SEPTEMBER 01 2021

Using Math in Physics: 1. Dimensional Analysis 

Edward F. Redish

Phys. Teach. 59, 397–400 (2021)

https://doi.org/10.1119/5.0021244

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10 September 2023 09:43:44

Using Math in Physics:
1. Dimensional Analysis
Edward F. Redish, University of Maryland – emeritus, College Park, MD

M
aking meaning with math in physics requires physics because both sides represent the same physical length.
blending physical conceptual knowledge with The equation x = t with x = 3 cm and t = 3 s is not a legitimate
mathematical symbology. Students in introducto- equation even though the numbers match. If we choose differ-
ry physics classes often struggle with this, but it is an essen- ent units (as we are free to), the numbers no longer match. A
tial component of learning how to think with math. Teaching length of 3 cm is also equal to a length of 1.18 in. A time of 3 s
the dimensionality1 of measured quantities and dimensional can also be written at a time of 0.0333 min. While 3 = 3, 1.18 ≠
analysis (DA) is a valuable first step in helping them learn 0.0333. If we are thinking about x as a distance and t as a time,
to appreciate this difference. In this paper I discuss some of it’s pretty clear that distance and time are two distinct things.
the issues associated with learning dimensional analysis and The basic principle is:
show some ways we can modify our instruction to help. This We can only equate (or add) quantities that are the same
paper is one of a series on how to help students develop the kind of thing (have the same dimensionality)—that
scientific thinking skills required for learning to use math in change the same way when we change our choice of unit.
science.2
We often treat DA as if it’s just unit checks and only a way In a physically valid equation, the units don’t have to match
to find calculational mistakes. But dimensionality plays a and the numbers don’t have to match, but the dimensionalities
more fundamental conceptual role. DA is one of the basic do. This hints that something fundamental is going on. We’re
“e-games” (knowledge building strategies or “epistemic actually hiding some sophisticated math. Our symbols are
games”)3 that can help students learn to blend physical con- not numbers but quantities that transform in particular ways
cepts with mathematical representations. For our pre-medi- when we change the arbitrary choices we are free to make. For
cal students, the AAMC, the group responsible for develop- example, if we change our standard unit by a factor of , then
ing the MCAT, has identified dimensional analysis as one of the number assigned to a quantity measured directly by our
measurement scale will change by a factor of 1/ . If we change

10 September 2023 09:43:44

the primary learning objectives in developing quantitative
numeracy.4 our scale from centimeters to meters (100 times bigger), the
The icon I use for the DA e-game is a measuring tape, numbers we assign to lengths will get 100 times smaller.
shown at the top of the page. Every time I use DA in class, If we want our equations to be physically meaningful (not
that icon appears on the slide. Every time it’s used in our text just mathematically meaningful), both sides of the equation
(a free web-based wiki5), the icon appears. This provides a have to change in the same way when we choose a different
visual marker to remind students how valuable (and com- scale. If we have a combination of different kinds of measure-
mon) this strategy is. ments, both sides of an equation (or terms we are adding)
have to change in the same way when we change our choice
Measurements are not numbers of scale for any of the measurements. This means that when
The symbols we use in physics are typically not “num- we combine measurements—a volume as a product of three
bers” but represent physical quantities that can be assigned a length measurements, or a velocity as the ratio of a length
number in a variety of ways, depending on choices we get to measurement to a time measurement—we can only equate
make. Whenever we have a free choice (as of a unit), we can (or add) quantities of the same type: volumes with volumes,
introduce a “measurement dimension” or dimensionality that velocities with velocities.
specifies what kinds of measurement we used to generate our Understanding how we use symbols to represent a mea-
results. Did we use a tape measure marked in inches or one surement is the first step in blending a physical concept with
in centimeters? A clock measured in seconds or hours? Each a mathematical one. We are assigning a number to a symbol,
of these is a choice, and assigning a number to the measure- but it’s not a fixed number. What’s fixed is a property of the
ment implies a choice of standard or unit of length. When we physical object we are describing. This is a rather dramatic
have such a choice, we have to be careful to specify the unit conceptual shift and one many students have trouble making.7
we’ve chosen so anyone we’re giving our number to knows In my introductory physics class, I use five different kinds
what it means physically.6 of measurements:
When we write an equation containing measurements, • A measurement made with a ruler (L, a length)
the statement that two things are equal means that they • A measurement made with a clock (T, a time)
match physically, not that they have the same number. They • A measurement made with a scale (M, a mass)
will have the same numerical value only if they are expressed • A measurement of electric strength (Q, a
in the same units. As a result, dimensioned equations can charge)
look peculiar if you’re only thinking about the math of pure • A measurement made with a thermometer (Θ,
numbers. a temperature)
The equation 1 in = 2.54 cm is a legitimate equation in

