MACHINE DRAWING

(SMEA1304)
✓ Drawing is a Graphical representation of an object.
✓ Engineering Drawing – A drawing of an object that contains all information like
actual shape and size, manufacturing methods, etc., required for its construction.
✓ No construction / manufacturing of any engineering objects is possible without
engineering drawing.
✓ Engineering drawing is a two dimensional representation of three dimensional
objects.
✓ Engineering drawing is called the universal language of Engineers.
 ENGINEERING DRAWING

MANUAL DRAWING CADD

➢ Computer has a major impact on the methods used to design and create
technical drawings.
➢ Design and drafting on computer are cheap and less time consuming.

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 NEED TO STUDY ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
✓ To develop the ability to produce simple engineering drawing and sketches based on current
practice.
✓ To develop the skills to read manufacturing and construction drawings used in industry.
✓ To develop a working knowledge of the layout of plant and equipment.
✓ To develop skills in abstracting information from calculation sheets and schematic diagrams to
produce working drawings for manufacturers, installers and fabricators.
✓ Applications are : building drawing for civil engineers, machine drawing for mechanical
engineers, circuit diagrams for electrical and electronics engineers, computer graphics for one
and all.

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 DRAFTING EQUIPMENTS

✓ DRAWING BOARD
✓ MINI DRAFTER
✓ DRAWING SHEET
✓ PENCILS (H, HB, 2H etc.,)
✓ NON DUST RUBBER
✓ SCALES
✓ INSTRUMENT BOX
✓ SET SQUARES (30°, 45°, 60° etc..)
✓ DRAWING BOARD CLIPS, CLAMPS, PINS, CELLO TAPE
✓ PROTRACTOR / PRO CIRCLE / CIRCLE MASTER
✓ PENCIL SHARPENER
✓ SMALL PAPER KNIFE or STITCHING THREAD etc.,

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LARGE BOW COMPASS
 PAPER SIZES

A Series Formats (mm)

A0 841 × 1189
A1 594 × 841
A2 420 × 594
A3 297 × 420
A4 210 × 297
A5 148 × 210
A6 105 × 148
A7 74 × 105
 TITLE BLOCK

✓ The title block should lie within the drawing space at the bottom
right hand comer of the sheet.

The title block should contain the following information:

1. Title of the drawing

2. Drawing plate number

3. Scale chosen

4. Symbol denoting the angle of projection

5. Name of the firm and

6. Initials of staff who have designed, checked and approved.

TYPES OF LINES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
 DIMENSIONING
➢ It is nothing but indicating on a drawing, the size of the object and other details essential for its
construction and function, using lines, numerals, symbols, notes, etc.,

PRINCIPLES OF DIMENSIONING
✓ All dimensional information necessary to describe a
component clearly and completely shall be written directly
on a drawing.
✓ Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a
drawing, i.e., dimension marked in one view need not be
repeated in another view.
✓ Dimensions should be expressed millimeters only,
without showing the unit symbol (mm).
✓As far as possible dimensions should be placed outside
the view .
 SYSTEMS OF DIMENSIONING

ALIGNED SYSTEM UNIDIRECTIONAL SYSTEM

 LEADER OR POINTER LINE

✓ A leader line is a thin or continuous line of TYPE Breferring to a feature (object,

outline, dimension).

✓ Leader lines may be drawn at 30°, 45°, 60° to horizontal.

 SCALES
✓ A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as
represented in a drawing to the actual dimensions of the same.
✓ Representative Fraction(RF) = DL/OL = Drawing Length/Original Length

CATEGORY RF SCALES
Enlargement Scales RF>1 2:1 5:1 10:1 20:1 50:1

Reduction Scales 1:2 1:5 1:10 1:20 1:50 1:100 1:200

RF<1 1:500 1:1000 1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
Full Scale RF=1 1:1
 SMEA1101 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

UNIT 1 LETTERING, DIMENSIONING AND GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION

UNIT 2 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

UNIT 3 SECTION OF SOLIDS

UNIT 4 DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES

UNIT 5 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Quadrant Position of the point Front view or elevation Top view or plan

