UNIT- i APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS VirTwak Group: This means ‘he differentral input vottage Vet between the non inverting and unvesting un pat Guminals ws emenbally Zer €q Tf output vottage us lev and the Ao, 1¢ open Lowp goin ds 10" thon Vp = Va Ao Vd = Men a s!2 iim Ao. lo* Hence Va Ws very small. As Ao >% the. difference. Voltage Vaso and awalist cally ansumed bo be 2270 for analysing the Cinculs Ths we tan Say that under Vinoar nange of operation thone ws virtually shove ceed: between the tevo dnput brminaly the sere that their voltages ae Rama. No Current Flows tro | put Gminals to the ground. on From> Time t Pha shift of 180 > Toms. Waverorms OF Inverrve Aueuetee Sieur CHanger Th the udeal clnvontirg ampli firs dt Rp =R, then the Goin ws Acpe -1- Thus the magnitude of output us Same as that of the sinput but ub Aign ws opposite to that of the anput Ve 2 Vin for Ree) fu; Creu on Colled Sign. changenicy phase aventer. Scare CHANGER Th the ideal dnveting amplifas at Re FR ther the -k whore k= RJR,» Thus the Graik os Gain us Aa = qued to multiply unput by The Constant K Called Scaling factor V, = ~KVine athe vwvistant must be. pracisions cwristos to adjust the Scaling factor k precisely . Ths Grout Ws Glide Stale Changer.Anca Now-Inveenine fHPHEIER 5 eit [aise | ; ee i, Se oem Te 4 i An amplifiee which amplifus the cnput wathout producing Ory pha shitt belweon dinpuk and output ds Catled non. dnverting emplficn The vinpuk uw applied to the hon anverling din put teyninal of the op-amp Derivation of closd lovp gain Tho node Bus ab potential Vin, hence the potential ve point A ds Aame B which uw Vin, From the conept of Virtual shore SV an oii 30 From the output side we Can wrile. T= \o-Va Re z. 2 Vo=Vin aS Re At the cuvertics Gunural, T+ Wr0 Via -- @) & rREatin cuvunt powses thrvugh RB, o% dnput Caveat of op: amp us Fano. Equating equations (a) and (3) Tea Noa Toman Vine & RB ne = Vin 4 Vin ? Ry & Ry r YEN : Vo ee Eee ae eh RARE 3 Srakinands ees Dehing 2c 4sya Ve Vin pas : 6 See atk Advantages F Voltage followee —~ ts Very louge dnput nesrstance, of the ordu F H2. 2 lew output vumpodante , almost zero. Hente ut Can be wed to Connect high umpedance Source to & Low umpedance {oad, as a buffer. 3. Tt has lange. bandwidth. 4 The culpul follows the unpul exactly wrthout a phase Shift.Basic _oP-AMP_APPHCATIONS ~ op-amp bas countlers apptecattos and forms tea basve butlaing, Broce of Uncax and non-tneay anatog aysams Narves wen the a, me ofp Axgqnel gn wnaox Cuvee! mannas > Some of te appucaltont Yo signa! ty a eneos ant wy addes uy Subkaattet * Keogh ins onal amcen Naso @o Bekrumantatcon annplofxae oke Dome of na non tenooy appleeottons ove tp Rockegeey up Poole datoctet cin Cloppee” do clampo® @ sample & roid eevee a Antelog arm puepeor pan ekes wo = wip matte Addar | sumonng ox addey Mo coy cure Summeng AMpUycos snore ole © tnd. gum ap fanawal rip oe RK xgees depandeng upon the 44D op tee olp- 090g Aarmnoy w in Ww non -cay arte adder» aayBevertung_sumonng_2 $n thes ceveecl > Acgnak te be added aged yo the twwostrag UIP Yoarmunal of tne Comme ov "le prolkanes vi, No Bg , thoes eevee yyuth Wma pupres + an me ejp axa op arp Reomp weseet% £1, 20209 ard Oo : n,n a5 1@gH) @ food back JOACAT A. tor cary and Reo . So tne analyst O4sume epamp tr on weal one vp bas curvant th amsurmed te Ze, and tere mw nO vottoge damp acres comp ca Potential Go the non-envaateng ¢1P tarmenal ‘b’ A a geund B ‘Tha -Noltaga’ of node sal 2ax0 The nodal cquatvon by kth ot node ‘a’ +¥o No x Yee See — 0 Ra Re = =f Wade +ie Qi Ro Ro ee —@ (2 a fons +N) s4 Rp > Biz Ro = Og , than Thus the lp an (verted, warghred sum OF t]eeAvarags og tenet Sn a spout cage 4 Rie Ra = Ra > BRE Ken the — oxpregsten ® racemes No - ( + Vo +NB ) abus we oP tha average Of tha Ujpacgors an & prackveal escort , Roomp = Re tl Re where Ree Or Re MNKs - Non —vaventoog Surnmeng Ampusgrad b h summosatrat goes: & nen-tavestod gum vs Me non cave rt (4g puromeng Xn a F 2. ampuyror ae a lava Lot tha vott Ter an ee oye at we OrlP dk teamenal be Ya va. Bo tha workoge at te © “le Re R tasmena) ba Na nodal aquakean ake noda \ah Ww geyen by whe Ny “Va =a No-Ya_ 4 Va-Va_ oo =) 5 wea Ro Ro ee Se pS ep Ri Ro 2a, ae (cena Ro ww a No a Nae te a / ire this es 2resistor, Le Tha op-amp + two Neon-UNesteng amplo¢cay — LeLer Ne= (14 Re) Na 3 saxd s ub @ « Thavejose = ra olp voltorga Eres ey Fe t+. R tea BH Relay Ra Py \Wren Romeo} thus tre OP ce oO Db pase deggavancval ampurve wed a6 a surcracket mo xanisiers 090 oqual Wren We olp volkag & can be USE Auporpontson pacnarpe Te ford no gua to ¥y atone) maka Sh aw ur VaAUe, dereved by elp Yor Nous Om Then tre sent becomes a er yowrage N/a ae The lp vere (148) ¥ Ip ven @ be No} = vy haveng non -chveated Ro conmstetute a +N. a =e Ro (a weeginced sum of (PS. can be va R Yo =) ~¥: Mi oe non -onveatiag amplepet me no n—emnvesteng taamenat> =Remslorst ai wlavty the fp YP Vor due bo Ya ateona (en ah Yering amples g amptepves) Veg