Chapter I III Water Hyacinth

Republic of the Philippines
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES TAGUIG

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Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http:www.tup-
taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457
excellence in engineering and technology education at par with the leading universities in the ASEAN
region.
Design and Fabrication of Pedal-

Powered Aquatic Cleaning Machine
for the Collection of Water Hyacinth
Proposed by:
Buenaventura, Keanu.
Cabas , Rodel
Domingo, John Kyle.
Guiomla, Datu Ben I.
Mariano, John Micahel D.
Niosco, Mark Angelo T.
Vargas, Christian T.
BSME SEP 3B
http:www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be a premier state university with recognized
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ITS BACKGROUND

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Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Invasive plant species pose a severe threat to nature conservation in a variety of
environments, including the extinction of native species as well as environmental
deterioration. Specifically, the existence of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) should
be taken into consideration. Eichhornia crassipes belongs to the worldwide most
troublesome aquatic weeds [1]. It is an erect floating herb that reproduces by seed [2] It
originates from Amazonia, Brazil [3] and probably Argentina [4], with anthropogenic
spread to other areas such as Venezuela, parts of central South America, and the larger
Caribbean islands [5] [6]. It is now present on all continents except Antarctica and has
invaded all tropical and sub-tropical countries as well as some parts of the
Mediterranean basin [7] [8]. It is considered one of the world’s most invasive aquatic
plants and considerable effort is expended worldwide to manage [2].
The Philippines is a nation abundant in biomass resources, which water hyacinth
scientifically known as Eichhornia crassipes, thrives abundantly [9]. This invasive
aquatic plant has found a hospitable environment in the country's warm and tropical
climate, And the invasion of this entity into natural bodies of water has hampered the
natural water-flow, where it propagates rapidly in still or slow-moving waters, on lakes
like Lake Mainit and Lake of Laguna [10] [11]. Lately, there has been a growing focus on
harnessing the potential of water hyacinth due to the successful outcomes achieved in
controlling its growth through chemical, biological, and mechanical methods [12].
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Laguna de Bay have been as a fishing area and a corridor for transportation.
Additionally, it provides irrigation water to surrounding industrial sites [13]. Over the
years, the lake has encountered many problems. One of the major problems is
eutrophication. Mass fish kills were caused by the eutrophication issue, which frequently
happen from May through September. Low dissolved oxygen levels and pollution were
the primary causes of the death [14]. Other issues include the invasion of thick water
hyacinth blankets and other weeds taking over substantial portions of the lake [15].
With this, the proponents came up with the idea of the utilization of a pedal-
powered aquatic cleaning machine represents a notable advancement in tackling the
water hyacinth infestation in Laguna Lake, Philippines. This cutting-edge device's main
objective is to effectively gather and eliminate the invasive water hyacinth from the
lake's surface. Through harnessing human pedal power, the machine operates in an
eco-friendly way, producing no carbon emissions, and making a positive contribution to
overall conservation endeavors. The device's design enables it to maneuver through
dense vegetation, efficiently gathering water hyacinths and storing them for future
disposal or potential utilization in biomass applications. With this innovative solution, the
pedal-powered aquatic cleaning machine offers a sustainable and cost-effective
approach to preserve the ecological balance of Laguna Lake. Moreover, it aids in
fostering cleaner waterways and mitigating the adverse effects of water hyacinth
overgrowth on local communities and aquatic ecosystems.

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1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Water hyacinth, also known as Eichhornia crassipes, is a perennial aquatic plant

that floats freely. It has become a serious problem in many countries to reduce the
amount of oxygen in the water, impede water flow, regularly kill fish, restrict boating, etc.
Water hyacinth is currently believed to be a serious threat to biodiversity because, if
unchecked, it will cover lakes and ponds. Journal of Advanced Research International
(2015)
The introduction of water hyacinths into rivers and the discharge of household
waste both lower water quality and ultimately contribute more significantly to water
pollution. According to Briones (2018), despite numerous options being implemented in
various locations, the problem of garbage disposal continues to be a problem. Many
nations have spent a lot of money trying to contain the issue, such as planting trees and
protecting polluted rivers. On the other hand, one of the community's initiatives to
remove the collected trash and aquatic contaminants from the water reservoirs is the
creation of autonomous vehicles. Several nations developed semi- and fully-automated
boats installed with the new system and followed the advancement of technology to
make the task of wastewater and aquatic pollutant collection easier.(Briones et al.,
2018)
In 2016, Jogi et al. improved the kayak's shell and used a pedal for people to
create a garbage collector vehicle. The little water route quickly gathers waste and
debris with the use of this vehicle (Jogi et al., 2016). The time for collecting the
procedure will be limited to working hours and will rely on the use of manpower. The
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development of automated vehicles is important for lowering the amount of garbage,

especially the water pollutants such as water hyacinth, and the amount of labor required
to handle the cleaning process. To clear waste particles from the water bodies, Prakash
et al. in 2017 were preferably developing a new water trash collector (WTC) prototype.
This device, which was stationary in one location, moved a garbage conveyor using an
automatic system. (Prakash et al., 2017).
The Water Trash Collector, or WTC as it is more often known, is made up of

three essential components: the hull, the power system, and the NGC (Navigation
Guidance and Control) system. These components help the collector clean the water's
surface and collect aquatic pollutants that reduce the amount of oxygen in the water
and impede water flow. Multiple USV compartments on board are frequently
implemented using the WTC idea (Shamsuddin et al., 2020).
Wagh and Munde created WTC prototypes in 2007 that were fitted with an Arduino
controller and a Bluetooth model for remote system monitoring (Wagh & Munde, 2018).
In addition to using a water level sensor, the Arduino controller will take instructions for
water level data and deliver fresh commands to the conveyor motor. Additionally, Akib et
al. created a brand-new method that makes use of a smartphone to direct the
movement of the WTC (Akib et al., 2019). Additionally, Hossain et al. presented an
ultrasonic sensor, a Raspberry PI controller, and a camera that were used in a deep
neural network system to analyze things in the water. Construction materials for
remotely operated automated vehicles must be resistant to corrosion in marine
environments. (Hossain et al., 2019).
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1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the study is to design and fabricate a pedal powered
aquatic cleaning machine for water hyacinth collection.
1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Specifically, the objectives of this study are as follows:
● To assess the location where the PPACM will perform its application.
● To design an aquatic collecting machine with manually propelling and automatic

collecting mechanism.
● To gather machine components with the lowest possible cost
● To evaluate the performance of the pedal powered aquatic cleaning machine

through testing
● To provide machine maintenance protocols
1.4 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
1.4.1 SCOPE
● This research will identify the characteristics of the body of water where the
PPACM will act.
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● This study will deal with the theoretical concepts that involve the application of
buoyancy, engineering design, and material science together with
● The simulation will be conducted using Revit software that will determine the
potentiality of the PPACM to undergo operation.
● This study will outline how several bicycle components, including the sprocket
and chain, roller, and bicycle frame, can function as machine parts for the
PPACM.
1.4.2 DELIMITATIONS
● Locations may vary depending on the assessments based on the solar
irradiance.
● There is a possibility of odor emissions during the drying of the treated sewage
sludge.
● The produced dried sludge with low DS calorific value cannot be used for power
generation hence, it can be used as plant fertilizer or as additive for construction
materials (e.g., cement, bricks, and blocks).
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1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study is designed to help and bring significance to the following:

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● Community – The proposed study will be significant in cleaning up several areas
of Laguna de Bay, particularly Bambang by removing the water pollutants (water
hyacinth) around the area. The output provided could be useful for those who will
conduct community service.
● Environment – By improving sewage treatment management, the cleanliness of
the environment will improve because wastewater treatment significantly reduces
the amount of waste released into the environment. As a result, the risk to human
health from environmental contamination decreases.
● Future Researchers – Energy production, power generation, and agriculture
researchers may use this study as their reference. This study will serve as a
foundation for expanding the research with the relationship of the factors and
variables employed. This study would help future researchers use this as a basis
for a particular innovation.

