19EEE100- Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Circuit Elements

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 Units
We use the SI (System International) units. The system uses
meters (m), kilograms (kg), seconds (s), ampere (A), degree
kelvin (OK) and candela (cd) as the fundamental units.
pico (p): 10-12 tera (T): 1012
nano (n): 10-9 giga (G) : 109

micro (): 10-6 mega (M): 106

milli (m): 10-3 kilo (k): 103

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 Electricity

Physical phenomenon arising from the

existence and interactions of electric charge

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 Charge
Characteristic property of subatomic
particles responsible for electric phenomena

Electron
- + Proton

−1.602× C 1.602× C

The unit of quantity of electric charge is coloumb (C)

1 coloumb = 6.25 × e

e = elementary charge = charge of proton

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 Charge
“Charged” particles exhibit forces

- -
Like charges repel each other

- +
Opposite charges attract one another

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 Electric current

Describes charge in motion, the flow of charge

This phenomenon can result from moving electrons in a

conductive material or moving ions in charged solutions

Conductor
Insulator
Semiconductor

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 Electric current

An ampere (A) is the number of electrons having a total

charge of 1 C moving through a given cross section in 1 s.

As defined, current flows in direction of positive charge flow

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 Electric circuit
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements
linked together in a closed path so that electric current may
flow continuously

Circuit diagrams are the standard for electrical engineers

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 Rate of flow of charge form node a to node b

Rate of flow of charge form node b to node a

(i = current)

A direct current (dc) is a current of constant magnitude

An alternating current (ac) is a current of varying

magnitude and direction
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 Voltage
Driving “force” of electrical current between two points

Voltage is also called an electromotive force (emf).

Vab Voltage at terminal a with respect to terminal b

Vba Voltage at terminal b with respect to terminal a

Vab = -Vba
Note: In a circuit, voltage is often defined relative to “ground”
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 Electro Motive Force(emf)
Driving Influence that causes a current to flow. Emf is not a force but represents the
energy expended during the passing of a unit charge through the source.

The energy transferred due to the passage of unit charge between two points in a
circuit is termed the p.d

If all the energy is transferred to the load unit, then pd across load unit is equal to the
source emf.

Emf and pd are similar. But Emf is always active which will produce an electric current
in a circuit. Pd can be measured across either passive or active device.

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 Voltage
The voltage across an element is the work (energy) required to move a
unit charge through an element

A volt is the potential difference between two points

when 1 joule of energy is used to move 1 coulomb of
charge from one point to the other

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As in the case for current, we must assume a positive direction (polarity) for
the voltage. Consider the three diagrams below.

+
a

v=4v vab = 4 v v=4v

- b

(a) (b) (c)

Each of the above gives the same information.

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 Power
The rate at which energy is converted or work is performed

A watt results when 1 joule of energy is converted or used in 1 second

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 Power

We adopt a passive sign convention in order to define the sign of

supplied power and the sign of absorbed power. Consider the following.
I

+ +

source vs load
vL
_ _

Power supplied: If the assumed direction of the current leaves

the assumed positive polarity of the voltage, power is supplied.

Power absorbed: If the assumed direction of the current enters

the assumed positive polarity of the voltage, power is absorbed.
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Circuit schematic example

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Electrical sources

An electrical source is a voltage

or current generator capable of
supplying energy to a circuit
1.Voltage Source
2.Current Source

Ideal or Practical source

Examples:
-12-Volt car battery
-Wall plug

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 Ideal voltage source
An ideal voltage source is a circuit element where the voltage
across the source is independent of the current through it.

The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero.

If the current through an ideal voltage source is

completely determined by the external circuit, it
is considered an independent voltage source

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 Dependent Voltage Sources
The voltage source can be dependent on a voltage or
current elsewhere in the circuit, and can be constant or
time-varying.
Circuit symbols:
dependent

vs +
_ vs= vx _
+ vs=r ix _
+

independent voltage-controlled current-controlled

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Time Variant & Time Invariant
Voltage Source
Sinusoidal AC source(Time Variant)

v(t) = Vpeaksin(wt)

veffective vpeak/ 2

Battery (realistic source)(Time invariant)

+
VS

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I-V Plot for ideal and practical
voltage source

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 Ideal current source
An ideal current source is a circuit element where the current
through the source is independent of the voltage across it.

The internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite.

If the voltage across an ideal current source is

completely determined by the external circuit, it
is considered an independent current source

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Dependent Current Sources
The current source can be dependent on a voltage or
current elsewhere in the circuit, and can be constant or
time-varying.
Circuit symbols:

is is=a vx is=b ix

independent voltage-controlled current-controlled

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I-V Plot for ideal and practical
current source

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Time Variant and Time Invariant
(Time Variant)
Current Source

(Time Invariant)

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 Sources
Time variant,Time invariant
Voltage
Dependent,independent

Voltage dependent voltage source(VDVS,VCVS)

Current dependent voltage source(CDVS,CCVS)

Time variant,Time invariant

Current
Dependent,independent

Voltage dependent Current source(VDCS,VCCS)

Current dependent Current source(CDCS,CCCS)26
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 Problem

If a charge of 25C passes a given point in a time of 125ms,then determine

the current in the circuit.