sR Vo RB Noo ~ -b thu hus the olp Voltaga Ye dua to both we clpe Vo = Yor + Yoo. fer ve] at leo thus ta lp Voltage tre dvgyerence ele voltages Adder — $0 Sutot qacte porqonm addcbon a pubr7acteor atagia opamP ms ponuble ke aumutrancedsY wen & Sn ff tend a ANN Yo cram duparpeviven The vas A Vos (giv, C0) appwod: gp pod YON eles Ya Ns 2 Va oqual te peremto AN vaya atingVig 8a * Voy -My heyy The olp Yotkay Nv Pa x this & the ofp voltage dua fo ve alone. x Make ‘I,%3 2Vg =0 ¥ The cevetut cort} hacore an man cna Hing amplpeet the olp voltage Yo) Vo, Nea = ey Noy - -Vo + Vox ve Me ole Se due te NB alond « + wake all other Wo eagee aqual to 7@A0 te Wy Youve =08 pocoma non- enwestcng & The avert etl surmpusgeca Leon Ampuxves arto®Tha yowage Va at the non- tnvestiing formenal Na Rin Va, Rt Plo v va a = he he o N jue fO Na ce go ele selene og alone [ET % Ae teid a N I Yog - Ya nS vey 24 She tetal oP Nala Mos Wao Neo +8 Vo 4No4g evn ECM) a8 tN Go, tral cercu= Ban adder — subtract. ©Pup yeventatet pastor wha matnamatveat me oP voitogs us ‘ v. dhe avfyarantatet con dugjerantvalron , v2 cip. vetkage apes alton whiten a Argnal warren - spesatma of me dugyaventcalvon — of Nosy woeful to fod the vali at tooth tem deal _aspyexcrtiates, the wheal Avpfere nlin let may be corm auctad Prom a base ainputier fp cpt elle eR, & seplacad by a. Feet | tnveateng deste a capacctet ui Analyses != Sea —__ | | | The nede 1) W ok Yentual ground pocontal ta {fo Mi—ee —o vy ao Tha nota) aquatton ot node NM Cc = JSommug = O° See: - here te =G dic —¥ni) | ae ais ¥ No +n Ama Y¥r=o0 tee cde > de aefb @ *& ae ° dt No = RCI dye de r - , Ve Roc ave Thus the olp vellage No a tomcant (—Recr) bones the dowmwattve of wna cle NOW OG Ca Vetsy =~ RFS gets), aha uppes cut-ont Jraquenty h Yots) __ Rpetys - Bye ce seets) ATRE) = —jwhen ‘The ’ GREY alten oe = WRG - So ~ a tReet Lae freee ey cc edetmeond a Cena O te ef +20 db} decade Jembtatcons &F__ Argpoventvater. - ffavantvalae as frequency ae x tha gate of the ey o dopgevantuatee bocomes * mus ak beg frequency, mo osentlaltons tunkanle and break dhe tip empadante encyoase ceerosk Gonsiteve fo Nigh. feaqucanty be (%se) dacvoas we fraquanty, these by makeng re og WU noise ,Practreal Supp erantvatet + Penal y te + whe (Io tument ve & Xe iatiee Ay Wo haat 5) Ret se See (veto) £4 errar.1-) The cuwent Of) .-Ye4¥e ee Re = Meg “hy 2 6p Ae ae Tha nego 2 stabitety at 2 high faequency can be corwackad US Phe pocatreal depperentt ater Corceut mas yesgtante Ry wt Aomtes a the Capaccl tatth RE tacth C) ms paraiiel Ae sescstante Pomp boat wad {er compensalton: — Earl chr aq ——<_— @, = — (6;29 1 &) Takeng Japioce trangiesm of @ a | | —Yots) 2p py Deg = -f Cpvate? s fe = 1 tp. Applying kot ae nbatoM 3) 44.2 te, + Dra me, Ops = ? Dew It) Savio , ots) 4 8% vot) = © Scie. 2. 4 oer eo Se Sti Neots) { ilyet sc] Te Qty Rp vets) (b>. Naty sot ees . (vemeo C mS) Tha Ronspor funeteon 6 Nols) _ ec &e soc) (M4 Teep ULES Ree mene fa Rg = ea vets) . —$ SG a Ree a Wsd (C14 SRO) rate chee te Brae a; ‘ Go sFpe ——S 2) trom the equation @ , me gawk fT at aeda} decade foo +fb-co thera ao de|decade thangae WW Jaw W taused by Spy & Mey < ter goed duppaventealvan , ee te tips tha tte pared T 4 & Sy closed isep asrerts e a op base ah ai Belt : acdajacrode o cs by : i j Be > Rees ‘ . ae Ree Pe th the paactccal me “a BA 07 fo / SU rec eat Noted decade ne for fe : Actresentualet in vaduced K and thus avoid ta Wgh freq wanciy nal <0 Freg Cho) > Applerattons at _AOf eventeattet > + % & Wad w wavo srapeng eco cut * ta lat * + They ava used os €dge Barocas oe Ae OES Ses nalton may be usad we comb’ _ = tha dugpex ant caters ox ko form analeg worth odders and ample Compurert: a)p 1 ole wartojerms for dvtt wp Square Weve ‘he (O Sooware Cp. toscno_olpase Spteguatet R. cenweutk cist urAtels (Che CIP INER SAS wayefoom © eet tna bandas Ob tet SSleaveleatS wavapresm tated erimqvates © ove CRG SAI pear. Snvagrater ateany ever @ waqguiceed, rie * wreducos a summing renkan va! ; Tha vance cavarte ara pusyeet. ef ve madcgtad a5 eqvaqtavh va eae uct foedeach oloywent roplaced ns a by cmpacetee OF: aa Bi, frat tha vedo\ equatcoy a needa. ey ie eae * id > 3 Ars, (© ep-amp Shkegr ater, Peer ty 0 cae she fp current Bye Va see : = 5 tee Ye he A ep = cy 4 (vn-¥e) at &@ OP ee S| te mw ©3160 » © i y (rp d¥o = 0 My 7 eeeWe poy dee Rice ee Gnteey oles en beth Acdos t t { a J be [vet *f 6 ay Net a0) s ( weal + Yet) &). e Whee Yolo) & tne tte ip Molrage * ia, meee (PONIES. OP lp reirege when preportvenat fo tha toma entegral SH tra IP . fn faaqaancy Bomar Vet) > i ite. 6 BOE vet) * ae ve tp) . ae Jeng 4 f Yay [> -5 \ _- = & f jueite tay Rieh « aa See ee 7 ar Rig py wre, gan’ of cho goer cetagnatee cengensta mre gan Of te erkagratet SU) ak, Caer asd POH ANY «9 ‘ ates . vip eegnal, the ofpak Volkage contabute fox an erect as an vdeosthacistal Antegrates - >eD ee ‘ post aed () practical integrate ls and aaa lossy envegratet” «nals * ne nodal aquation ay the taverteng