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CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
2.1 PURPOSE
The water hyacinth interceptor will be covered in detail in this chapter along with
pertinent studies and academic writings. On this part, information relevant to materials,
techniques, and procedures will also be introduced.
Finding analyses, diagrams, and attachments from pertinent studies will be the
focus of the review of related literature.
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2.2 RELATED FOREIGN LITERATURES AND STUDIES
WATER HYACINTH
Water Hyacinth and Its Properties
Sewage sludge comes from wastewater systems hence, it is mostly made up of
water with as much as 98% of it being liquid. When dried up, it can generate up to 25%
of the weight percentage of dry matter. Other components such as non-toxic organic
compounds accumulate 48% of the said amount of dry matter, wherein about 60% of
energy content can be produced with a heating value of 11.10–22.10 MJ/kg . Different DM
biological, toxic and non-toxic, organic, and inorganic compounds, and pollutants also
build up the sludge composition [31].

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Sewage sludge has been identified into three different types: Industrial Sludge 1,
Industrial Sludge 2, and Urban Sludge. Sources of each sludge type are from WWTPs
of the dairy industry, the soft drink industry, and urban effluents, respectively [32].
These types of sludge are composed of different organic and inorganic matter,
chemical elements, and heavy metals. Using XRF (X-ray fluorescence) analysis, they
found chemicals such as Al, P, Fe, Si, Ca, K, Cl, C, S. In all three types of sludge,
carbon is the most abundant element. In comparison to other inorganic elements,
calcium and silicon have higher concentrations. Due to the addition of the flocculation-
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coagulation process during the effluent treatment, coagulants like iron and aluminum
contribute to the formation of sludge agglomerates, which is why metallic components
are most frequently detected in industrial sludge.

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Table 1. Result of XRF Analysis [32].
Additionally, the analysis of some of these heavy metals was also determined.
These metallic elements in sludge have been identified as critical characteristics in
determining how this type of waste will be treated. Using heavy metal analysis as a
parameter in treating sludge, findings showed that there is a higher level of copper and
zinc in the dairy industry than in two other sludge sources, but iron and chromium are
highly present in industrial sludge [32].
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Table 2. Results of analysis of heavy metals in sludge samples [32].
Sewage sludge has different components and levels which vary in different
WWTPs. It can contain organic and inorganic matters, bacteria, nutrients, and heavy
metals from human-related activities. The comparison of the stabilized composition of

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WWTP in Zagreb and the average composition of stabilized sludge of WWTPs in
Germany was shown in Table 3 below. Having a heating value of 10 MJ/kg makes the DM
sludge an ideal fuel for energy generation. Energy recovery in incineration plants needs
an extra drying process if around 30% of the dry matter is found in sewage sludge [33].
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Table 3. Composition of sewage sludge in WWTPs in Zagreb and Germany [33].
Higher Heating Value of Sludge
Using calorimeter analysis, which calculates the amount of heat released in

combustion processes of one kg or liter of fuel. The higher heating value of sludge in
table 4 was shown below. Industrial sludge 1 (Dairy Industry) gives a HHV of 5500
Kcal/kg and Urban sludge gets a HHV of 3158 Kcal/kg [32].
Industrial Sludge 1 Industrial Sludge 2 Urban Sludge
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(Dairy Industry) (Soft Drink Industry) (Urban Effluent)

HHV (Kcal/Kg) 5500 3897 3158
Table 4. Higher Heating Values of Sludge (Dried Basis) [32].
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Furthermore, as compared to wood biomass, sewage sludge produces the same
amount of heating value in terms of energy content, but sludge with higher inorganic
substances. Sewage sludge is being classified into three, and heating values of each
dry matter content are determined accordingly [33].
Table 5. Heating Value of Dry Matter Substance in Sludge [33].
The humidity and the organic content that is dependent on the combustible
fraction are two factors that have an impact on the calorific value, which indicates the
amount of energy. It is required to assess the impact that the moisture content might
have on this parameter. Therefore, it is essential to study the changes of HHV according
to humidity. The moisture content of sludge has a great effect on the HHV, which causes
energy loss or lower CV [32].
Figure 1. Moisture Content to HHV Relationship [32].

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Sludge Treatment
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Sludge has become an effective alternative for energy applications. But before it
becomes useful, there have been different ways or processes that it has gone through.
Such sludge treatment methods can be done before or after the drying process, for
which this study will be helpful for the succeeding sludge treatment procedures for
valorization, specifically energy production.
In a case study from Croatia, the management of sewage sludge is discussed.
The European Union (EU) countries' most preferred method of what to do with such
waste is for agriculture reuse at about 40%, followed by the process of incineration,
landfilling and other methods [33].
Figure 2. Processes of Wastewater and Sewage Sludge Treatment [33].

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To easily store and transport throughout the treatment processes, the sludge's
physical properties (minimal amount of dry matter to liquid) need to be thickened and
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dehydrated. A good example of this is the process of mechanical dewatering that
obtains a 25% weight percentage of solids in sludge, with a succession process of
thermal drying that reduces its moisture content. These processes make the
concentration of dry matter in the sludge be greater than its liquid state. Furthermore,
pre-treatment of this raw wastewater eliminates particles from finest to bulky, such as
sand and stones [31] [34].
As seen in the figure, drying was included as one of the treatment processes
done before the energy recovery from sludge. This correlates with the main objective of
the study and fulfils its function of sludge drying for any kind of valorization, such as
energy generation.
Waste Sludge Energy Recovery
The recovery of energy from waste management is important, as it has good
effects on global waste reduction, as well as obtaining alternative sources of energy
from it. The existence of sustainable sewage sludge management, with the help of
WWTPs, plays a vital role for the possibility of energy recovery from sludge material. As
shown in Figure 3 below, energy can be recovered in sewage sludge through the
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different methods of energy conversion like anaerobic digestion, combustion, pyrolysis,
and gasification.
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Figure 3. Sludge Energy Recovery Processes [34].
Anaerobic Digestion
Since sludge contains a lot of decayed substances, it is considered as a
biodegradable waste, thus anaerobic digestion is the most widely used process to
valorize it. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a biological process which, in the exclusion of
oxygen molecules, is responsible for converting biodegradable materials to biogas. The
success of sludge digestion has been largely attributed to the advantages it offers in
terms of energy production [23].

