Atoms, Molecules,

and Ions
Chapter 2

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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.
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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Law of Multiple Proportions

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOoWYXKaZmc
16 X + 8Y 8 X 2Y

Law of Conservation of Mass

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Cathode Ray Tube

J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-

(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) 5
Cathode Ray Tube

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 Millikan’s Experiment

Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g 7
Types of Radioactivity

(uranium compound)
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Thomson’s Model

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 Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g) 10
 Rutherford’s Model of
the Atom

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

“If the atom is the Houston

Astrodome, then the nucleus is a
marble on the 50-yard line.” 11
 Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
(1935 Noble Prize in Physics)

H atoms: 1 p; He atoms: 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

 + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g 12
mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

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 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 14
The Isotopes of Hydrogen

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 16

Noble Gas
Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 Chemistry In Action
Natural abundance of
elements in Earth’s crust:

Natural abundance of elements in human body:

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A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements
A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms:
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
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An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
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A monatomic ion contains only one atom:
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

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Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

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Formulas and Models

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A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance.

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance.

molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O

O3 O
N2H4 NH2
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Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and anions.
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula.
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero.
The ionic compound NaCl

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The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

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Formulas of Ionic Compounds

2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
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Example 2.4

Write the formula of

magnesium nitride, containing
the Mg2+ and N3− ions.

When magnesium burns in air,

it forms both magnesium oxide
and magnesium nitride.
Example 2.4
Strategy Our guide for writing formulas for ionic compounds is
electrical neutrality; that is, the total charge on the cation(s)
must be equal to the total charge on the anion(s).

Because the charges on the Mg2+ and N3− ions are not equal,
we know the formula cannot be MgN.

Instead, we write the formula as MgxNy, where x and y are

subscripts to be determined.
Example 2.4
Solution To satisfy electrical neutrality, the following
relationship must hold:
(+2)x + (−3)y = 0

Solving, we obtain x/y = 3/2. Setting x = 3 and y = 2, we write

Check The subscripts are reduced to the smallest whole-

number ratio of the atoms because the chemical formula of an
ionic compound is usually its empirical formula.
 Chemical Nomenclature
• Ionic Compounds
– Often a metal + nonmetal
– Anion (nonmetal), add “-ide” to element name

BaCl2 barium chloride

K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide

KNO3 potassium nitrate

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 • Transition metal ionic compounds
– indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide

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Example 2.5

Name the following compounds:

(a)Cu(NO3)2

(b)KH2PO4

(c)NH4ClO3
Example 2.5
Strategy Note that the compounds in (a) and (b) contain both
metal and nonmetal atoms, so we expect them to be ionic
compounds.

There are no metal atoms in (c) but there is an ammonium

group, which bears a positive charge. So NH4ClO3 is also an
ionic compound.

Our reference for the names of cations and anions is Table 2.3.

Keep in mind that if a metal atom can form cations of different

charges (see Figure 2.11), we need to use the Stock system.
Example 2.5
Solution
(a)The nitrate ion ( ) bears one negative charge, so the
copper ion must have two positive charges. Because copper
forms both Cu+ and Cu2+ ions, we need to use the Stock system
and call the compound copper(II) nitrate.

(b)The cation is K+ and the anion is (dihydrogen

phosphate). Because potassium only forms one type of ion
(K+), there is no need to use potassium(I) in the name. The
compound is potassium dihydrogen phosphate.

(c) The cation is (ammonium ion) and the anion is .

The compound is ammonium chlorate.
Example 2.6

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:

(a)mercury(I) nitrite

(b)cesium sulfide

(c)calcium phosphate
Example 2.6

Strategy
We refer to Table 2.3 for the formulas of cations and anions.

Recall that the Roman numerals in the Stock system provide

useful information about the charges of the cation.
Example 2.6
Solution
(a)The Roman numeral shows that the mercury ion bears a +1
charge. According to Table 2.3, however, the mercury(I) ion is
diatomic (that is, ) and the nitrite ion is . Therefore,
the formula is Hg2(NO2)2.

(b)Each sulfide ion bears two negative charges, and each

cesium ion bears one positive charge (cesium is in Group 1A,
as is sodium). Therefore, the formula is Cs2S.
Example 2.6

(c) Each calcium ion (Ca2+) bears two positive charges, and
each phosphate ion ( ) bears three negative charges.

To make the sum of the charges equal zero, we must adjust

the numbers of cations and anions:

3(+2) + 2(−3) = 0

Thus, the formula is Ca3(PO4)2.

• Molecular compounds
− Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
− Common names
− H2O, NH3, CH4
− Element furthest to the left in a period
and closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
− If more than one compound can be
formed from the same elements, use
prefixes to indicate number of each
kind of atom
− Last element name ends in -ide

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 Molecular Compounds

HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

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Example 2.7

Name the following molecular compounds:

(a)SiCl4

(b)P4O10
Example 2.7
Strategy
We refer to Table 2.4 for prefixes.

In (a) there is only one Si atom so we do not use the prefix

“mono.”

Solution
(a)Because there are four chlorine atoms present, the
compound is silicon tetrachloride.

(b)There are four phosphorus atoms and ten oxygen atoms

present, so the compound is tetraphosphorus decoxide. Note
that the “a” is omitted in “deca.”
Example 2.8

Write chemical formulas for the following molecular

compounds:

(a) carbon disulfide

(b) disilicon hexabromide

Example 2.8
Strategy
Here we need to convert prefixes to numbers of atoms (see
Table 2.4).

Because there is no prefix for carbon in (a), it means that there

is only one carbon atom present.

Solution
(a)Because there are two sulfur atoms and one carbon atom
present, the formula is CS2.

(b) There are two silicon atoms and six bromine atoms present,
so the formula is Si2Br6.
47
An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
For example: HCl gas and HCl in water

•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

•Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),

hydrochloric acid

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49
An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.

HNO3 nitric acid

H2CO3 carbonic acid

H3PO4 phosphoric acid

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Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions

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The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of
oxoacids, are as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ic” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ate.”
2. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ous” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
3. The names of anions in which one or more
but not all the hydrogen ions have been
removed must indicate the number of H ions
present.
For example:
– H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
– HPO4 2- hydrogen phosphate
– PO43- phosphate 52
53
Example 2.9

Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion:

(a)H3PO3

(b)
Example 2.9
Strategy To name the acid in (a), we first identify the reference
acid, whose name ends with “ic,” as shown in Figure 2.15.

In (b), we need to convert the anion to its parent acid shown in

Table 2.6.

Solution
(a)We start with our reference acid, phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
Because H3PO3 has one fewer O atom, it is called phosphorous
acid.

(b)The parent acid is HIO4. Because the acid has one more O
atom than our reference iodic acid (HIO3), it is called periodic
acid. Therefore, the anion derived from HIO4 is called periodate.
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide

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 Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate

MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
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58
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that
deals with carbon compounds.
Functional Groups:
H H H O

H C OH H C NH2 H C C OH

H H H

methanol methylamine acetic acid

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