tasmonal bt ep-amp tt Wet og Sep Vols) + VOD _o é Ry Rp ~ eae : Neto (1 4 sep) = veo 7 a . Ye) wet e — et —— Rie RES Sh? _ vet) @ By + SRith ‘ ee ab Tay 2 You = wees)u) + ome thin pipe pi) fas oh : An Rp cp, - Wwhe q wen te tip frequency 4 tem than fa, ms curceect Seen aos aes On @ an tntagraltet and we tovesttng ampepret - Applecatrone op Srkagzatet = wD sk & used & analog computers won UW ARG ru ‘Sn dolyeng beh eLaReN equa » wo Wave shaping Cty cule W Pamp goncraters ’ tn tonvert 4 ware eave to A Wava+ a Sips _elP Waveforms yale 3s a (@ Sor squose wave tp io “Vv ‘ AW. e , by for Noewave dp: a et a ae ;4 =i ‘ ten dewre oa > Thee & pasfoomed by an + Toskrumantation _amp\s ver t a pplucattors and comumer Th cantata industoral and control prysccal ona » raqueryed wm measured QUAN Tees Aomea 4 ore tb measusamant and ab humed sty , dota enka.ns by tentwol qf emreaatos water seus akc. Those poysceal quencies ova MaUally moosusad woth tha Pale of kvangdutaws - = + Wansdueays asa wed Cenvask Pnymeal “Grantutece wnto a Greportvonal clactyceal Agnal: # the olp of tromsdutass has to ba amptnprad 40 Heat” thee underate, os dieplay system: wmbuMantaton amplotar -tempor tant © teu-tored migoat amplogeeatysn @ wegh gam axceracy qo jew Mesmal dovgt | tow de opesat b&b dow oufpuk tmpadanta ww hegh ema yo beg ID love owas consumptto? uo wah dp asec lance plore vote foatuses weguisad br an ampugees rane Comes a bane deftarentcol amplfedd © Ane ole Nea No % gean by Ro No + yo") « A Ra 2 vo An. @ Ve Mie ‘ & Ag: Acap amp wseng Avngle op- amp nha dvffawanteat arnpuywee has tip empadante Noe Dmitad by te yotua of RI: tha qoen af tne duperenttal amputee » decwtad by 7 gostos R121 whee one aee tre high gos vatues . THEE Qemutiateon % evesteme by fe wea ef Wngh vorcdance buryor (wotcage. foltoroax’) */te cash geqnal IP and dehf/ ror the amadvantese Wat tna gacn cannot ORstty ba changed ha goes womlR Arapleprad ~ He “Whe amputee? F adjustment done by tha Mo of aengie entrumantation ampvycar hat Toa thvoe opayp re foscecty of opareng keg ele hy qavn* ye { wpadanca ard . Ba oy MS na a a aoe 4 Yo > R! g! “ 3 _ al * wg es vi and Ad Ona voltage tha = op-arwps AY a for cach eee: fottowel auieng oF 0° Cle atog a They have Fave augercntin) Voltage ve Md = 0° dytton wa COM MeN meda Aynal 20 under eommenened & ton tro ponestete RA wo voltage: a020%s Mie Bs NIN 7Sunee one euxgant flowt thwough man tro yoKC rors Rand Ri, the olp vanegas ave Vie Vand WEY. oh titve then coment flows Mreough 2 2 adiawkonyihbl anes Cet, ete gore, 3 emer. OAVALOVS shy erent «wel haya Mowe dug caleatatwen ef SC nolrage = bee Na bo he vettage of op-ornP (ae oe te non-cryantong Josmenal Nain 228 eal Rates vag Auparpasct coo Naot om: wm MaKeng vt ~ =k feo Oe Voltage Noo ae val =o Wd Malang, Nol 20 yea ole Yoage Wor = 2) Va? ~ (0B) Correo)” No > Yer Nor » “eas! e (ee Gre No= & (4 =)a3 Se mee pnp Curent flewe into opamp We tuasent D y foweng un Re Paley Q ieee and posses tough R Now Vit-w, = re! Viz 2 WWD yy to: R ‘e-Na' = 12) Nal = Ya—2R! Yo - Si-vay ——_t. mt Os © w» 8 Bm Vo = RB_ (No!) Ry 1 fo No 5 BF pt wy-votM _vp + 8 (wv) a (Fe Vo > Ro “v. ») re ( Azer + & V9) foes End amantatto? ra gan Of The dutpaven vy mpeg ae qesustan ear an be Nosed(Trameenductance Ampt feos J ee mancas 1 Cecrsant Conne gn mony AppAceatvons , ONE may have to convaxt Fa voltage Awgnat ko a proportvonal e|p current of cscs thare oxo two typos W X-2 convertor wen floating (ead (veg Convesber — wettn grounded load » V2 convestar _weth fteatuag lead - tet tha cents wood TeErctor Rie yba Floating tenet grounded: ah eth TNs RL The lp voltage Vex i appuad to (re foadback voltage taxmvnal. this feed back non-cnvorleng elp tormenal and the aces Ry dwwee ha tnvasteng — tI arutt w also mited 9 cursork —savves nagateya onargtaa Wecause tha db volrage otros 2 deponds on ta olp eursant to ang Ow Boards tth = tha olp. auggos once Noitage Ned.Nata Bat thus Applucats * * kv equation fox tha Up loop Nu Ved 4 4G Vod & oV te New vp Yas Rite ee meeeeh: the CIp velkona Yea 4] Yu Ie): fh Wnvortod mto a9 out pu devo oe ac and de Netemoters @eo@e mate fendo%s Lens Loncs Boa testo - fq? vito 2 convoster wth. groundad loadnrnut ,ona tavmenal of the load ve toad quaent * tentyelled fin We RS, connocked °° ground ond me ruby an tip voltage Ache dararmena, ee okege ay ioces hon crc 9 tip teamenal + ipa lana cernup en bleu wero tha teed fo Te estante sh tus ont Apolytng kg at nodo R= Drly. ceed! -Ser i) here Ce op_arap tonnertad tn the nery-vnroating moda me gee’ Of ye cach Ap 1+ R ApeThe fur ank dp Neirago % guvan by Yo = APM No = &Y eS) Sub W Wd Ye = We +¥o - fe Conve set [Twang aestclante Sc = a ee No Nee . 