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Additionally, for this process to be performed well, sludge is exposed to heat at a
temperature of 30°C-40°C (mesophilic) to 50°C-60°C (thermophilic). The temperature
to be applied depends on how the biological substances in sludge, such as bacteria, are
controlled. In anaerobic digestion, biogas is the major product obtained from sludge,
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with a typical CV of 25.8 MJ/m . This amount of CV is enough to generate heat and
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electricity [21] [23].
Pyrolysis
Regardless of whether the organic materials present are capable of biodegradation or
not, at any dominant sludge phase, they can be processed for pyrolysis. The extraction
of energy is performed through endothermic thermo-chemical reactions that use the
biomass waste for bioenergy production. Two pyrolysis processes have been
developed: slow and fast pyrolysis. These processes are based on the operating
temperature and the product they produce for energy conversion. For slow pyrolysis, it
operates with a slow heating rate that produces only biochar or activated carbon. On the
other hand, in fast pyrolysis, the operating temperature is around 400C (moderate
temperature) to 1000C (high temperature), which produces useful bioenergies from
sewage sludge, such as bio-oil or py-gas, in which the energy content of these products
ranges from 30-37 MJ/kg [23]. By means of pyrolysis, these byproducts of sludge are
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responsible for processing and producing gaseous bioenergy and energy fuels (in the
form of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel) that can be used for electricity generation and
thermal combustion [34].
Combustion
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Similar to the combustion of fuel, sludge can also burn when heat is applied to it
that involves obtaining heat from the hot fuel oxidation process. Sludge as a residual
material can be combusted using two technologies; conventional combustion, which
obtains heat; and incineration, which reduces the amount of waste. In co-combustion
technology, heat is used that is generated through thermal engines while the primary
goal of incineration is to reduce harmful substances in sludge before final disposal or to
valorize it into ash for use in the construction industry [34].
Sewage sludge incineration generates lower emissions of greenhouse gases
than using fossil fuels. Furthermore, with the same level of energy, sewage sludge emits
58% lower than natural gas and 80% less than fuel oil and hard coal [33].
In addition, combustion process, the required temperature is around 850-1200C
which produces gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide. However, a toxic substance
(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) will occur as a result of burning or combustion [21].

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Gasification
A mixture of combustible and non-combustible high value gases, including H2,
CO, CO2, CH4, H2O, and other hydrocarbons, is produced by the gasification process,
which is thermal breakdown in the presence of limited oxygen. The needed temperature
for air or atmospheric gasification is roughly 550-900C. Syngas is the main product of
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gasification with a CV ranging from 4 to 12 MJ/Nm. Gases, ash, and vitreous slag are
the byproducts of gasification [21] [31].
The output gas may be utilized directly to generate heat or power using a heat
engine, or it may undergo additional processing to produce chemicals or liquid fuel [31].
There is evidence that pyrolysis and gasification are efficient, economical, and
environmentally responsible techniques to handle sewage sludge. In addition, used
vegetable oil and sewage sludge can be used to make syngas, which can be used to
power CHP systems in an efficient and profitable way [33].
SLUDGE DRYING
The first use of solar energy for drying was dated to about 8000 BC in South
France, and it was first used for drying crops. The process where the product is heated
directly by the sun’s rays and removes its moisture is called “Solar drying” [35] .
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The increasing amount of sewage sludge requires larger storage, and the way to
minimize the space it consumes is by conducting a “Sludge Drying Process”. This
method enables the incineration or co-incineration of sludge and reduces the mass and
volume of the product, making storage, transport, packaging, and retailing easier [36].
However, this process does not fully utilize the energy that can be extracted from this
waste; there are four methods of drying sludge that can valorize sludge, and these are
(1) Biodrying, (2) Biostabilization, (3) Solar Drying, and (4) Thermal Drying. [24].
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Biodrying
In order to dry the waste, biodrying uses both natural and forced aeration as well
as the heat produced by some organic materials’ natural aerobic bioconversion. The
main idea behind the biodrying process is that organic waste decomposition uses
internal energy.
Biostabilization
By accelerating the biological breakdown of organic matter, biostabilization can
reduce the weight and volume of MSW as well as environmental pollutants like leachate
and landfill gas.

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Solar Drying
For thousands of years, food crops have been dried for storage using the sun's
heat and the wind.
Thermal Drying
When an additional energy source from outside the system allows the waste to
be heated, the dewatering method is referred to as “thermal drying”. During thermal
drying, a large amount of thermal energy must be sent to the wet solids in order to heat
the solids and any remaining water.
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SOLAR DRYER
As the environmental concerns and depletion of fossil fuel sources arise, solar
dryers show potential in utilizing renewable energy sources (solar energy) directly or
indirectly and drying several agricultural and non-agricultural products that can be used
in various applications [25]. Solar dryers can be classified according to their size, the
design of the system, and the mode of solar energy utilization. The figure below shows
the classification of solar drying systems. It is either open sun drying (OSD) or the solar
dryer in an indirect (ISD), direct (DSD) or hybrid (HSD) solar energy utilization with air
convection (natural or forced) and heat transfer mode (active or passive) [37].
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Figure 4. Classifications of solar drying systems [37].
The researchers have gathered 15 published foreign studies to further
understand and improve the design of the machine that will be fabricated. It is important
to determine the best components to effectively reduce the drying duration, reducing
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water content up to a safe limit [25], and to achieve the desired temperature range of 38
°C to 67 °C for drying sewage sludge [38].
Reference Air Solar Energy Heat Transfer Modified Components for Drying
Drying Product
no. Convection Utilization Mode Drying Duration
[39] Forced Direct Active Thermal absorber sewage sludge 8-31 days
Solar Heater and auxiliary
[27] Natural Hybrid Passive urban MSW not stated
heating coil
Solar collector with desiccant
[40] Natural Indirect Passive cocoa beans 30-41 hrs.
thermal storage
[26] Forced Indirect Passive Solar collector municipal waste 1.08-3 hrs.
Natural & Solar air heater and heat 3.20-4.94
[28] Hybrid Active biomass
Forced exchanger hrs.
[38] Natural Direct & Indirect Passive Solar absorber sewage sludge not stated
[41] Natural & Direct & Indirect Active Solar absorber plate with camel meat 30-54 hrs.
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Forced sensible heat storage
Solar heat absorber and