A circuit delivers energy at the rate of 20W and the current is 10A.Determine
the energy of each coulomb of charge in the circuit.

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 Problem

Find the potential difference between two points in an electric system ,

if 60 J is expended by a charge of 20 C between these two points.

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 Circuit elements

We classify circuit elements as passive and active.

Passive elements cannot generate energy. Common examples of

passive elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors. We will
see later than capacitors and inductors can store energy but cannot
generate energy.

Active elements can generate energy. Common examples of active

elements are power supplies, batteries, operational amplifiers.

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 Sign Convention for Power

p = vi p = -vi
i i i i
_ _
+ +
v v v v
_ + _ +

• If p > 0, power is being delivered to the gray box.

• If p < 0, power is being extracted from the box.
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 Sign Convention for Power

I=4A I=4A I=4A I=4A

_ _
+ +

v=5v v=5v v=5v v=5v

+ - +

(a) P = 20W (b) P = 20W (c) P = -20W (d) P = -20W

absorbed absorbed absorbed absorbed

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Reference Directions & Symbols

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Ohm’s Law
The ratio of potential difference
between any point of a conductor
to the current flowing between
them is a constant(at constant
temperature)

(remember, R is in Ω
and ρ is in Ω-m)

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 Resistors
Resistance (R) is the physical
property of an element that
impedes the flow of current . The
units of resistance are Ohms (Ω)

Resistivity (ρ) is the ability of a

material to resist current flow. The
units of resistivity are Ohm-meters
(Ω-m)
Example:

Resistivity of copper 1.68×10−8 Ω·m

Resistivity of glass 1010 to 1014 Ω·m
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 Resistors
Circuit View Point:

Ohm’s law:

RESISTANCE VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE

-
Where α1 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at .
Where K is dependent on conductor material
Alternatively we can also use … and for copper the value of K is 234.5

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 Resistors
Energy View Point:

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 Resistors
Geometrical View Point:

R= ohm

Where , ohm-m

l = length of the conductor, m

A = cross-sectional area,

CONDUCTANCE
Conductance is defined as the reciprocal of resistance and its unit is Siemens
and the symbol is G .
G = Siemens -
Also G = =
Where and is called conductivity .
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 Problem
A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-sectional area of 0.8 mm2,
the mean length per turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of copper is 0.02µΩ-m. Find the
resistance of the coil.

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 Problem
A cube has a resistivity of its material as 1.1 ×10-6ohm – m . If it has all sides of
length 2 cm each , determine the resistance of the cube between any two faces .

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 Problem

A coil of insulated copper wire has a resistance of 150Ω at 200C when the coil is
connected across 240 V supply. Calculate the average temperature of the coil if the
current after several hours is 1.25 A assuming the temperature coefficient of resistance of
copper at 200 C to be 0.0039 /0 C

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 Problem
An electric boiler draws 12A at 115V or a period of 3 hours.
(a)If electrical energy costs Rs.5 per kWhr, determine the cost of operating of the boiler?
(b)Find the quantity of electricity in coulombs which pass through the boiler
(c)How many electrons are involved
(d) What is the rate at which electrical energy is expended?

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 Problem
A resistor is known to dissipate 27.8kWhr of energy in 30 min while drawing a current of
10A.
(a)Obtain the value of resistance from an energy approach
(b)Find resistance in circuit view point

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 Problem
A coil of stranded copper wire having a resistance of 12Ω at 250C is embedded in the
core o a large transformer. After the transformer has been in operation several hours the
resistance o the coil is found to be 134Ω.What is the temperature of the transformer
core?

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 Problem
An electric heater draws 1000W from a 250V source. What power does it take from a
208V source. What is the value of resistance of the heater.

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 Types of Resistors
Fixed:
Wire-wound resistors
Carbon-composition resistors
Film-type resistors
Carbon film
Metal film
Metal oxide film
Variable:
Rheostat
Potentiometer
Thermistors
Humistor
Varistor
photoresistor

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 Carbon Composite Resistor

Ideal for high frequency applications

 Very cheap to make
 Have very large tolerances

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 Resistors

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 Film Resistor

Constructed by using film deposition

technique to deposit a thick film of resistive
material on to a insulating substrate
The Resistive Value of the resistor is
controlled by increasing the desired
thickness of the deposited film.
Resistance upto 10MΩ can be obtained.
Have tolerance 1% or less

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 Resistors

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 Wire wound Resistor
Made by winding a thin alloy wire onto
an insulating ceramic former in the form of
a spiral helix.
Available in very low ohmic and high
precision values(from 0.01 to 100KΩ)
These resistors are typically used for
high-current applications with low
resistance and appreciable power.

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 Rheostat

Rheostat is a adjustable resistor used in

applications that require adjustment of
current or variation of resistance in an
electric circuit.

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 Potentiometer
A Potentiometer /pot is a three terminal
resistor with a sliding contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider.