Above the HP
I In front of the VP Above the xy line Below the xy line

Above the HP
II Behind the VP Above the xy line Above the xy line

Below the HP
III Behind the VP Below the xy line Above the xy line

Below the HP
IV In front of the VP Below the xy line Below the xy line
MACHINE DRAWING
(SMEA1304)
 SMEA1304 MACHINE DRAWING L T P Credits Total Marks
1 0 4 3 100

COURSE OBJECTIVES
❖ To understand and apply national standards while drawing machine components based on BIS.
❖ To understand the conventions, abbreviations and symbols to be followed by Engineers for making assembly
drawings.
❖ To make the students to understand sectioning, concept of limits, fits and tolerances used for component
design.
❖ To understand surface texture, riveted joints, welded joints and keys.
❖ To know various thread forms and its engineering applications.
❖ To make the students learn to draw the assembly, orthographic and sectional views of various machine
components and to interpret the assembly drawing.
 COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of the course, student will be able to

CO1: Identify the national standards related to the machine drawing based on BIS and applying the standards.
CO2: Analyze limits and tolerances for assembly and evaluate to choose appropriate fits for the assembly.
CO3: Understand and apply surface finish and welding symbols.
CO4: Assemble machine components through drawings.
CO5: Interpret the machine components and conventions used in the drawing.
CO6: Interpret the components such as fasteners, riveted joints, welded joints and keys.
 TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Engineering drawing practice for schools and colleges, SP 46 - 1988.
(http://web.iitd.ac.in/~achawla/public_html/201/lectures/sp46.pdf)
2. Gopalakrishnan, K.R., Machine Drawing, Subhas Publications, 16th Edition, 2008.
3. Bhatt, N.D., Machine Drawing, Charotar Publishing House, 48th Edition, 2013.
4. Brian Griffiths, “Engineering Drawing for Manufacture”, Kogan Page Science, 2003.

END SEMESTER EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER PATTERN

Maximum Marks: 100 Exam Duration: 3 Hrs

PART A: Questions from sections 1 - 6 (Each section 10 marks) 60 Marks

PART B: One question from section 7 with no choice
(Assembly Drawing) 40 Marks
1. CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Conventional representation of shaft, hollow shaft, bar - Conventional representation of common machine elements such as threads, slotted head,
bearings, straight and diamond knurling, holes on a linear and circular pitch, helical spring, leaf spring - Conventional representation of metals,
glass, packing and insulating materials, liquids, concrete and wood - Conventional representation of screw, rivet and pin in section. Abbreviations
for iron, carbon steel, alloy steel - Abbreviations for across corners, across flats, assembly, bearing, center of gravity, counterbore, countersunk,
insulation, left hand, right hand, nominal, pitch circle diameter, tolerance, undercut.

2. SECTIONAL VIEWS
Full section, half section, partial or local section, revolved or superimposed section, removed section, successive section, parts that are not
sectioned.
3. LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCES
Definitions: Limits, Fits and Tolerances - Upper limit, lower limit, tolerance, deviation, upper deviation, lower deviation, tolerance zone - Standard
tolerance grades - Computation of IT tolerance using formulae and tables - Fundamental deviation - Computation of fundamental deviation -
System of fits - Clearance fit - Interference fit - Transition fit - Problems on clearance and interference fit on shaft and hole basis system.
4. SURFACE TEXTURE
Nominal surface - Roughness - Waviness - Lay - Sampling length - Indication of surface roughness by roughness values, roughness grade
number, roughness symbols - Indication of surface roughness by surface texture symbol with all the characteristics.
5. THREADED FASTENERS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Screw thread terminology - Basic forms of screw threads - Standard forms of V threads - Basic form of square threads -Modified forms of square
threads - Basic knuckle thread - Standard form of knuckle thread Conventional representation of internal V thread and external V thread - Square
thread - Designation of threads - Empirical proportions of hexagon and square head bolt and nut.
6. RIVETED JOINTS, WELDED JOINTS AND KEYS
Application of riveted joints - Difference between a bolt and a rivet - Disadvantages of riveted joints - Types of riveted joints - Empirical proportions
of riveted joints - Types of welded joints - Symbolic representation of weld - Elementary weld symbols - Keys - Application of keys.
7. ASSEMBLY DRAWING (USING MINI-DRAFTER) FOR THE FOLLOWING WITH PART DRAWINGS GIVEN
Preparation of assembled views from exploded views for the following components: Cotter joint with sleeve, screw jack, snug type pedestal
bearing, swivel bearing, tail stock.
 UNIT 1
CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
❖ Machine drawing is a pictorial representation of machine or machine components
or the part of a product which provides outline/inline detail of a product including how
it is going to manufacture with certain rules.
❖ The machining symbols, tolerances, bill of material, dimensions etc are notified in
that drawing.
❖ Machine drawing is the way of communication between you and the
worker/designer/customer/manufacturer/engineer to get the desirable outcome in an
efficient way.
❖ The relative position of the different components and to make assembly drawing
are also specified.
❖ IS: 696—1972 is the BIS Code for Machine Drawing.
 Assembly
Drawing