[42] Natural Direct Passive yam 20 hrs.
concentrator
Solar collector with multiple
[43] Natural Indirect Passive fruits 18 hrs.
metallic concentrators
Solar collector with thermal
[30] Natural Indirect Passive agricultural products 3-4 days
storage
Natural & Solar air heater with thermal
[44] Indirect Active black pepper 14-24 hrs.
Forced storage
Natural & Solar air collector and convex municipal sewage
[45] Indirect Passive 3.25 hrs.
Forced solar absorber sludge
Solar air collector with municipal sewage 2.25-2.75
[46] Forced Indirect Passive
transparent drying chamber sludge hrs.
Natural &
[47] Indirect Active Evacuated tube collector agricultural products 21-72 hrs.
Forced
Solar collector with PCM marine Chlorella
[29] Natural Direct Passive 3-4 hrs.
thermal insulation vulgaris (microalgae)
Table 6. Modifications for drying performance of solar dryers
Solar Dryer according to Air Convection
Air also plays an important role in solar drying as it is being heated by the solar
energy passing through solar collectors (in indirect solar dryers) or the glass cover (in
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direct solar dryers) and its high temperature decreases the water content of the sewage
sludge. The components for air convection are commonly used for the air inlet and air
outlet, and the mode may be either natural ventilation, forced ventilation, or both.
The studies that used forced convection showed relevant faster drying time
compared to the studies with natural convection. This claim is supported by the
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comparative analysis conducted in 2022 [48]. The findings showed that FCISD, NCISD,
and OSD attained the final moisture content (MC) after 14hr, 18hr, and 24hr,
respectively. Thus, of the three methods, the ISD that is combined with forced
convection by attaching DC fans driven by Photovoltaic (PV) modules is the most
effective at reducing drying time.
Solar Dryer according to Solar Energy Utilization
Determining the most effective method for solar energy utilization is essential in
solar dryers as it is used in air heating, which will be used to increase the amount of
moisture removed from the sewage sludge. The use of solar energy can be direct
(DSD), in which the solar energy is absorbed and the thermal energy is sent directly to
the air and the drying product [39]; indirect (ISD), in which a solar collector raises the
temperature of the air that will dry the product [26]; or hybrid (HSD), in which both solar
energy and fuel are used to dry the product [27]. A comparative analysis of which type
of solar dryer (direct or indirect) under natural air convection is more efficient and faster
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in drying sewage sludge. Two drying methods have been conducted, which were both
designed and manufactured by the Solar Energy Development Unit (BOU ISMAIL) in
Algeria [38].
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Figure 5. Actual Image - Left: DSD; Right: ISD [38]
Figure 6. Schematic Diagram - Left: DSD; Right: ISD [38]
The findings showed that ISD performed at higher air heating temperatures and
efficiency compared to DSD. The highest temperatures obtained for ISD and DSD were
67°C and 55°C, respectively. Drying curves also showed that the temperature is
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inversely proportional to the drying time and is directly proportional to drying
velocity. [38]
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Automation in Solar Dryers
Integrating automation in solar drying systems may be a great help as the drying
of the product becomes more convenient and may be semi-continuously or continuously
operated.
Figure 7. Solar-assisted Conveyor Belt Dryer (SACBD) [28].
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The Solar-assisted Conveyor Belt Dryer (SACBD) is a dryer incorporated with a
fuel-powered heat exchanger and a solar air heater for drying biomass. It also consists
of PV panels, a circulating fan, a drying chamber, and a cyclone separator [28].

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The wet product is distributed on the belt conveyor as it is being fed into the
biomass inlet and the dried product exits the mechanism. The air is preheated at the
solar air heater to reduce the heat exchanger's fuel consumption. The air-drying
temperature is controlled by the heat exchanger and is distributed in a cross-flow
process on the drying material to develop better drying efficiency due to the contact of
the material to the medium. Some of the moist air exits the system while the rest returns
to the system to be reused. The PV panels are used to operate the fan and the
conveyor belt [28]. The SACBD system is designed to reduce the water content of 0.1
tonnes of biomass in an hour (dry-basis) under the weather conditions of Tehran, Iran.
(1) solar collector; (2) ventilation duct; (3) fan; (4) suction line; (5) control box; (6) power supply; (7) floors;
(8) drying cabinet; (9) air valve; (10) air inlet; (11) air outlet; (12) humidity probe; (13) thermocouple
Figure 8. Left: Schematic diagram of Convective Solar Dryer; Right: Actual image [26].
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Convective Solar Dryer installed in Marrakech, Morocco uses a thermo-regulator
with a precision range of (0-100 °C) attached to a PT100 platinum probe (electric
auxiliary heater) that is programmed to reach the desired temperature of the inlet air of
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the drying chamber. It is also installed with electrical resistance and 4-kW power that
serves as the supplementary source [26].
The air is collected and preheated in the solar collector. The centrifugal fan then
blows the air through the suction line with volume flow rate of 0.028 to 0.083 m /s and 3
the air is heated by electrical resistors. The air then enters the drying chamber and
reduces the water content of the product. The drying chamber can accommodate 10
0.5-m-wide-trays (floors) of municipal waste. The used air may be released out of the
system or reheated to be reused [26].
Figure 9. Electronic monitoring system of Solar Concentrator Dryer; (a) light intensity circuit; (b)
moisture
content measurement circuit; (c) temperature circuit [42].
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The electronic monitoring system of a solar concentrator dryer in Nigeria is
designed to quantify temperature (LM 35), light intensity (phototransistor) and moisture
level (moisture changing resistor) during the drying process. It is also incorporated with
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Arduino as a microcontroller, which gathers data at an hourly sampling time for the
parameters; an analog to digital converter (ADC), which changes signals into voltage
(input signal) to the microcontroller and is attached to a memory card; and a liquid
crystal display (LCD) as the display unit.
The Arduino analog inputs are displayed to the light dependent resistor (LDR). The
voltage output (V ) varies with the light intensity incident on the LDR and the developed
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voltage across the resistance (R 2) as the light falls on the LDR. Since the voltage
developed (V01) is proportional to the amount of light, thus the equation is:
Equation 1. Voltage developed formula in Light intensity sensor
The moisture dependent resistor (MDR) receives the moisture content that varies
the output voltage (V02). The voltage rises across resistance R 4 as the MDR receives
moisture content inside the drying chamber. Since the amount of water in the air and
the output voltage (V02) are proportional, thus the equation is:
Equation 2. Output voltage formula in Moisture content sensor
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The LM35 is an integrated-circuit temperature sensor with an output voltage
linearly proportional to the centigrade temperature. The output voltage varies with the
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received temperature in LM35, which has a standard calibration of 10 mV equal to 1
centigrade [42].
Thermal Insulation
BTPSD is a passive solar dryer designed with thermal insulation for valorizing
biomass and neutral lips of microalgae. The thermal insulation material (TIM) was
evaluated using the ANSYS FLUENT 19.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics tool and a
4cm TIM was chosen for the design [29].
Figure 10. BTPSD simulation results under 50°C a) without TIM; b) 2cm TIM; c) 4cm [29]
region.
The integration of 4cm glass wool as TIM significantly enhanced the drying time of the
algal biomass and neutral lipids. Compared to a hot air oven, BTPSD took longer to
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biomass and neutral lipids of marine Chlorella vulgaris with the results 3hrs. and 4hrs.,
respectively. Despite the findings, this study is still promising to minimize costs in
microalgal biodiesel production as it utilizes low energy consumption and is cost-
effective [29].
Thermal Storage
One of the delimitations of solar energy utilization is its continuous operation
even in the absence of sunlight. To solve this problem, integrating thermal energy
storage (TES) is a good option as it helps to smooth out energy demand at any time of
the day, and it has two different types –sensible heat TES and latent heat TES– that
may also vary in medium and application. Sensible heat TES accumulates energy in its
specific heat capacity. In its absorption, the phase of the material does not change as it
increases in temperature. Some of its examples are molten salts, mineral oil, water,
rocks, sand, and bricks. In contrast, latent heat TES changes matter phase as it absorbs
heat, which this storage material is also called PCM (Phase Change Material). Some of
its examples are paraffin wax, alcohols, glycols, and inorganic salts [49].
In the Development of a Solar Dryer Incorporated with a Thermal Storage
Mechanism, the researchers utilized a 630 mm by 590 mm by 50 mm sensible heat