DOI: 10.1119/5.0021244 THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 59, September 2021 397
Dimensionalities are important for a number of valuable in situations where functional dependence and scal-
reasons ing are important.
1. DA is a good first step in learning to blend
physical and mathematical concepts. DA is a The notation for dimensionality can be a
good way to begin learning to think of symbols as hav- problem
ing a physical correlate instead of being just a number. Since dimensionalities specify what kind of thing a symbol
2. DA is a good way to check that your equations represents and not the specific value, dimensionalities have no
do not contain an error. Students often approach numbers attached to them. This makes the algebra of dimen-
equations as something to memorize. Since recall is con- sionalities different from standard algebra.
structed and not always accurate,8 students can “cross The standard notation for representing a dimensionality
up” two equations and produce an incorrect or inappro- of a symbol is to put the symbol in square brackets and equate
priate one. Checking dimensionalities helps them disen- that to a mix of capital letters representing the different possi-
tangle memory errors. ble measurement tools: L for length, T for time, M for mass, Q
3. DA is a good way to focus on functional depen- for charge, and Θ for temperature. I like to say,
dence. One of the most important ideas that comes In dimensional analysis, the square brackets ask the
out of DA is that it is not just the correlation in depen- question to what’s inside them:
dence that matters (“more A means more B, but more A What kind of measurements were combined to create
means less C”) but how it depends. Two powerful exam- the number assigned to you?
ples are surface vs. volume scaling and the difference be- Thus, the statement that velocity is obtained by taking a
tween viscous drag (proportional to v) and inertial drag length measurement and dividing it by a time measurement
(proportional to v2). The idea of how quantities depend is [v] = L/T. Note that the bracket is an operator, not a marker.
on each other—functional dependence and scaling—is It goes around variables and parameters to indicate that it is
so important that I define it as a separate e-game.9 yielding a dimensionality, not something with a number at-
4. DA is a good way to generate possible equa- tached. See the example below.
tions for new physical situations. If we are teach- While this is the standard notation, students have some
ing life-science students, it is important for us to cover trouble with the idea that dimensional expressions are not
standard algebra. For example, in dimensional analysis the

10 September 2023 09:43:44

such complex topics as fluids where the derivation of
equations for viscous flow (Hagen-Poiseuille) or capil- following are correct equations.
lary action may be obscure. Even simple formulas such L+L=L (the sum of two lengths is a length)
as for wave speed may require more math than we want 2L = L (if you double a length, it’s still a length)
to spend class time on. DA is a good way to generate Until they understand what information DA is coding, stu-
complex equations and tie them to the idea that their dents can have trouble with this idea (and may put numbers
construction is governed by fundamental principles. into a dimensionality).11

Why aren’t unit checks good enough? An example:

While units and unit checks are often encouraged in intro- Finding an equation
ductory physics, it’s important to stress dimensionalities as Here’s an example that shows how to do a DA and how it is
well as units. When students do unit checks, the units are as- different from a unit check. (I do this example even in semes-
sociated with a number—the specific value the symbol has. If ters when I don’t cover surface tension in class.)
we want them to learn to “think in the blend,” it helps to focus We expect the height h that the liquid rises in the capillary
on dimensionalities rather than units. Dimensionalities tell us tube depends on the surface tension , the gravitational field
what kind of choices we get to make in assigning numbers to g, the mass density of the liquid ρ, and the diameter of the tube
physical quantities; units tell us which specific choices we have d. The surface tension parameter has dimensionalities of
made. There are significant cognitive differences to what a force/length. From physical plausibility (What should make
dimensional analysis activates compared to what a unit check the height larger? Smaller?) we expect the equation should
activates. look something like
For a given dimensionality, we often work at multiple d
scales—a length can be meters, centimeters, microns, nano-
meters—keeping track of specific units adds an additional
cognitive load. It’s essential when you're doing a numerical Use DA to determine the correct value of n.
calculation, but counterproductive when you’re trying to Let’s use DA to analyze the kind of mea-
h

think about what an equation means physically. surements that go into each symbol.
It’s useful to focus on dimensionalities when helping stu- • The surface tension is force/length so
dents build cognitive blends between physics and math. It’s the dimensionality of gamma, [ ], is
useful to focus on units when students are learning to quantify that of force divided by length. Force
and estimate.10 Dimensional analysis becomes particularly has the same dimensionality as “ma”.

398 THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 59, S eptember 2021

 Putting in the dimensionality of mass (M) and accelera- Dimensionalities guarantee that our equations do not lose
tion (L/T2), validity when we change our arbitrary choices. It’s really about
[ ] = [F]/L = [ma]/L = (ML/T2)/L = M/T2. how we are thinking about how physics relates to mathe-
matical symbols. When we shift our focus—for example, to
• The density (ρ) is mass/volume, so [ρ] is mass (M) divid- systems where we have to take into account special relativ-
ed by volume (length cubed) or
ity—we might well decide to change how we want to assign
[ρ] = M/L3. dimensionalities in that situation and treat time and space as
• The gravitational field looks like an acceleration, so [g] = the same.
L/T2. This flexible (“It’s my choice”) view of dimensionalities
• The distance d is a length, so the [d] = L. means that while we can define a dimensionality every time
we make a choice of scale, we don’t have to. If we’re never
We want h to have dimensionality L, so when we multiply all
going to use a different unit, we don’t have to bother with a
the dimensionalities for the equation together, we need to get
dimension. For example, we usually don’t bother to assign a
L. Let’s see what we get doing one kind of measurement at a
dimensionality to an angle (but we probably should).
time.
Only [ ] and [ρ] have a mass in them and one each. Since
Do angles have dimensionality? We often say (and it is
for [ ] M is in the numerator and for [ρ] it’s in the denomina-
even an accepted possibility in the SI system of units) that if
tor, their M’s cancel:
we measure angles in radians, they are considered dimension-
[ ]/[ρ] = (M/T2) / (M/L3) = L3/T2. less. That’s because the radian is defined as the ratio of two
lengths: θ = (arc length)/(radius) = s/r. Since it’s a ratio of the
Only [ ] and [g] have a time in them and each has a 1/T2.
same kind of quantities, the dimensionalities cancel out. But
Since is in the numerator and g is in the denominator, their
this misses the critical issue. Conceptually, angle is about the
T’s cancel:
opening between two straight lines joined at a point. There
[ ]/[ρg] = (L3/T2) / (L/T2) = L2. is a choice: How many divisions do we divide a right angle
into? We may choose to use other non-radian units where we
We only have lengths left in the denominator, so if we want h
choose to divide the right angle into 90 parts (the degree) or
to be a length, we want the denominator to give a factor of 1/L.
100 parts (the gradian) instead of into π/2 parts (the radian).

