PREFACE

Calculus is one of those subjects considered by students as difficult, that they usually not skip
it. The authors, having taught the subject for many years, are living witnesses the struggle
most students undergo, perhaps due to the sudden shift in terminologies used eg, delta, the
limit of) as well as the introduction of concepts which are foreign to them. derivative,
integral).

Here are a few reminders from the authors for students to start with:
• Calculus necessitates a scaffolding of topics taken up in algebra, trigonometry, and
geometry. You may not be able to remember all that you have previously learned, but
brushing through your former notes, whenever needed, is highly suggested.

• Calculus can be learned through repetitive practice. Start working on very simple
numbers and progress through the complicated and complex ones. The gratification
that you get from answering an easy example can give you that much needed
confidence to work on the next, and more challenging, ones with success.

Basic Calculus is specifically designed for senior high school students who need to take
calculus in their chosen track. The discussions in this textbook are easily understandable and
can be independently trailed by any ordinary student. The authors ensure that the learning
outcomes are highly compliant with the requirements of the Department of Education.

This book is divided into four (4) chapters, namely,

• Chapter 1-Limits and Continuity
• Chapter 2-Basic Concepts of Derivatives
• Chapter 3-Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration
• Chapter 4-The Definite Integral and its Applications

In each chapter, definitions and theorems are enclosed in boxes for emphasis. Derivations
And proofs of some important formulas and theorems are also discussed in detail, so that
students can appreciate the sources of these truths. Examples, illustrations of graphs (using
software’s such as Desmos and Graphmatica), and related problems are provided for every
lesson with step-by-step solutions. Exercises towards the end are also given for further
practice and mastery of the concept. Each chapter is broken into lessons, most of which
conclude with some challenging tasks in TRY THESE, coupled with easily-referable correct
answers.

Careful and countless revisions have been done to warrant an error-free book. Nevertheless,
the authors request for your forbearance should there be unnoticed errors. Suggestions,
comments, and corrections to improve future editions are highly valued.

The Authors

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 CHAPTER 1

Limits and Continuity

The study of limits is an essential requirement to the understanding of calculus. This chapter
defines the limit of a function, gives approaches and laws that need to be applied to evaluate
the limits of algebraic and some transcendental functions, and discusses the concept of
continuity and types of discontinuity. All of these topics provide the necessary foundation
that explains most concepts differential and integral calculus. In particular, the concept of
limits is important in studying rates of change in differential calculus and area of a bounded
region in integral calculus.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to

• illustrate the limit of a function using a table of values and the graph of a function;
• distinguish between lim f(x)and f(c)
x->c
• Illustrate the limit laws;
• apply the limit laws in evaluating the limit of algebraic functions;
• compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions using
tables of values and graphs of functions;
• evaluate limits involving the expressions sin t/t, 1- cos t/t, and e^1-1/t using tables of
values;
• Illustrate continuity of a function at a number;
• determine whether a function is continuous at a number or not;
• Illustrate continuity of a function on an interval;
• determine whether a function is continuous on an interval or not;
• illustrate different types of discontinuity (hole/removable, jump/essential,
asymptotic/infinite);
• illustrate the intermediate value and extreme value theorems; and
• solve problems involving continuity of a function.

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LESSON1: LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
This lesson aims to introduce the concept of a limit of a function as well as give its formal
definition. The discussion in this lesson involves using tables and graphs to evaluate limits.
Hence, it would be of great importance to see how well one recalls evaluating a function
given its mathematical expression or graph.

Work on the following activity for recall and practice.

A. Let f(x)=2x+5. Fill in the table below by calculating the values of f using the preassigned
values of x.

B. Consider the given graph of some function g, and then answer the questions that follow.

What is the value of g if x= -5?

What is the value of g if x=1?

What is the value of g if x=3?

At what value of x is g(x)=0?

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Tabular Approach
To understand the concept of limits, let us consider a particular function/given by

F(x)= x^2 + x – 6/ x-2

We will investigate what happens to the values of f when we make x approach 2; that is,
when e values for x which are sufficiently becoming closer and closer to 2 but not necessarily
2 It is important to note that the given function will not be defined when x=2 as the value the
domain of f. Thus, we will not let x=2.

We begin with values from the left of 2. The table below shows the values of f when 1≤x<2.

Remark:

Since the idea is to use

values that are
sufficiently becoming
close to 2 but not equal
to 2, we initially use 1
being the integer closest
to 2 from the left side.

It is easy to observe that as x becomes closer and closer to 2 (from the left), f becomes closer a certain
value as well, particularly 5. Note that the difference of the values of f and 5 becomes smaller and
smaller as the difference of the values x and 2 becomes smaller and smaller as will

On the other hand, we also evaluate fusing values to the right of 2. The table below shows the
values of f when 2< x ≤3.

f(x)
Remark:

Since the idea is to use

values that are
sufficiently becoming
close to 2 but not equal
to 2, we initially use 3
being the integer closest
to 2 from the right side.
.

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Similarly, we can see that as x becomes closer and closer to 2(this time, values from the right
of 2), f becomes closer and closer to 5. The difference of the values of f and 5 becomes
smaller and smaller as the difference of the values of x and 2 becomes smaller and smaller as
well.