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TES made of asphalt that kept the dryer 2 °C warmer than the ambient temperature
during non-sun hours. It is placed under the solar collector plate; thus, when there is no
sunlight, it releases heat to the plate when the environment is colder [30].
An active direct and indirect solar dryer with sensible heat storage is developed to
preserve camel meat by drying in Saharan conditions. It is integrated with sensible heat
TES (rocks bed) under an absorber plate. From figure 11c, it is shown that it is located
under the two-absorber plates as the dryer uses both principles of DSD and IDS.
Figure 11. Active direct and indirect solar dryer; a) front view b) back view c) schematic diagram [41].
This study used sensible TES as it is more economical and has a higher thermal
conductivity than latent TES. The use of rocks is non-toxic, inexpensive, and
advantageous because it acts as heat transfer surface and TES. During the sunny
hours, the pebble beds absorb the heat passing through the solar collectors; then,
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during discharging time, these TES release heat to the air entering the system. From the
evaluation, the disadvantage of this TES is that it may take longer to charge thermal
energy if it has a large mass. To determine the desirable pebbles mass, the researchers
depend on the solar collector's average thermal efficiency (ATE) over selected periods
of the day. The ideal mass is calculated to be 40 kg as its ATEs are 11% and 28% larger
than the collector without TES in periods 10 AM-4 PM and 4 PM-sunset, respectively. As
a result, the pebbles bed effectively improved the thermal efficiency of the DSD
chamber by 11.8% [41].
Figure 12. Left: Schematic diagram of the solar dryer in the nighttime; Right: Inside view of the drying
chamber [40].
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A prototype solar dryer has been fabricated to evaluate desiccant thermal
storage's effectiveness. The TES is considered a thermo-chemical energy storage
because it is desiccant. CaCl and molecular sieve

2
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are the types of desiccant to be used as TES. Based on the working principle,
CaCl acts as the absorbent and molecular sieve adsorbent. The TES is placed in a tray
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with dimensions of 30 cm x 30 cm x 5 cm. The dryer is operated in daytime and
nighttime as it is designed to be a continuous solar dryer. During the daytime, the
product (cocoa beans) is dried using the heated air produced by the thermal energy
absorbed by the solar collector and natural convection. At the same time, TES stores
heat from direct solar radiation. During the nighttime, as shown in figure 12 (left), the
sensors will close the vent and the outlet in the solar collector to be able to release the
stored heat by the TES. Thus, continuous operation during sunshine hours and
offsunshine hours is proposed.
The results showed a temperature range of 9 °C to 12 °C warmer than the
ambient temperature in the drying chamber. During off-sunshine hours, the desiccant
decreases the humidity in the chamber. It concluded that the desiccant type TES
effectively decreases drying time as the adsorbent type (molecular sieve) and absorbent
type (CaCl ) have obtained 25% and 45.45% reduction, respectively [40].
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An Active Solar Dryers Integrated with paraffin wax as latent heat TES. The
experiment analysis compared the thermal performances of Case I (active mixed-mode
solar dryer integrated with thermal storage), Case II (active ISD integrated with thermal
storage), and Case III (open sun drying). The TES is a shell and tube heat type made up
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of an iron sheet with dimensions of 205mm outer diameter and 2m length. For the
evaluation, the TES stores heat in the morning as the drying air has a higher
temperature than the wax temperature. When the drying air exiting the TES system
becomes cooler than the inlet air, it gives a negative thermal difference; thus,
discharging heat is needed. The results showed that Case I, II, and III took respective
drying duration of 14 hours, 23 hours, and 59 hours in drying 30 kg of black pepper.
Therefore, the thermal energy absorption is more effective in the design of Case I as the
energy efficiency reached 60.2% compared to 56.4% in Case II [44].
Solar Collector
A Solar collector is used directly or indirectly to heat the air entering the system.
Hence, modifying it may help increase the thermal energy transferred to the inlet air.
This heated air is used for drying the products [45].

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Figure 13. HIP dryer: a) modified solar collector composed of multiple metallic solar collectors; b) HIP
dryer prototype [43].
Hybrid Indirect Passive (HIP) dryer is designed with auxiliary multiple metallic
concentrators in Nakyesasa, Uganda. Its solar collector has dimensions of 0.95m by
2.2m and is composed of 15 steel tubes of concentrators. These tubes help to absorb
more solar radiation along with the multiple focal lengths that increase the heating of the
inlet air. The modified solar collector plate is covered with PVC Polyethylene on the top,
and its bottom is designed with silver reflective plastic to maximize the solar heat
absorption, which is transferred internally along the multiple focal lengths produced by
the steel tubes. As the air enters the collector, it is preheated through the tubes and
becomes denser. The warmed drying air moves upward in the drying chamber by
natural convection due to the density differences of the air inside [43].
For result analysis, the HIP dryer’s performance is compared with Photovoltaic
and Electric (SPE) dryer and Open Sun Drying (OSD) for dying pineapples and
mangoes. The accumulated values are 10 hours, 18 hours, and 30 hours, respectively.
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Figure 14. PV module of active indirect solar dryer; a) in use b) not in use [47]
Figure 15. Evacuated tubes; a) sectional top dimensions b) actual image [47]
An active-mode indirect solar dryer is designed in the conditions in Ludhiana,
India. Its solar collector is modified into 15 evacuated tubes. Each tube has dimensions:
58 mm outer diameter, 47 mm inner diameter and 1800 mm length. The frame is made
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of 32 mm 32 mm x 3mm iron. Ambient air enters the coiled open end of the tube and
warmed air exits through the full open end. For evaluation, the machine was used to dry
fenugreek leaves (Trigonella foenum-graecum) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) in
semicontinuous operation. Its performance was compared to OSD. The respective
highest overall thermal efficiency for the dryer and OSD are 34.1% and 5.7%. The
results also showed that the quality of products dried in the dryer is better than OSD
[47].
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Drying Chamber
After the solar collector warms the air, it goes to the drying chamber. The drying
chamber is a closed compartment where the product is placed to dry. Recent studies
showed that the most critical factor to be considered in a drying system is the drying air
flow rate because it dramatically affects the drying performance. Another factor that is
needed to be considered is the drying air temperature whereas it affects the quality of
the product and drying duration, as well [45].
Figure 16. a) Conventional drying chamber; b) Convex-type solar absorber drying chamber [45].
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Convex-type solar absorber drying chamber has been designed to dehumidify
sewage sludge and compared with conventional drying chamber for evaluation. The
researchers fabricated both chambers with the same dimensions of 0.35m by 0.35m by
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0.20 m. The convex-type absorber is made of aluminium with dimensions of 0.22m and
0.35m for top and bottom diameters. Both chambers were evaluated to determine their
thermal performance.
Figure 17. Parts of convex-type solar absorber drying chamber [45].