2 Vo = Tov 2p Qenyaotay clo waroge oh woltnga een of tha investtfig, amplyyvet. Bee Ri cq Mee, AE vat 2 No - — Pt Nw me At Ry arnp Ugred] :Grnee Yy-0V and > ¥2 Yo aD = Ry AU @ ann © « ® Yo- —Rp Rw @ Than eadveatec te o/P roltage hk -Propoxttonal fo tha tlp tumeant a St iw weed WwW photecoll, Protedrode and photavetcare cet) to Convost tha Riera ate non (neve by (We fmoont tught oe radvant Gresgg tncedort on tha proto dovtce tan be Moasazcd * MAC am geneRAaToORs if ca tha open lep manne > yenal annANeren An opera’ noo Aendcos wn oO » oo arnt cornea star f axgera’ enrosgaceng BENCEES) ¢fomparates tompazates rohech tompazes of an opamp the othto 2 a ecretut A at one Cle capped Bafovense voltage at ft has an olp ef + Véat oS porth a new tlp 4Y,. -—— s YeNroy Ved, fyny —4-Veat a pan atel fog (b> POE starve tr + transpar chowe! y tnak fig ww Bdaal om? gt may be een doom te ga ph clp eae) ange RGSS mith onpmarearrene OCRele due ip otyeat feo (eae Q , ve f Beye Thee used b offset nun comparediing technegnes tan ba elemtnate E> have ase geo types Of eomparales * » mon-unvert cng eo ipawatet a Snyeateng eompazatet | Mena taverting _tomparetel = WHPraciven) Covent Consedae the foltavecng ome ak - ag er a ate ve No ve ve B Ri. 52 ee alle Vt eA tokw pot aze A feed reference Neitkage Nate Us aApewed Ye ioe “ip and tome Vasying signal ve Lees te & ele The elp Vetreqa & at —Voor fO7 ve 2 Nagy and Ve geet te +vaat 407 Wo > Veer The BR olp wavafoIMs are geren palo * ab urhen Nagp & #Ve ay we we ae Vaot Neat Ve <-Naey. dn a poacteal erecuut. Norge! “7 ebrarned by wang a toKw patente mates which fowne = & ee devedex weer the supply verkag es yt ang you with the otpe> eennetted b Lo +te tasmenal. Thus a Veer ef aesvred ampwdude and petercty can be obtacned by semply adjusting ma to ek Potentiometers © Snerder to Peo ep-amp fam damage duc to excenscve ap voltage ven , avodot ad) 2da can be connet! ted mmblw He tp cesmenalk:% hey ded cated” clara TatoAmes weduce | e OfFSCt poobioms, & poscictanee * Jo Romp= & connectad bio tha —ve erp * Nyof: hyenteng. _torm par ate t So Sat trot, Me seforence voltage Voet | C appuwed Fe So apd & uo lp. and tip “te & CFF 2 er tolea und elp voltage tovel apendent oF perce? aupahy epeaunad by Meera a vases can abo be atedus at oe pace to back bacausa peacteral capt ek ARES Cental’ -airmooce St io pau, ee one yoitage Laval te Anetnet: go Were well be slanted Ages - hese effec® asd wero notecable at haigte dreguenwes: xe Nal ve t abe 2 vee Nye, sek oo & Ne Naas * A pena domparatet ° PNG tae er) aararl® y Wenders dateclet ame. Morke® gonesatet we PRase metas + Prawbpacks weatone 7 Che elo Nec may bao 1 On some app’ Arty chang eng ewes OY+ wavopex™ and ve fakes more qThevepore vo saruratvon votkage to tema may wk susttan — guvekty tne =the geom one2 Recause of We necte at the op-ampk tip fe2menale we clp Ve May Uptucruatan bite 2 4otiaatven Yoitages +Vaar f= Veat Dhesa pacbiaru tary be elernunarad wrth the. usd ig vegeramatve oF ve foadback Stunt Te 2 op CeqeNERATIVE COMPARATOR + Op +¥e feedback is addad to the compardby eum 7 Jaw fan ba enepoased queatty Come quent ty , tre tranuyor Curve Of fomparate becames Mord e twatmk & Rnewn at clesa to edeal cue Zener er f ahue ors convast _ an Vere WAS Araped wavesorr to a square cuane oe pukka: aeweentt + enetan as BQMA ENA, me o]p Wave-+-em thes vs alto tepcuchs , on panekereal ar tm eomposseO Bw Neeuatly arn conten wens veltage » ghee eve tent: enue Oo Prenemapeo tailed hystaneses OF backlash - Rs ve ve Req Bovawteg a Beheurtt 149g ep alee GW Be fb ese i210 _bpavatron + on ters bevel, tea Clp welbage us apptved tow “lp tavwenad ond Paodback, | vemega © va a tips eel the clp Ye beeggeys the olp Ve e@vany terme levek calted “pper rt excocds fagtaroa yeltage theeshold vottage (Yury and threcheld toro veitoge War) » the hyskescses wath ce the autyarenee — blto tyasa ‘tte —treashold Voltages "2 Yuu —Yer Catteaatren Of shacpheld veitages Jor ma Op vee tT ¥sat: the ofp bir veibage ak can be ebtavntd by MSEAD Aupe wD cle Bamwaal mpewtron Thee « ver © Veof_2 + eee eee Ry Ra Ret Po olp ve Aamarns As long a ie at ie aNsat * noncank ak nw > Mary the Olp suscéehas to —Veak: and emacs motNeat lot the lp be Ngdt 5 tke“ votbage at te | dye tesmenal | Vins Neap Be Vsat ' Qu Qy Ris dot “CB | When Ye < Np the Olp 4turkehe fanm —Veat to | Ween WO > Ver > tra olps & SNgau st New Vy ou vur oe = Veqp &. + Be Neae SNvep Ry + Vsat &o te Sr Bites Riek, , N= 2Neqt £2 —_—® Rit Ro Noto,’ Sh poz chosen do bo “ze10 vette , (ken Om Yor = ur = Rar oe eS RAQ> Nugis = Weare be ©. RitaTwanspen chapactaritires Yo Mb Ve xneacaaeng Vea Ver ye -Y¢at i “eat The rasecae el : % Me -Veak Wh Comporele ‘ _ Stef LE Se ae tip oF Ses Yor ae coave: Because af the hystarescs, Ine cue cack hegheoa weveaae fon Ince as UNG buggers ae a Ve Coot 44 paak to peak elp nga sugnal Va, Wen Re AU mote targge? mates wma pould noves vabet cay « Cuyeuk ca fore the Sip anes jumped to +¥eak Cos weuld never Ahan Me, eal compansalz xe the veccetet Ra & ohesen to che lp Beas cussant Rg = ® Ra,¥ A nen- tavoattn 4 = J schmeet THeggex CE Oblacncd ove and “og, ave interchanged : Appireatron gp at R Usted te convert a Alowly Varying ip Nettaga tmto 4 Aquasa wave olp- Payrards v Sp an oP sepubold 9 ap PRdqrency, Yr ™m ate, AA mmatauca) appwed bo