Summarizing the results of the investigation for f(x)= x^2+x-6/x-2 we have the following
conclusions:

As x approaches 2 from the left, f approaches 5.

As x approaches 2 from the right, f also approaches 5.
We call 5 as the limit of f as x approaches 2, which can be written as
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
lim =5
x->2
𝑥−2

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
This notation is read as “the limit of 𝑎𝑠 approaches 2 is 5.
𝑥−2

Graphical Approach
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
To further analyze the idea presented about the limit of the given f(x)= as x
𝑥−2
approaches 2, let us illustrate the graph of f as shown in figure 1.

Remark:

The graph of this function

was sketched using an
online graphing utility,
Desmos. It is a free
software designed to
sketch graphs of different
functions or equations. You
may visit
www.desmos.com/calculator

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
Graph of f defined by f(x)=
𝑥−2

The graph of f is a straight line defined at every real number x except at 2. Observe what
happens to the values of f as x approaches 2 from both sides.

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Let us first look at the left side of 2 using values sufficiently close to 2.In figure 2,we can see
the added part covering the values of f as we use values of x within I to 2 but not necessarily
equal to 2. Notice that the value of f begins with 4 as x begins with 1,and f approaches 5 as x
approaches 2.

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
Graph of f defined by f(x)= 𝑥−2
using values from left of 2

This time, we consider the right side of 2.In figure 3,we can see the shaded part covering the
values of f as we use values of x within 3 to 2,again not necessarily equal to 2.Here,the value
of f begins with 6 and approaches 5 as x begins with 3 and approaches 2.

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
Graph of f defined by f(x)= using values from right of 2
𝑥−2

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
Hence, in this graphical approach we find that lim =5
x->2 𝑥−2

In analyzing a graph to evaluate the limit of a function as x approaches a number c from the
left we must trace the part of the graph immediately on the left side of x=c towards c, and
determine he y-coordinate corresponding to the point being approached by f. On the other hand,
to evaluate the t of a function graphically as x approaches the number c from the right of c, we
must trace the of the graph immediately on the right side of x= c towards c, and determine the
y-coordinate corresponding to the point being approached by f.

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With the use of the tabular and graphical approaches to understand and evaluate the limit of a
function, we now formally give the definition of the limit of f(x)as x approaches the number
c.

Definition-Limit of a Function
The limit of f(x)as x approaches c is equal to L, provided that we can make the number f(x)as close to L by
choosing x sufficiently near, though not equal to the number c. In symbols,
Lim f(x)=L
X->c
which is read as “the limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L.”

Let us consider the following example:

Example 1:
Use the tabular and graphical approaches to evaluate lim(x^2-6x+11)
X->4

Solution:

Tabular approach:

We plug in values of x from the left of 4 beginning with 3 (see the table at the left);
while we use values of x from the right of 4 beginning with 5 (see the table at the
right).

Using the values of f reflected in the tables above, we conclude that lim(x^2-6x+11) =3
x->4

Graphical approach:

We sketch the graph of f(x) =x^2-6x+11 which is a parabola opening upwards and with
vertex at (3,2). In figure 4, we can see that as the points generated using values of x.

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 becoming closer and closer to 4, the corresponding y-coordinates of the points or f(x) values
are becoming closer and closer to 3, therefore lim(x^2-6x+11)= 3 using graphical approach.

Graph of f defined by f(x)=x^2-6x+11

Remark:

It is important to consider that the value being approached by f(x) as x

approaches c, either from the left or from the right of c, must agree in value
for the limit to exist. If the values do not agree, then the limit does not exist.
This will be discussed further in the succeeding lessons.

TRY THESE!
Use tabular approach to evaluate the following limits:
1. lim x^2
x-> 3

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2. lim(2x-5)
X-> -1

3. lim(x^2+ 2x-2)
X-> 2

3. 10
2. -7
1. 9
Answer:

EXERCISE 1:
A. With a calculator, complete the following table using the given values of x and use the
table as basis to evaluate the limit of the given function.
1.Evaluate lim(x^2+3x-4).
X->-1

Using values approaching-

Using values approaching- 1 from
from the left
the right

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 9−𝑥 2
2. lim 𝑥−3
x->3

Using values approaching 3 Using values approaching 3

from the left from the right

1
3. Evaluate lim 𝑥
X->-4

Using values approaching -4 Using values approaching -4

from the left from the right

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 1 1
−
𝑥 5
4. Evaluate lim𝑥−5
X->5

Using values approaching 5 Using values approaching 5

from the left from the right

B. Evaluate the indicated limits using tabular approach.

1. lim(3x+2)
x->5

2. lim(x^2-4x+1)
x->-2

3.lim√𝑥 + 8
x->1

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 1
4. lim𝑥
x->4

5. lim(x^3-x^2+2x+1)
x->-3

c. Evaluate the indicated limits using the graphs of the given functions.

2
1. lim(x^2-3x+4) 2. lim
x->1 𝑥−2
x->1

4. lim(x^3-4x^2+2x+5)
3. lim√5 − 𝑥 x->0
x->-4

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 -3 if ≤-3
1−𝑥
5. lim𝑥2 −1 6. lim f(x), f(x) = x if -3 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
x->1 x->1 2 if x> 2

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