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Figure 18. a) Temperature and b) velocity volume transmitted in the convex absorber and drying
chamber [45].
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In Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation, the drying chambers were
evaluated, and the temperature and velocity volume transmitted were determined. In the
temperature volume rendering, the highest temperature is concentrated on the top
where the absorber is. The thermal energy is transferred down the chamber and passed
through the moving air. In the velocity volume rendering, the highest velocity is
concentrated in the air inlet of the chamber with the help of the fan. The hot air is
dispersed uniformly, which is essential in drying the product. The results showed that
the temperature difference between the air inlet and outlet of the chamber is
approximately 5.4°C. Moreover, the convex design of the chamber relevantly decreases
the drying duration by 31-35% as it accumulates high temperatures and velocities. The
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energy efficiency increased by about 51% using the convex-type solar absorber drying
chamber compared to the conventional one.
This study was followed by a modified sustainable solar drying system [46] in
which the researchers modified the drying chamber with a transparent cover to be able
to maximize the drying time reduction. The modified chamber is designed with a
transparent glass cover with 0.94 transmissivity and dimensions of 35 cm x 35 cm x 20
cm. The chamber also has 3 cm XPS insulation, and matt black walls to lessen heat
loss and to absorb heat.
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Figure 19. Parts of the drying chamber with transparent cover [46].
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Figure 20. a) Velocity and b) temperature volume transmitted in the drying chamber with transparent
cover [46].
In the CFD simulation, the temperature volume rendering showed a significant
difference compared with the conventional one. The high temperature helps to decrease
the drying duration, and it is more concentrated at the bottom of the chamber where the
absorber plate is. In terms of velocity, the parameter is similar in both chambers.
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As both studies are designed to dry sewage sludge, they also showed relevant
results in air-drying temperature and velocity. The convex-type solar absorber drying
chamber has accumulated a drying time of 195 min. (with 300 min. conventional drying
time) while the drying chamber with transparent cover has accumulated a drying time of
135-165 min. (with 210 to 255 minutes of conventional drying time). Both studies
significantly reduced the drying duration of the sewage sludge, which is also the aim of
this study.
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2.3 RELATED LOCAL LITERATURES AND STUDIES
Solar dryers for waste valorization are a good consideration for the Philippines. It
is believed that switching to renewable energy will assist in mitigating the consequences
of climate change. To lessen the worst effects of climate change on the Philippines, the
country's 17th and current president, President Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr.,
campaigned for the switch to renewable energy in his very first State of the Nation
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Address on July 25, 2022. However, solar dryers in the country are solely used for
drying commodities.
The Philippines is an agricultural country with a land area of 30 million hectares,
47% of which is used for agriculture. It has abundant land, natural resources,
hardworking farmers, and agricultural research institutes [50]. The majority of its
resources go toward the production of rice [51]. One of the challenges that the
agricultural sector faces is the vulnerability of the country’s geographic location to
natural disasters such as floods and droughts, further contributing to reduced production
[52]. Natural disasters like typhoons can come at the worst possible time - rice harvest
season [18].
Drying and storage are two of the most important post-harvest procedures for
raising rice output. The significance of a drop in moisture content is a fall in water
activity to secure levels that afterwards prohibit the growth of microorganisms. When not
done correctly, drying can harm the grain's quality when it is stored or processed further
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[53]. Investing in technology and innovation is necessary in diversifying and
transforming a country's agricultural production, along with increased production support
and improved strategies that prioritize farmers' needs [52].

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Traditionally, farmers dried their crops under the sun, but with continued rainfall
and flooding, drying time is prolonged leading to slow dried commodity production. First,
the sun-drying process was the least efficient, as rice grains are spilled and constantly
lost to animals. It was also time consuming as farmers had to collect and store grain at
night and when it rained [18]. A Solar Bubble Dryer (SBD) developed by the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Hohenheim University in Germany and
GrainPro is a tunnel-style dryer used to dry agricultural products while guarding them
against unexpected downpours and unpredictably bad weather. The commodities'
moisture content is evaporated using warm air and expelled by ventilators through an
exhaust port [54].
As shown in figure 21, using an inflatable solar dryer or solar bubble dryer, the
ambient air temperature ranged from 25 °C to 37 °C during the wet season and from 27
°C to 40 °C during the dry season. At the end of the drying area and the collector area, it
also displays the temperature increase over the ambient temperature. At the end of the
collector and drying area, respectively, the greatest temperature rise during the wet
season was 13°C, while during the dry season it was between 15°C and 23°C,
respectively [53].
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Figure 21. Solar radiation, ambient temperature and temperature rise at the end of the collector area and
at the end of the drying area of the ISD during the rainy season (left) and the dry season (right).
Figure 22 depicts the air temperature profile within the ISD; data for selected
experimental trials during favorable and poor weather conditions in the rainy and dry
seasons are provided. In general, a gradual temperature rise in the direction of airflow
was seen. Furthermore, the crop collected solar energy during the day and released
heat gain as a result when being blended. The dry season depicts greater dry air
temperatures than the wet season, with maximum values of 72 °C and 60 °C,
respectively. After dusk, the temperature inside the ISD steadily fell till it reached the
ambient temperature [53].
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Figure 22. Temperature profile along the inflatable solar dryer ISD during the rainy season (left) and dry
season (right), under a-b favorable and c-d adverse weather conditions
Figure 23 depicts the moisture content (MC) of paddy during ISD and sun drying.
The shaded area indicates the upper and lower limits of MC for conventional and airtight
storage (14 and 12 percent, respectively). During the rainy season, paddy with an initial
MC of 19% dried in two days to the target of 14 percent (10:00 until 12:00 following
day). By continuing drying in the afternoon, the lower target MC of 12 percent can be
nearly achieved for both drying stages. The next night, however, significant remoistening
occurred in the ISD due to precipitation (19 mm) while the ventilators were continuously
functioning to inflate the tunnel. On the third day, the MC was 12 percent
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for sun drying, but only 13 percent in the ISD. During the dry season, the paddy's initial
MC was 16 percent. In the ISD, drying to the upper target MC of 14 percent took 3
hours. The lower target MC of 12 percent for sun drying was met in the afternoon when
the ISD reached an MC value of 12.5 percent. To attain 12 percent in the ISD, an
additional 20 hours were required. During the dry season, the lowest MC values for the
ISD and sun drying were 11 percent and 8.6 percent, respectively [53].
Figure 23. Moisture content of paddy in the inflatable solar dryer (ISD) and sun drying during the rainy
season (left) and the dry season (right)
Other types of solar dryers also yield better results than traditional dryers and can
even be used as an alternative to commercial mechanical dryers. The MultiCommodity
Solar Tunnel Dryer (MCSTD) is an example of this. This dryer is a modified version of
the solar tunnel dryer developed by researchers at the University of

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Hohenheim, Germany.
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Table 7. Drying Duration Performance of MCSTD on Various Commodities Compare to OSD
Aside from the drying performance of MCSTD being significantly better than the
traditional sun drying methods in terms of shorter drying time, it also provides better
quality dried products. The dryer also provides cheaper than comparable commercial
options in terms of investment and operating costs. Dried items' quality is preserved
longer due to lower microbial levels of contamination, permits quick access to
manufactured foods even during lean months, and uses resources that are readily
available locally to meet the demands of farmers and fishermen. Processing is ongoing,
simple to assemble, take apart and maintain, and simultaneously, effectively, and
germfree dries goods [55].