such a [729 4 Bquava wave ig ebtarned - thee verteea) od 9° of the yw When Vyq = Mir, te the toma olp waveform exit noe ces at Se Ane wave pomas Uesough %ovw but Anoptad wo phase by & ‘ une = Sqn a = Yue ge Veneta: Pak ‘2 svousovdal Voltage AP geht Trnggea used as a “ es + Aquaaet ‘a saat se a BN Vea Ven Sen & Sor = wens = YT | yeeAppieatven ap NYyst tha datectton ond toonteng : WAY Af AM 4 te w& w Ot Ww usa a on of trea | AME « CDSSCNGS 4 Zuponcrrupesed weth entengeran a , x the =probuem is @elyad by mkeoduetig J hyraveres of appropevae wreath ot Ue Cua Cewtt and prov das an oeffocttva moans OfF BA jOACNG : | Untas fEevoned * ub USe of hysta veses | | sSegnal Drowsuptad woutk newe * Zaso evo 4OPAMP CIRCUITS USING Diodes The mayor Lnitation of ordinary diode wit that Lt Gannot neclafy voltages below Vy Cv obv), the Cuban voltage of the diode Pp cincut that acts Rake an idadl diode tan he designed by plating © dicde in the feedback levp Of an op-amp+ Shr the Cut in yoltage us divdoct by the open lowp gon Ao. (~lo") of the Op-amp So that Vy us virtually eliminated. When the input _ VE SVylAc, U00 Vea , the output of tho ep-amp exceeds Vy and Ue dicds D conduch. Thus tw Greut acl: Like © voltage Follower for unpuk ViSVy[Aop Cine ob/tot = bo mv) and the output Vo follows Ye dnpul voltage Vi clurin the positive hal Cycle - When Vy, dt nagatne or fens thon Vel pon 1 the diode D ws the load p, except fin Small bias cwvient of the. op-amp and the nevene sedburation current ef the diede Thi circuit ds called precision cliode and us | Capabl. of rectifying dnpul Signal of the ovden of millivolt off and po cuvent ws delivered to Some typical Applications of a preasion diode ane L Half wave such Fier 2. Full. wows sechifier 3. Peale value dobichy Scat +, champeMi a leew 1 ! LN we \ PRECISION Drape bow ae oF a " jemi | ae > a a I> a | Cee a ym i Tineut Aap OorpeT Naut fore S SHayF WAV RECTIFIER An sinyealing amplifur Can be Converted cinto cin dcleal lnlt-wove oochhiea hy oddity two oliodos. When i ut ee cliode D, Conducl Coming Von to gee hogative by One. diode (wa bv) Hence diode D, nevemre biarect Tha. ovkput voltage Yo he Zero, because for oll prachcal purpeset, ne cument Flows Urrough Rj and bre dnp Curneak fhws through D ja. y Ry and output Vai bees TPEAL HALF: WAVE RECTIFIER Trueut [ower Waveformsfu L_ Wave RecTiFiEe A full wave ouechfur o7 ahsdule value Cret vis Shon ie Ydo, deode D, us on and 0, ws off ic R below. for pos hve unpat, Precision fur. wave Recnrice Both the op-amps A, and A, ack as o unvaler os Bhown un equivalent Craik Ik canbe Seen at Yo= Vi Eouwvatent Circuit Foe vido, D, 1s ON AnD Ds. IS OFFS OP- ANP Ay 4%! Oreenme AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER For nogative dnp, i.e us A, and A, ack as @ unverlte as Rhown vin equivalent Gacist. Tt canbe sean Unt V= Vi & R oie P | Ve Ve Eowwacent Circurt Fee Vida, D,!8 ON AND Ds IS oF) OP-ANP Ay GA) peente AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER Fev negative. dnpuk, 1.2 u,, t . V. . Von f° % | 4 Re VW S0k tote. Wek Vat = Posimve Chipper Ciecund Creer Ana Output WAvEFORH Fore Posrnve Vers | | Geer Anp ourPer Navetornt foe NeGanve Veer The clipping lovel us detismined by Ute valence. Voltage Vrok and Gold be. ebfained from the positive Supply vol kage V1, The. uinpid and output waveforms ore Ahown. clbore. TE Gn. be Aeon thd the portion of the cpa vottage For VodVrel ant chip ped off —__—4 Fer unpul voltage Vj SVyeg , decda D tonduch The op-amp works ax a Vol tage follower and cubpul Ve follows unpuk Ul Ui < Ver when vy, # qroalia than Vrer the output Vea of the op amp uh foge encugh of dnve D «nto cotot{. Th op- cmp cpuialn dn the open-loop and culpa Volloge Vo * Vreg Herwaver. , if Vref Us rode hagative, thats the entire outpak wena bore obone, Vref Ul be Clipped off Ths. positive Cuppa Can he early tonvantid into 0 nega tive Cigpes by Fimply warring dicde D crcl Changeng (he potauty oF the veforence Uo Hage Vrep - The nagative clipper clips HF the negatre cf the unput Zgnad below the ouforente vol tage Mw posts NEmATiVE CLIPPER CIRCT Test Ave OvrpuT CLAHPER Ce Civedsk ds usd to add a dutived de Gp the. cthowads, He output us amped te @ desired de touel. rh the dlamped deeded aus pasitwe, us alld positive clamper. Si mallody af the dame d dc leyd ae nagative. , the lampor “ius rotled negative Clamper .Wlawehorenns & — Veet A clamp with a variable petihve de vetinge applied af the (4) input Guminal. This Grcuik Uamps the pants o& the input waseerm and theufve us abw called o peak clampo The outa vetkege vin the circuit ue Ube net uult & ac and de “put Veltaqes applied te the (-) and 4) anput tec mints wrespec rely Let ws fint see the effect of Ver applid af the 4) unpul turninal. Fer positive Vet » the voltage vius abo pusihve, Se thet the dicde D us frrwad biand the crew optiala O41 a Voliage. fellewer and thou fere curput voltnge \e + tloet - New Gmsides the 2¢ dnpub Signal Vi + lin Sinurt cpp lie cl “Ob Ue (7 sinpul