10 September 2023 09:43:44

[ρ] has 1/L3, the [g] has an L, so together they are a 1/L2. To get
The θ = s/r where sets the unit.
a 1/L the [dn] has to cancel one (and only one) of those L’s, so
To my way of thinking, this free choice of measurement
d has to be to the first power. Therefore n must be 1 to get [h]
scale implies that we should assign that measurement a di-
to come out as just a length.
mensionality. The way we typically treat angles—saying they
This result is true no matter what units you choose. Our
have units but not a dimensionality—can be confusing. Stu-
analysis has only focused on the kind of physical quantity
dents often mess up calculations of angular variables. Howev-
each symbol stood for, a specific application of the conceptual
er, attaching a dimensionality to an angle is not widely done
blend. A detailed groupwork lesson walking students through
and students tend to be familiar with radians so sticking to
a DA is given in the supplementary materials.12
radians (choosing = 1 rad) is probably workable. My posi-
tion is somewhat controversial and not in line with the AAPT
Dimensionality is a choice
recommendation.14 This isn’t a battle I intend to take on.
In introductory physics, we’re used to working with the
five measurement dimensions listed, but we may be unsure
Using DA in class
the extent to which these are “real.” Though there is strong
Dimensional analysis is often either taught explicitly at the
pressure to maintain a standard (SI), many of us trained in
beginning of an introductory class or discussed in the first
physics have been exposed to different choices—for example,
chapter of the text that students rarely read, but students are
taking the speed of light equal to 1, giving space and time the
rarely taught how to use it and are rarely asked to do it as a
same dimensionality, or choosing units so you don’t have to
specific task in the class. I believe that at least in part this is be-
introduce an independent dimension of charge (electrostatic
cause we, as physicists, have internalized the idea so well. We
unit system), or measuring temperature as energy (in electron
blend dimensionality and units effortlessly and we frequently
volts) so you don’t have to introduce an independent tempera-
scan our equations to check for them. We feel that once we tell
ture dimension.13
our students to watch out for units, it should all be obvious!
While that’s interesting, it’s not really relevant in helping
But students have a lot of trouble with DA. It asks them
students to learn to think about physics. A better way is to
to look at symbols in a way with which they have little or no
consider dimensionalities as a choice that we make to help us
experience. They’re not sure that it will help them get “the
map physical concepts into mathematical variables—a first
answers” (which they think are numbers), so they tend to be
step in building the mental blend of physics and math.
not only unmotivated to learn it but resistive. The only way to
Whenever we have a free choice in setting the scale of reset their (epistemological15) expectations is to make it a part
a measurement, we can choose to define a dimension- of what they are required to do and something on which they
ality. This is convenient in helping us think about the are evaluated. If we never explicitly ask them to do DA in a
structure of equations and how they represent physical situation in which they are evaluated, it sends the message that
meaning.
THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 59, September 2021 399
we don’t really think that it’s important. gang Losert for the suggestion that stoichiometry and DA are
I present DA in the first few classes. To show my students conceptually similar that led to the long homework problem
that I care about DA early in the class, my weekly quizzes in the supplementary materials. The work has been supported
have a DA problem in most weeks. I also give my students DA in part by a grant from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute
problems at various points through the class, especially when and NSF grants 1504366 and 1624478.
a concept with a new dimensionality is introduced. By the end
of the year, a significant fraction of my students mention DA References
as one of the important things they have learned and, after the 1. In this article, I use the term dimensionality rather than dimen-
class, many pre-meds have come by to say that it was of partic- sion to differentiate from the number of spatial dimensions we
ular value in their studying for and taking the MCAT. happen to be considering, since in introductory physics, we
Here are a couple of examples. I have included the group- often do problems on a line (1D), in a plane (2D), or in a vol-
ume (3D). Having even a slightly different term can help avoid
work problem, a longer homework problem on DA, and an
confusion.
exam problem in the supplementary online materials.12
2. E. F. Redish, “Using math in physics: Overview,” Phys. Teach. 59,
314–318 (May 2021).
A quiz question
3. For a discussion of e-games, see the overview paper or J.
The dipole is an important source of electric effects in flu- Tuminaro and E. F. Redish, “Elements of a cognitive model of
ids. It has an electric effect that is like that produced by two physics problem solving: Epistemic games,” Phys. Rev. ST Phys.
opposite charges separated by a small distance. The measure Educ. Res. 3, 020101 (2007).
of the strength of an electric dipole is the dipole moment p. 4. Scientific Foundations for Future Physicians (Association of
The magnitude of the electric force exerted by a dipole on a American Medical Colleges, 2009), Competency E1, p. 23.
charge q a distance r away from it is given by (if the dipole is 5. The NEXUS/Physics wiki, https://www.compadre.org/nex-
correctly oriented) usph/ .
6. Failing to do so can produce expensive tragedies. See http://
Fp → q = kC qp/r3.
www.cnn.com/TECH/space/9909/30/mars.metric.02/.
What is [p] (the dimensionality of the dipole moment)? Ex- 7. Some of you will recognize this as group theory. This is an
press your answer in terms of the dimensions M, L, T, Q, Θ. example of how we use a physics/math conceptual blend to
replace some very sophisticated mathematical ideas. See M.

