a more uniform SNR (signal to noise ratio) throughout the frequency range.
 The IF frequencies are generally in the range of 60-80 MHz.
 The modulated output from the FM deviator is passed through the IF amplifier to the mixer.
The mixer then converts the signal to microwave frequencies. Using the mixer instead of the
multiplier preserves the modulation index and also limits the bandwidth.
 The output of the mixer is passed through the band pass filter to band limit the signal and then
to the channel-combining network. Finally, the signal is fed to the transmitter antenna.
 Figure 5.18 shows the simplified transmitter block diagram of a microwave FM transmitter.
 Figure 5.19 shows the need for repeaters and how a virtual line of sight is maintained between
the transmitter and the receiver using repeaters.

Fig. 5.19 Virtual line of sight for microwave FM transmission using repeaters.
 If the distance between the transmitter and the receiver is less than the maximum distance that
ensures the reliable reception of the FM signal, then the communication system does not need
any other intermediate station.
 However, there should be a line-of-sight path maintained for reliable transmission and
reception. If either if there two conditions are not met, then the system needs intermediate
stations that can receive the signal, process it (possibly amplify) and retransmit the signals.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 31

Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-5

 These intermediate stations are called the repeaters, since their objective is to repeat the signal
that they receive (possibly with some amplification) in the direction of the next repeater or the
receiver in Fig. the transmitter and the receiver are not in direct line of sight with each other
due to the obstructive intermediate terrain (which is caused by the mountains).
 However, by appropriately placing the repeaters, a virtual line of sight is achieved along the
path transmitter-repeater A-repeater B-receiver
 In Fig. 5.20, the RF signal picked by the receiving antenna is passed to the channel separation
network, which separates the individual channels.
 The bandpass filter then filters out any frequencies that fall outside the bandwidth of the
required signal.
 The mixer employs the same RF oscillator frequency as used at the transmitter and converts
the RF signal to the IF band.
 The FM detector demodulates the signal which is then passed to the deemphasis network.
 The de-emphasis network applies inverse functionality of the preemphasis network at the
transmitting end, to finally restoring the original baseband signal. Figure 5.20 shows the
microwave FM receiver block diagram.

Fig. 5.20 Block diagram of FM Receiver.

Ms. Tejashree S, Dept. Of ECE, SVIT Page 32