Lnunal During the negate hall Cycle of Wi, cliede 1p tenduct The Capaciter C, changes through clicde Dto the regahio, peak voltage Un However, durng the posites half Cele OF yy, oleate ) ds wwiope biand. The Capacitor wrsteun ab Prowour veo, Uy Sines thus Voltage Vn, as Gn Seness with the Ge Unpuf Signal, the ouput vollage new will be Vit Vm The fokal outpak Vattegs wx(4 thenelove, Vyor *¥it Vm: DE posible to obldan negative peak | owvowierg (he cliode D canct using 0 hegabre Selous the nenihn R ah wed for prolicling the op-cemp cawvals fom Capaci her G Clamping by yetlage —Vnet excewrva clischouge against Wuhan the ee Sepp vollages ows Switched eSpecially of Implitier pei trons tr - Basic hog uA Ss oltatnac| The Vast. log omph} ier Can je ow, a Adtocle in the magahie feeelback, a Wantns Dring Rathtioy oa hae Ey ont he a Wvawalianeondnnt Ya=o T- Vin- Ye ds Vin g a op iciep Uapaay Suna open. 2 adhe tollesbe Curren Tho \rolteese, Veped cy the Collectoy ts ext Virtue! Qrovnd and bue & grvonded Tene We Can Writeal) Applying fo the Output bide we Qed, [ts <> emer Fatveation Yeaver a ale CLusant no 7A | Ver = —Vo 2) Ree Ving, _@ @) KG) svbshty Ning fn thee ptiechon oO Vin Eyes Rie ane Yhe oudpud » propestonal the leqouithon of the as Yo Ware Vin Shedvertayes of Bric ent Smiter Sabvration Cunt Vautes siqnizicansly Shor ome transitur fb otter alto With tha henge ate fae ere {Se oly Oaltg sel aaa Vey for Cuteuutt Tha berm Vz Which w ET alto chang, Cas Rolyzmanns S&nstant- : Tz absolute fe mpetatore Cink) Wl ith hemp erate . wld, appears wy both the Chua o7y Cy kA).Thun Temparative OPPecps the Po! Lorman on of )o, 0 mewracy 04 Ha bes ic loqaatttrntc ampli tua: cue Hence tk YW Must bo prvicle Soran Sort o> te mpartntor Compensation to ockuus He erers Tamperatvre Compenscateal log omplifuc An Hu fochni gis av low ompli dacs uae Ons Ve \oq amphi a is Qivon a a ma} uranie Voge Vey wl hole nother is Given an inp Volt aye vi « the two Pantvims vse in He & leq amplita tiiaucks wo integrated Clise Tojo tat Irn the Lome diliwn we ter. The ertures 0 Close match of tha fefuranoy Currents KR prvvicler Uroel Ho venc| trac bing, The Wantinre Ay k&, Cu Joba ceuted on Same a wa 9P-8™P Ay ond A, twork Cy the basic trannu ir leq arctic ompli}ac t tr XG, we Cen Whrote Tsy= Traely Waa Yor the Pies ey Noy R¥er le tern wlviteih ae Yhe op-omp Az acts ar a lijjorenc ompli bur with the Umty jour hy 1ER Vx = Noy ea + Vor ee Vez Yoo —Voy Yee ve ae 2 [ov Ge) | 2M [» ae ~wycns) “bh (Un) + Gs) eel = ies; Absorbing Mganve Sign Vor Vy la{ Min Vat The Vrox ¥ ericledl by Aa se lame external battery and WW RokThe Temperate clapenctens Component Ts gets Cont Ileal sud r SHY tae term Viv present in Vy Whiuh olrpenls | | on the temperatore Thk Compen Sated by tie. {oat Steye 2 he op-amp Ay Jp acts cs & Mon WVerting ampli litte quin 2 re) R Pip Hormuty hawing potthive femperatore Co- ep piosine Voi Vy oe = Yor Ge CReter) e) Vre Rr us Temp crsuyye Chana e, Vo Chonyes but ct the Aame te Py also Change , So thet te voto V~ C Rak) AL wemeins Conetant 1 Astoming tht term & f= pete R = Thy peperty meu bhid Cone} Furs nae and the mrvtanw = Yabuury prvicle a perfect femperotere Comp engation the Uda : j ae peperonal to the loaarithm of Hae Nin hug pc\atnenpresectare: aSeper =e The mein clis aduentaye of tha thd tueud uw Meat Ub reqs fpr oP amps.at agama ae NS aT ale tigi Ge Pao r eee ECL) Oo Kase Antile 4 Aeopli fare sing Tron:Grer N = gp is of Virol tyrourre| The nocle Cello ctoy ond base o} Hae late Yeeoe ur bots troncsute oo Yavond Poteital eeacs Veet tos Voltaye meme the francutor & Yor and we can Wait He APRs sion be ite twlilerts Cuusne 4 ver /,Were Ss ~, A Curent Te ane Cunt T au cam, a4 DP-omp inp Cunt Ie Zero ts lo ees —Vo Ry Ey Vel etiele Vink % inf, Vp see Vp Assunin g ToRy (ory Vref Yo = —Vre C Vink ——— Vo = —Vrey a Ay, S209) Thus fe outpad Voltee a pe echonal aie enponennel of Vin we amttloy oy MY, . Vrs cient Works as basic antloy omph dur gn aleparcls on Temperotvre tena the tempercutore Changer) hte Petrernatess also charge arc| Cote Seulous OLLory at the output Lo that fe fempersctore Compensation mut dor te antiley comp Huck cuett op» Well q. ., | . + Tempe eutore Compensation ankle ampli of The Clout 0} frantitor borecl antiley am pli with Fempenitre Compensation uy! Shown in behowVerpercchire ompentotes antlee damn fai = ek 4 Tha molched tans Atere Q, & Be ws veel, The okternal Volteye Vrey & Avrminal o} aaa An eG Tesvianw Ry, The Wo lt use au soler The ther matoy Rk wb geo Very Volkene °} bose o} Ow Veany Volteye of emitter of =% Dow vahon! ~ Compt Velhage Vo) Yor both tha Op—amp as node A ui qrovndod, pode & Y VU Yirtvat trvunel whore Vp Jor both tm op-ompt we 2eL0 Rose emiiter Velteyer of | KA, % Veg = Wy ln C4. Vere “r lhe © Teh, Connottecl to inverting remiow ta input Voltage Vin . in YoHene deviderRy Ry Ry YRS ea ene Te R\ Volt uye Vt Vir = =Veew = —Vy oes Vaa¥ the Vo lto-y0 output Pm ft otential cltvicler Whoh & Veo = Vin Rar Ry Now