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 Thermistor

 A Thermistor is a type of resistor whose

resistance varies significantly with
temperature.
 Thermistors can be used as current
limiting devices for circuit protection ,as
replacement for fuses

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 Humistor

 A Humistor is a type of resistor whose

resistance varies significantly with
humidity
 A Humidity sensor measures the
humidity level by measuring the change
in the resistance of an element

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 Varistor
 Electrical resistance varies with applied
voltage
 A Varistor(Voltage Dependent Resistor)
function is to conduct significantly
increased current when voltage is
excessive.

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 Photoresistor
A Photoresistor or Light Dependent
Resistor(LDR) exhibits photoconductivity.

Photoresistors are used in many

consumer items such as street
lights,clock,radios alarm devices etc.

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Inductors

An inductor is a two terminal element

consisting of a winding of N turns capable
of storing energy in the form of a magnetic
field

Inductance (L) is a measure of the ability of

a device to store energy in the form of a
magnetic field. It is measured in Henries (H)

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 Inductors
Circuit View Point:
The magnetic field from an inductor can generate an induced
voltage, which can be used to drive current

While building the magnetic field, the inductor resists current flow

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 Energy storage
Energy View Point:

Inductors can store energy in the form of a magnetic

field when a current is passed through them.

The work required to establish current through the

coil, and therefore the magnetic field, is given by

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 Inductors
Geometric View Point:

L=

μ0 = permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 H/m

N = number of turns
A = area of cross-section of the coil in m2
l = length of coil in m

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 Inductors

What happens to the light bulb when the switch is closed?

What happens to the light bulb when the switch is then opened?
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Capacitors

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Capacitors
A capacitor consists of a pair of
conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator).

Electric charge is stored in the plates

– a capacitor can become “charged”

When a voltage exists across the conductors,

it provides the energy to move the charge
from the positive plate to the other plate.
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 Capacitors
Capacitance (C) is the ability of a material to store charge in the
form of separated charge or an electric field. It is the ratio of
charge stored to voltage difference between two plates.

Capacitance is measured in Farads (F)

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 Capacitors
Circuit View Point:

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 Energy storage
Energy View Point:

Work must be done by an external influence (e.g. a battery) to

separate charge between the plates in a capacitor. The charge is
stored in the capacitor until the external influence is removed and
the separated charge is given a path to travel and dissipate.

Work exerted to charge a capacitor is given by the equation:

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Geometric View Point:

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Capacitors
The capacitor plate attached to the negative
terminal accepts electrons from the battery.

The capacitor plate attached to the positive

terminal accepts protons from the battery.

What happens when the light bulb is

initially connected in the circuit?

What happens if you replace the battery

with a piece of wire?

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 Problem
An air cored toroid of mean length 125 cm and cross sectional area of 4cm2 is
uniformly wound with a coil of 1000 turns carrying a current of 2 A . Find i) the
self-inductance of the coil and ii) the induced emf in the coil , if the current is
uniformly reduced to 0 A in 10 µsec.

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 Problem
An air cored coil has a length of 2.5 cm and an average cross-sectional area of 2cm2.
Find the number of turns needed to give an inductance of 400 µH.

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 Problem
A coil wound on a core has 850 turns and an inductance of 7 mH. Find the value of emf
induced when a current of 3.5 A is reversed in 8 ms.

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 Problem

A 40 mH inductor has its number of turns doubled, while keeping its

length, cross sectional area and core material same. What is the new
inductance value?

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 Problem
The voltage across a 5 µF capacitor changes uniformly from 10V to 70V in 5ms.
Find the i ) charge ii) the charging current of the capacitor.

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 Problem
A capacitor consists of two metal plates having an area of 600 cm2 separated by a dielectric
of thickness 4 mm which has relative permittivity of 5 . When the capacitor is connected to
460 V dc supply ,calculate the value of capacitance.

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 Problem
Calculate charging current in a capacitor of 10µH if a voltage of 5V reverses polarity
in 10µs.

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 Problem
Find the capacitance of a circuit element in which :
(a)A voltage of 100V yields an energy storage in an electric field of 0.05J
(b)A voltage increase linearly from zero to 100V in 0.2 sec causing a current flow of
5mA
(c)Two flat parallel plates are separated by a 0.1mm layer of mica and have a total
area of 0.113m2 .Assume mica to have a relative permittivity of 10.

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 Problem
Find the inductance of a coil in which :
(a)A current of 0.1A yields an energy storage of 0.05J
(b)A current increases linearly from zero to 0.1A in 0.2 sec producing a voltage of 5V
(c) A current of 0.1A increasing at the rate of 0.5A/sec represents a power flow of
0.5W.

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 The capacitor has the following important properties:
The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes power from
the circuit when storing energy and returns previously stored
energy when delivering power to the circuit.

A real, non-ideal, capacitor has a “leakage resistance” which is

modeled as shown below. The leakage resistance may be as high
as 100M, and can be neglected for most practical applications.

RS

In this course we will always assume that the capacitors are ideal.
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 An inductor has the following important properties :

Like the ideal capacitor, the ideal inductor does not dissipate
energy.

A real inductor has a significant resistance due to the

resistance of the coil, as well as a “winding capacitance”.
Thus, the model for a real inductor is shown below.

In this course, however, we will use ideal inductors and assume

that an ideal inductor is a good model.
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