10 September 2023 09:43:44

An exam problem Hammermesh, Group Theory and its Application to Physical
The Reynold's number for a sphere moving in a fluid is the Problems (Dover, 1989).
ratio of the drag to the viscous forces the sphere feels. It is giv- 8. J. Kotre, White Gloves (Norton, 1996); R. Buckner and D. Car-
en by the equation Re = (ρ/μ)(Rv). In this equation, the quan- roll, “Self projections and the brain,” Trends Cognit. Sci. 11 (2),
49-57 (2006).
tities in the first parentheses are properties of the fluid (its
9. E. F. Redish, “Using math in physics: 5 – Functional dependence
density ρ and its viscosity μ) and the quantities in the second
and scaling,” Phys. Teach. (accepted for publication).
parentheses are properties of the object (its radius R and its
10. E. F. Redish, “Using math in physics: 2 – Estimation,” Phys.
speed v). What is the dimensionality of the quantity pertain- Teach. (accepted for publication).
ing to the fluid, (ρ/μ)? 11. I’d love to use small measurement icons instead of L, M, T, Q, Θ,
While I’ve focused on the importance of dimensional anal- but despite the popularity of emoticons with our students, this
ysis as building a conceptual blend for introductory physics is not likely to catch on.
students (especially non-majors), it can also be of great value 12. Readers can access the supplementary material at TPT Online,
to emphasize for physics majors throughout the curriculum, http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/5.0021244 under the Supplemental
even through graduate school. It can be used, for example, in tab.
generating new ideas for equations, analyzing the structure of 13. There is a whole field of metrology that is concerned with the
complex equations, or for finding natural scales to set up di- issue of how many independent measurements we need and
mensionless equations for a numerical computation.16 what’s the best way to define them.
14. G. Aubrecht et al., “The radian — That troublesome unit,” Phys.
Instructional resources Teach. 31, 84 (Feb. 1993). See also P. Mohr and W. Phillips, “Di-
Many of the ideas for this series of papers were developed mensionless units in the SI,” Metrologia 52 (1), 40–47 (2015).
in the context of studying physics learning in a class for 15. By “epistemological” I mean “knowledge about knowledge.”
life-science majors. A number of problems and activities using Students’ misconceptions about the kind of knowledge they
dimensional analysis are offered in the supplementary mate- are learning and what knowledge they need to bring to bear in
the class are often responsible for student difficulties and resis-
rials to this paper. A more extensive collection of readings and
tance. See Ref. 2 for a discussion.
activities from this project on the topic of dimensional anal-
16. Some readings and problems for a junior-level class in Methods
ysis is available at the Living Physics Portal17 (search “Using of Mathematical Physics are available at http://umdperg.pb-
math in physics – Dimensional analysis”). works.com/w/page/34231836/Methods-of-Mathematical-Phys-
ics; choose Content / Things of Physics / Dimensions.
Acknowledgments 17. The Living Physics Portal, “Using math in physics — Dimen-
I would like to thank the members of the UMd PERG over the sional analysis,” https://www.livingphysicsportal.org/de-
last two decades for discussion on these issues. I thank Wolf- tails/00874a44-bda4-4037-9c7a-e73899cf9519.
400 THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 59, S eptember 2021