ot fworsuby Qs, We Can Write = Vetere Vin = ver obs (Oe ane ie ve ae = Vy aes ) a) Ro +Pr Tsk Te is eS a0 ore iA In{te a] ii — ov, lye See\ ’ (\ z Vis V ( Vive. / Vy C Rad ty) \v Vay \ knee | Viey Ry Vy Chat hr) Thin Vho Outn ; Teel Ge PP Oto re ¥ C \w \) df \bo Cal oa ieee Sails Pte ; Uo Conctant ‘bhousk oe ferry MA (ta VRE) WHE fen ata to mg ees i Chowger cy Rr lao ¢ hoing 09 prmpectiond| Yo c¥laa Choon ( , ; ‘ \ovy qu Wy Vy, Thus 4 Com plete fo mpotetoy ping eryedtion UW (ro ltuse dl Vali it thud Com etFitrers : : ‘ | A Filter fe a thal wu designed to pars a Rpecifica hand of fro quencies whit attenuating alt the Rignalt Mii Ob a t band fk us a frequency elective circuit | | The filter aro basically classified ax ache Fillea and | Peesive fils . The pawive filler nehverk, wr only passive elemnk gevitos, inductors and Gpacitors. The ache Fill such ow bers alongwith Circuit ue the active elomenk Such O18 cp-amps, ban! the gosutors, inductors and Capacitors. Moclasn attive filix de as the dinductrs ove bulky, heavy and non-linzas not wx inductors magne he Field The anductors gercati tre. stray The most Commonly used file ane 1. Low Pars (hp) fille 2. High pars che) Filler 3. Band paws (ae) Fillex A. RandRoject (ae) fila This & abo Called Band Step cy Band Elimination 5 Al pass Filtn Firet ovdor. tow pars Bubliuworth Fill ReThe dirt order. Low paws bullecronrth fillir is eualied by pc Cire ped alenguth the op-amp, used iin the nentnvertin thi, us alto Called one pol. Low paws Bulluwerts Con higeraben Re and R, decides the getin ot the Bills The vretis ances fillte itn the por band Analysivr ot the fille Cire « The simpedance of the Capacity 6 us —jXe thea Kus | wuackance quren Keel 4 ame fy the poteohial divide: rule, the voltage cat the neninyprting dnput tuminal A which the veléage. acres Capaciby C us | the Capacitive enicre aba giver by Va = aa in. =U) R-jXe ris H Ma = EM ler Vides -J We Reise)’ autre -j : «Ming Var 36 Mn = rl ge nee RY Ke ned ; ee sje bu -j-Yy and - 1s j i Vy + Vin , Ca) [+ janfRe fs the op-arp us un the nen-inverting Configuration \ > ("Em — &)\ fy Ry ¥ Vin (RY (ujantrc) fe. Vo Ar ta) Vin iG 4j(%,) there R saan ( 4 4). Groin of Fills tp pas band) (5) ie oa + High Cut off frequoncy of Gli. — and and f= operating Froopuanty the bransfen function of the Al. ond Can be he Ve ds Vain : exproved Gin to polar form as NB Ne, Th leo V. Ar SS (4) sige ele eae ail “(%,) sen ec (t =e) $ geal (£) The phase angle ¢ us un degrees - The equation C1) describes the behoiow of the Cow past fills, 1. Dt very Low frequents, ral 2 A, ie Constant Fehy a. Athed, BE = ofA Ap 12 ade clown to the Me Pavel oP As. |? lVBAL FF (2 < Ar Vin Thus, fer the mange of froqueneus, 0 = BRsGCs Ppa Ge RIV Re gas This ws the swquived cut off Fraquency. Replacing S by jure the banfer function Can be wrilleo dn the Praquancy domean Ond hence, Gnally , can be expromed an the pdax fom as Vo . | Vo Vin lelaAr ees and Ap > Gain of fille: an pass band § = Input Frequency an He > fy 2 High Cut off Frequency dun He The- Frequency Despore Us Ahown below Voltage rl Ar OM0t ant oa 27 | ON Slupe — hodb[decade (ade dun) i ) Pad |e ‘stop ba—> © a ie > Frroputn ey At the cut off Frequency , fu, the gain ut 0.70% Ap ieade alown from lhe OHs. tevel Alar, Fy (4 >fn), Ue gato rolls of ay a wolect hode/decade Hence Che Blepe of the response oft Sy Hhode/olecade - fiest_Oeper than Pass Burmencen Fee High pars Filles dy a Grout that attennals oll the Agnale frequanty danolid asf, Thus, a high baaweo specified cut off b. flunction to that oF low pars filtix pews filbx peslorms the opposi Honce, the. high paxs filter ciycuit Can be chtaiined Oy Un ba chargeng Frecpuarcs dcturmining cremutante: and Copacitars in Low paws Filter Crewt. The fist order high pan Fille, Con he obtained by cotechanging the gloment R and ¢ dn a inst orden Low pas filte. Grout tae tVee — = CF Tae Tt can be echsorred tht as Lompand to dist ord low paws Filta , the positions of Rand C an changed in the high paws circuit Tha Frequency at which the gain us 0-407 Himes the gain of fille cn paw bard tu Called Low Cut off Frequency and dended as f,. So, all tho Froquen Cos greales than fL, ove allowed to pars bat the masdmure frequency which us allowed b pus us clelamind by the Closed Lovp bandwidth of thar Analy of the Fills Gorcunt The rimedance o the Cpactor us —|Xe ~ —J (stm) oho f vis the dnpuk 12 opucting Frogponty But the voltage divider nde, the potential of the non- Investig tuminal of the op-omp 4 ONS & me Va = Vio al w Vy 2 Wick ( me ka cx, outside ake f+) era J v 1 ch ej, we con unle \ i J . oe ee ee Jonfc ae -}Xe Xe Ga cS)Subshtuheg an the above c, Sxpromion ha, =k J MVa ? Vin (Sa) oa 4 JXe Z J2mF Re Ebi gs eae [- wise | This Can be oraprercntedl an, we vf 41 (%,) whee 4,2 = bw Cal-off frequency 0 Tr Re Now, for the ep-amp an non-inverting Configuuation, Vo = AV, whee \y > Voltage at the non-invedting “npuak and Ae > (4 By 2 Gain of op-amp « paws band - OPN la oe 1+i(F) Yo