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2.4 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Absorbent – a material that has the ability to absorb a characteristic, which results to its
swelling.
Activated carbon – carbon product produced by slow heating rate pyrolysis.
Adsorbent – a material that has the ability to accumulate a characteristic on its surface
Air Convection – a natural or forced process of hot air moving upward and cooler air
moving downward in a space due to density dissimilarities
Belt Conveyor – a system composed of two or more pulleys that is used to transport
products from one point to another.
Biochar – a charcoal-like material produced by pyrolyzing an organic material or
biomass.
Bioenergy – energy that is derived from biological substances.
Biogas – energy-rich gas generated from anaerobic digestion.
Biomass – a material made from plants used as fuel for energy production.
Bio-oil – a liquid bioenergy that is produced in the pyrolysis process.
Cyclone Separator – a device used to separate dust from the used air that will be
released in the dryer.

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Decomposition – a process that breaks down organic waste (substance) into simpler
molecules or simply the decaying process of organic waste.
Dry matter – the amount of concentration of solid particles in a substance.

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Effluents – liquid waste or sewage discharged into a body of water.
Flocculation-coagulation – chemical treatment of water techniques that enhances the
treatment process in removing particles.
Fossil fuels – a non-renewable source of energy that comes from decomposing living
things.
Greenhouse gases – gases that trap heat in the earth's atmosphere.
Heat Exchanger – a device used to transfer heat to the preheat air from the solar
collector.
Heat Transfer – a discipline that concerns with the utilization, generation, and transfer
of energy from one system to another
Heating value – the amount of heat released of a substance during combustion.
Hydrocarbons – highly combustible gas composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon
atoms.
Incineration – a conversion of waste into ash, flue gas, and energy
Leachate – a polluted liquid that may be flammable, and is caused by solid waste
formation and contaminants that mix with fluid accumulated in the surface.
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Mechanical dewatering – a process of separating the sewage sludge into solid and
liquid parts.
Mesophilic – bacteria that live in a moderate temperature area.
Moisture content – quantity of water in a substance; water content.

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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – a toxic gas made by burning fuels or organic
matters.
Py-gas – also pyrolysis gas. A gaseous bioenergy produced in the pyrolysis process.
Sewage sludge – a mud-like residue that comes from sewage waste or wastewater.
Syngas – also synthesis gas. Main gasification product composed of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide.
Thermal drying – a process of drying a substance by applying heat.
Thermal Insulation – a process of resisting the transfer of heat from one body to
another
Thermophilic – bacteria that live in a high-temperature area.
Valorization – a concept of reusing or recycling waste materials and converts to a
valuable use or energy source.
Vitreous slag – crystallized waste matter extracted from a metallic material by
gasification.
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2.5 ACRONYMS
ADC – Analog to Digital Converter

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ATE – Average Thermal Efficiency
CHP – Combined Heat and Power
CFD – Computational Fluid Dynamics
CV – Calorific Value
DC – Direct Current
DSD – Direct Solar Dryer
FCISD – Forced Convection Indirect Solar Dryer
HHV – Higher Heating Value
HSD – Hybrid Solar Dryer
ISD – Indirect Solar Dryer
IRRI – International Rice Research Institute
LDR – Light Dependent Resistor
MC – Moisture Content
MCSTD – Multi-Commodity Solar Tunnel Dryer
MDR – Moisture Dependent Resistor
MSW – Municipal Solid Waste
NCISD – Natural Convection Indirect Solar Dryer
OSD – Open Sun Drying

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PCM – Phase Change Materials

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PV – Photovoltaic
SACBD – Solar-Assisted Conveyor Belt Dryer
SBD – Solar Bubble Dryer
TES – Thermal Energy Storage
TIM – Thermal Insulation Material
WWTP – WasteWater Treatment Plant
XRF – X-Ray Fluorescence

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Figure 24. Research Paradigm
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PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
The uncontrollable rate of population expansion has increased the use of fossil fuels,
leading to several environmental issues, including global warming and climate change
[29]. Therefore, developing more sustainable and renewable energy sources is required
to lessen our reliance on fossil fuels and slow the rate of climate change by lowering
greenhouse gas emissions.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM 2006) divided the waste fuel
into seven main types. The most widely utilized kind is made from sewage sludge that
has been adequately treated. Sludge showed the potential to generate heat in place of
conventional fossil fuels since it is high in organic matter (50–70%) and has a
comparatively high calorific value [32]. A significant portion of the energy used to recycle
sewage sludge goes toward drying. Hence, recycling sewage sludge using clean and
sustainable energy sources may be a great choice [46].
From this problem, the researchers developed and designed an automated solar dryer
with thermal insulation that will help to reduce the drying duration, replace fossil fuels in
sludge drying, and utilize sludge for its potential for sludge generation. The product of
this study may be used in power generation industries in the Philippines, which use
multi-fueled biomass, such as Green Power Panay Phil. Inc. [58], San Carlos
Biopower [59], and Asea One Power [60]. It can be also recommended as alternative
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feedstock to companies, which use specific biomass, such as CLEAN GREEN Energy
Corp. [61], Green Power Nueva Ecija Philippines Inc. [62], Kalilangan Biomass Energy
[63] and Don Carlos Biomass Energy, and Isabela Biomass Energy Corporation [64].
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3.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.2.1 ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES
The design of this study is based on the combination of fundamentals and
principles to design a solar dryer with an effective, faster drying rate through different
classifications and integration. These principles are elaborated in the following sections:
SEWAGE SLUDGE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
From wastewater, sewage sludge comprises almost 98% water, and its dried product is
about 25% dry matter [31]. The parameters that can affect its calorific value are the
percentage of organic matter and moisture content. The organic content with a high
combustible fraction is a good indicator for higher heating value of the sludge. Another
indicator is that high moisture content can bring rapid production of microorganisms and
release of odours. Thus, it is essential to achieve low water content for sewage sludge
to obtain a high calorific value, which increases its amount of heat generated for power
generation [32].
SOLAR DRYING
About 8000 BC in South France, was the first recorded use of solar energy for drying,
and it was first utilized for the drying of crops. A natural or industrial product can be dried
(or dewatered) to remove excess moisture and bring the product's moisture content up
to the required standards. The process uses a lot of energy thus; using
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renewable sources of energy, such as solar thermal energy, could reduce the cost and
carbon emissions of the dryer. Solar drying is an economical procedure for drying
agricultural and industrial products by utilization of solar radiation. It can be categorized
as indirect and direct solar drying. Indirect solar drying uses convection, whereas direct
(or open-air) solar drying involves directly exposing a product to the sun. According to
Ekechukwu (1999), a great amount of energy is used when drying for converting vapour
from liquid water [35].
SOLAR DRYER CLASSIFICATION
The classification of the solar dryer is designed according to the best mode for
increasing the drying rate of the sewage sludge. Forced convection with a blower
powered by a PV module is more effective than natural convection on drying
substances such as sewage sludge [48]. It also makes the supply of drying air in the
system more uniformly distributed, which helps reduce the drying duration. In solar
energy utilization, the indirect solar dryer can obtain higher temperatures for drying air
which is an essential parameter because the desired temperature range for drying
sewage sludge is 38°C to 67°C [38]. The drying machine is integrated with glass wool
as thermal insulation [29] and CaCl 2 as the thermo-chemical desiccant thermal storage
[40]. These integrated materials will help to keep the thermal energy longer in the drying
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system and to make the drying rate faster in semi-continuous operation. The drying
chamber is designed with a transparent cover as the study [46] showed that it is more
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effective in increasing the drying flow rate and drying air temperature, which are
important factors to consider. For the automation, the machine is designed with belt
conveyor system to transport the sludge from the input to output vent [28]. It also has
electronic monitoring system that displays measurements for temperature, light intensity
and moisture level in the drying chamber [42].
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Site Assessment
The machine will be installed at the Technological University of the Philippines – Taguig
Campus. From the Power Data Access Viewer of NASA [56], its optimal solar irradiance
is highest in April (5.94 kW-hr/m 2/day) and lowest in January and December (4.15 kW-
hr/m2/day). The machine is to be installed in an open area without shading to maximize
the solar energy collection [47]. It may also occupy a large area and is immovable as it
is composed of large components (solar collector and drying chamber).

