Closures and decorators allow functions to be treated as objects. Closures maintain references to objects from earlier scopes, while decorators modify or enhance functions without changing their definition. Local functions defined within other functions form closures that can access variables from the enclosing scope. Decorators are commonly used to modify functions by wrapping them in another function.
Closures and decorators allow functions to be treated as objects. Closures maintain references to objects from earlier scopes, while decorators modify or enhance functions without changing their definition. Local functions defined within other functions form closures that can access variables from the enclosing scope. Decorators are commonly used to modify functions by wrapping them in another function.
Closures and decorators allow functions to be treated as objects. Closures maintain references to objects from earlier scopes, while decorators modify or enhance functions without changing their definition. Local functions defined within other functions form closures that can access variables from the enclosing scope. Decorators are commonly used to modify functions by wrapping them in another function.
Closures and decorators allow functions to be treated as objects. Closures maintain references to objects from earlier scopes, while decorators modify or enhance functions without changing their definition. Local functions defined within other functions form closures that can access variables from the enclosing scope. Decorators are commonly used to modify functions by wrapping them in another function.
@austin_bingham @robsmallshire [email protected][email protected] Presenter def define new functions, executed at runtime Local functions
def func(): x = 1 y = 2 return x + y Local functions
def func(): def func():
x = 1 def local_func(): y = 2 a = 'hello, ' return x + y b = 'world' return a + b ! x = 1 y = 2 return x + y Local functions
def func(): def func():
x = 1 def local_func(): y = 2 a = 'hello, ' return x + y b = 'world' return a + b ! x = 1 y = 2 return x + y LEGB rule local, enclosing, global, built-in LEGB Rule
PI = TAU / 2 ! def func(x): def local_func(n): a = 'hello, ' return a + n ! y = 2 return x + y
module.py LEGB Rule
PI = TAU / 2 ! def func(x): def local_func(n): a = 'hello, ' return a + n ! y = 2 return x + y
module.py LEGB Rule
PI = TAU / 2 ! def func(x): def local_func(n): a = 'hello, ' return a + n ! y = 2 return x + y
module.py LEGB Rule
PI = TAU / 2 ! def func(x): def local_func(n): a = 'hello, ' return a + n ! y = 2 return x + y
module.py Local functions
•Useful for specialized, one-off functions
•Aid in code organization and readability •Similar to lambdas, but more general • May contain multiple expressions
def outer(): def inner(): print('inner') return inner ! i = outer() i() First-class Functions functions can be treated like any other object Closures
def outer(): x = 3 ! def inner(y): return x + y ! return inner ! i = outer() Closures
def outer(): x = 3 ! def inner(y): return x + y ! return inner ! i = outer() Closures
def outer(): x = 3 ! def inner(y): return x + y ! return inner ! i = outer() Closures
! x = 3 ? def inner(y): return x + y !
! i = outer() Closures maintain references to objects from earlier scopes Function factory function that returns new, specialized functions !
LEGB does not apply when
making new bindings. global introduce names from global namespace into the local namespace nonlocal introduce names from the enclosing namespace into the local namespace E r r o r y n t a x t a S s n ’ t ge d o e You e name f th i t. ex is decorators modify or enhance functions without changing their definition
@my_decorator def my_function(): . . . Decorators
@my_decorator! def my_function(x, y):! return x + y Decorators
@my_decorator! def my_function(x, y):! FUNCTION OBJECT return x + y Decorators
def my_decorator(f):! FUNCTION FUNCTION . . .! OBJECT OBJECT return new_f Decorators
@my_decorator! FUNCTION def my_function(x, y):! OBJECT return x + y Decorators
def my_function(x, y):!
! ! FUNCTION ! OBJECT ! Decorators
•Replace, enhance, or modify existing functions
•Does not change the original function definition •Calling code does not need to change •Decorator mechanism uses the modified function’s original name Decorators
important metadata. functools.wraps() properly update metadata on wrapped functions Decorators
•Decorators are a powerful tool
•Decorators are widely used in Python •It’s possible to overuse decorators; be mindful •They can improve maintainability, increase clarity, and reduce complexity Duck Tails Factory functions which produce decorator functions which make wrapper functions which wrap functions (with added closures!) Duck Tails Whew! Closures and Decorators def function(a, b): print("A function")
def local_function(x, y):
print("A local function") return x * y + a * b
return local_function
>>> p = function(5, 7) A function >>> p <function function.<locals>.local_function at 0x10299f320> >>> p.__closure__ (<cell at 0x1029bc8d8: int object at 0x100233120>, <cell at 0x1029bc980: int object at 0x100233160>) Closures and Decorators def log_to(stream):