A J (%) de: aie i(%) eeThs ww the sequred oxproscon Per eer eecera the fille foy the Froquenty S1espomc, hich ua geen Py, we uqaire ;the magnitude af the transfe funchen WW je}, AU flay Tho equation () clesunibes the behcucur of the high pow All 1) Ab Low frequencies ie fet, [% | Lhe io At f= ' 2) fof, [te| = oF ke te ate dian Ro the ll A H ACESf,, 2 high Frequencies, | Con he neglected as Compouad be () from Qonemunatoy ie aA, be Conant Thus the Creu ads a4 high pox AilG. with a. passband gan aa hy. For the froquonciu, FEE, the gain uncreisn HU tt, at a rate of +20 dafadecad, Hence fia Blope OF the frequency nespensc. in AtEP band 4 t20de/ decade fn first vole high pas Fille - vee Ae onySecond ORDCe Hlaw Pass BurTERWoRTH FILTER The Second orda high pos bubleworth Fille produces a gain roll off at the male of {hode/decade un the stop band This fill alo Gp be seabised by unlechanging the posi Hore of vesutors and tWpaciturs un a Secend orden Low pax pullworth fille ‘The analy olexign and the sealing poocedurts tos the tilt os mac tly Came ab thot of cecend vrda low por Buttworlh Fille Tha sesulting exprowien os given hae for tha Convemience ef the vsader Tha Voltage gor magnitude aquedion Pry the Second ordex high pans Filler ua, +}: sas Vin} + y"(3) whore § = Lnpuk Froquence un He f= bower Cal -of fF Fraquuoncy in He = aren sleet = ( for Bz Ry=@ and C= G Ap = Parsband fox IT Re1886 to ensure Second ord butteworth Desporre a Ry > oSs6R, The Frequency vwspomse of the Fit Voliagt o Slope + yod6 decode Ae ces saat 0.907 Ar Ci (de down) / oat ep, a Pass band —> 6 Froqutoey Trureopucnion To BawoPhss Fitter A bandpnx filler us bowicelly o Froquancy seleckn Te allows one pastiudar band of Frequencies be pars Thus, the paw band vs between the two uk Off Proquentis f, and f, whee fy df, - Any Frequency qubzicle this fand gels attenuabd The ‘pours band which Ww between fy and f, ws Cdk bound ith of the fillac denalad os BH Tha Frequency al the cenro OF the paw band us called Centre froquenty decd ot fo. The gain ds maximum at and us denotd by Arr Called total paucbard gaun .. ‘ | Frachcaly , the fue not exactly at the Genhe of the paw band | hence, ut us abso called as rerenant freq ? qi Frequency The gun at | f, and {, dy 0 FOF Ary Thow one two types of bardpaws. | fills which one clawified bored on the igus ef meut a auc by factor (@) 1 For © <10, Uke bandpous Filer vis called nde bondpous Fille Tn dhs type: the pardpam ut wide and we get louge banduidls 2 for B S10, the band paw Filla os Calkd narrow band paws Hiltu The bandpaw we veg navuw and the banduidts Ls ery Smelt Higher he (value (OF Oh novia eae Bre pawshand ant mone Selective. ds the fila. tm the narrow band filGx, the Jain peales ot the Contre Fre queen ty tho gee soll off fir $2H IS tpodeldecacde while f rf, wt us ~xode [decade Naeeon Band fass FirTee Wine Bann Fass Firce® For wide pomdper filt, the conten frequenty us given by fe = VF The elationhip between @ and 2de bandwidth with fe A quer by ic eonWipe @anp Pass Fiver The wucle band pas filter can be vwatued by Simply Carcocing, a high paws Fille and low pow fil If both high. pews ard low paws Filau one of first order, the Gun well off un both the top bands cre + 2odejeecade and wide band pow Filta va et fink order. To apt gain wll Off Anode/decads and gotord ofder wide band poss fills, both hagh prus andl Low pous Pillar must be of Secsond corde: ane 80 on The fit ordae wide band paw Fill obtained by carcading Bint ovder high pow ond lnu pom Heol 1 ty Wy — el . | on [> a Mee Re 1 < First ordew high pet Filles te — Rist ord Low paw fillers GD Fa) for wide barel pars ewrpemc, fy must be grealu than fy . The. Voltage gain 2uprovtians for the two Beckons Ove reproduced heae for the Conyenierte Rel ep ten te) "ee Ve High pos Min 3 wl) As the fwo circuits ane un fee the overall gain of wide band paw fill ca the product of tHe fino gens exprenced o%, a Vie 2 2 [@]]"] whe Apr> Total paw band gain Foe Anput Frequency wn He Fie bower Cub off Frequenty an Be Sy > Higher Cub off Fraquancy dn Ha and Apy = Ai Aa whow Ai = hain JF High pax Secton A, > Geinat law pax SectonNaxnow Band ax Fille Te pannew band paw Filla wes only one op-amp as exgauns dwe by tide. band pars Filds Dt has Follauing Foakures 1 Lt has tee fordback paths 2 the op amp sn the. invari, Confracuation Duc to the two feodback pathe , uk us Cbled multyle Feadbecte Ca - “| b> ___|——0 Vp if Rs roy Flu ey The cinpuk ws applied to the NE) din put lexminal ‘Thus ep- amp os un din verling Configuration . The ora tane Rs onnecteol to non- _ka_ = gain at fo QR, The gow Ap must satisfy the 2epuction, Ap <2 Changing the cenhe frequency Fe « pat fe = Giginal fraquanty fl = New Contre Frequency ‘tha. new Contre. Frequency tan be ackxoved by changing the swrutan Ce Ry. The new value of srervistance Say @, lan be | ehtained a, 2 n> (Kt) This wie an dmpartant adwantage. of the nutlkip Circuit, thal f, lan be chan Le feodback ged without Changing gain Ar