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PRE-PROCESS: Wastewater and Sludge Treatment
The wastewater treatment is needed for pre-process to obtain the input sludge for the
solar dryer. It involves screening and coagulation-flocculation. The processes need a
basket strainer, Polypropylene feed bag, 22-gallon high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
drum, sump pump, garden hose, and alum (Al 2(SO4)3) as coagulant. For the screening,
the wastewater is poured into a drum with basket strainer to remove large
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materials and other separable waste. It can be observed that the remaining water still
has high turbidity. The sump pumps are placed in the screened water drum and the
mixing drum. For the coagulation-flocculation, the quarter percent solution of alum is
mixed with 10 millilitres for every gallon of water. When the mixing drum is two-thirds
full, add the 5 millilitres of alum mixture to form large flocs of particles. These flocs are
separable using the polypropylene feed bags as drainer. Each bag may hold up to 17
gallons of sludge. The separation of the flocs and the water may take half-day. When
the water is removed from the feed bags, these flocs are now the 10% (db) sewage
sludge to be used in the solar dryer for waste valorization [57].

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Figure 25. Wastewater treatment
Measurement of Moisture Removed
The performance of the solar dryer is evaluated by the amount of moisture removed
from the sewage sludge. It depends on the relative humidity and the temperature of the
surroundings. The following formulas are used to identify the parameter [29]:
a. Moisture content (MC) of the sludge

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Formula 3. Moisture content of the sludge [29]
b. Moisture removed (MR) from the sludge
Formula 4. Moisture removed from the sludge [29]
Where the mi and mf are the initial and final mass of the sludge in grams (g), M i and Mf
are the initial and final moisture content in percent (%) [29].
Measurement of HHV
An essential indicator of sludge to be qualified to be used as fuel for power generation
is to have high DS (dry-substance) calorific value. The value represents the actual
amount of heat generated in the combustion process. After the sludge has removed the
desired water content, its heating value will be evaluated using a bomb calorimeter.
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Figure 26. Schematic diagram of an adiabatic (bomb) calorimeter [32]

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES TAGUIG CITY
Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http:www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-
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For the evaluation, a mass of the sludge (1-4 grams weight) is inserted into the bomb
with sufficient oxygen under pressure for successful combustion. The bomb is
submerged in 1.81 volume of water in the calorimeter. After the combustion, the
calorimeter temperature increases. The value is calculated by:
Formula 5. Calorific value [32]
Where the Qc is the heat of reaction (in Kcal/kg), M is the mass of the sludge (in kg),
Cwater is the calorific capacity of the water, C cal is the calorific capacity of the calorimeter,
te and ti are the equilibrium and initial temperatures (in °C) [32].
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3.2.2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
The diagram shows the flow of operation in the solar dryer from collecting solar energy
and feeding sewage sludge to the output product -dried sludge, which will be used for
power generation.
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Figure 27. Schematic diagram of the study
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REFERENCES
[1] E. R. Jones, M. T. H. van Vliet, M. Qadir and M. F. P. Bierkens, "Countrylevel and
gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse,"
Earth System Science Data, p. 237–254, 2021.
[2] United Nations-Water, "Water Quality and Wastewater," [Online]. Available:

https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/quality-and-wastewater/.
[3] R. Hreiz, M. A. Latifi and N. Roche, "Optimal design and operation of activated
sludge processes: State-of-the-art," Chemical Engineering Journal, pp. 900-920,
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Chapter I III Water Hyacinth

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Republic of the Philippines

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES TAGUIG

Design and Fabrication of Pedal-

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ITS BACKGROUND

Invasive plant species pose a severe threat to nature conservation in a variety of

environments, including the extinction of native species as well as environmental

deterioration. Specifically, the existence of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) should

be taken into consideration. Eichhornia crassipes belongs to the worldwide most

plants and considerable effort is expended worldwide to manage [2].

The Philippines is a nation abundant in biomass resources, which water hyacinth

scientifically known as Eichhornia crassipes, thrives abundantly [9]. This invasive

natural water-flow, where it propagates rapidly in still or slow-moving waters, on lakes

powered aquatic cleaning machine represents a notable advancement in tackling the

eco-friendly way, producing no carbon emissions, and making a positive contribution to

overall conservation endeavors. The device's design enables it to maneuver through

pedal-powered aquatic cleaning machine offers a sustainable and cost-effective

approach to preserve the ecological balance of Laguna Lake. Moreover, it aids in

overgrowth on local communities and aquatic ecosystems.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Water hyacinth, also known as Eichhornia crassipes, is a perennial aquatic plant

development of automated vehicles is important for lowering the amount of garbage,

The Water Trash Collector, or WTC as it is more often known, is made up of

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

aquatic cleaning machine for water hyacinth collection.

1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Specifically, the objectives of this study are as follows:

● To design an aquatic collecting machine with manually propelling and automatic

● To gather machine components with the lowest possible cost

● To evaluate the performance of the pedal powered aquatic cleaning machine

● To provide machine maintenance protocols

1.4 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

buoyancy, engineering design, and material science together with

potentiality of the PPACM to undergo operation.

● Locations may vary depending on the assessments based on the solar

generation hence, it can be used as plant fertilizer or as additive for construction

materials (e.g., cement, bricks, and blocks).

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is designed to help and bring significance to the following:

● Community – The proposed study will be significant in cleaning up several areas

of Laguna de Bay, particularly Bambang by removing the water pollutants (water

conduct community service.

● Environment – By improving sewage treatment management, the cleanliness of

the environment will improve because wastewater treatment significantly reduces

health from environmental contamination decreases.

● Future Researchers – Energy production, power generation, and agriculture

for a particular innovation.

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

2.2 RELATED FOREIGN LITERATURES AND STUDIES

Water Hyacinth and Its Properties

Sewage sludge comes from wastewater systems hence, it is mostly made up of

build up the sludge composition [31].

carbon is the most abundant element. In comparison to other inorganic elements,

contribute to the formation of sludge agglomerates, which is why metallic components

are most frequently detected in industrial sludge.

Table 1. Result of XRF Analysis [32].

These metallic elements in sludge have been identified as critical characteristics in

highly present in industrial sludge [32].

Table 2. Results of analysis of heavy metals in sludge samples [32].