Patent Part
Drawing Drawing

Machine
Drawing

Schematic Shop
Drawing Drawing

Catalogue
Drawing
(a) Assembly Drawing - An assembly drawing shows all the complete drawing of a given machine
indicating the relative positions of various components assembled together.
(b) Part Drawing - A part drawing shows the number of views of each single part of a machine to facilitate
its manufacturing. It should give all the dimensions, limits, tolerances and special finishing; if any.
(c) Shop Drawing - A shop drawing includes the part drawing, subassembly and the complete assembly of
a product for manufacturing.
(d) Catalogue Drawing - A catalogue drawing shows only the outlines of an assembly drawing for
illustration purpose.
(e) Schematic Drawing - A schematic drawing is the simplified illustration of a machine or system,
replacing all the elements by their respective conventional representations, to understand the principle of
operation.
(f) Patent Drawing - A patent drawing gives the correct and complete features of a new technology or
innovation adopted for a machine or system. The drawings are pictorial in nature and self — explanatory
but not useful for production purposes.
(a) Assembly Drawing - An assembly drawing shows all the complete drawing of a given machine indicating
the relative positions of various components assembled together.
(b) Part Drawing - A part drawing shows the number of views of each single part of a machine to facilitate its
manufacturing. It should give all the dimensions, limits, tolerances and special finishing; if any.
Part Drawing - A part drawing shows the number of views of each single part of a machine to facilitate its
manufacturing. It should give all the dimensions, limits,tolerances and special finishing; if any.
(c) Shop Drawing - A shop drawing includes the part drawing, subassembly and the complete assembly of
a product for manufacturing.
(d) Catalogue Drawing - A catalogue drawing shows only the outlines of an assembly drawing for
illustration purpose.
(e) Schematic Drawing - A schematic drawing is the simplified illustration of a machine or system,
replacing all the elements by their respective conventional representations, to understand the principle of
operation.
(f) Patent Drawing - A patent drawing gives the correct and complete features of a new technology or
innovation adopted for a machine or system. The drawings are pictorial in nature and self explanatory but
not useful for production purposes.
1. CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Conventional representation of shaft, hollow shaft, bar - Conventional representation of common
machine elements such as threads, slotted head, bearings, straight and diamond knurling, holes
on a linear and circular pitch, helical spring, leaf spring - Conventional representation of metals,
glass, packing and insulating materials, liquids, concrete and wood - Conventional
representation of screw, rivet and pin in section. Abbreviations for iron, carbon steel, alloy steel -
Abbreviations for across corners, across flats, assembly, bearing, center of gravity, counterbore,
countersunk, insulation, left hand, right hand, nominal, pitch circle diameter, tolerance, undercut.
 CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
CONVENTIONS: When the complete drawing of a machine component involves a lot of time or space, it may be
drawn in conventional form to represent the actual machine component.
 UNIT 2
SECTIONAL VIEWS
2. SECTIONAL VIEWS
Full section, half section, partial or local section, revolved or superimposed section, removed section,
successive section, parts that are not sectioned.

Purpose of section: To show the inner details of a machine component, the object is imagined to be cut
by a cutting plane and the section is viewed after the removal of cut portion.

✓ Hatching is generally used to show areas of sections.

✓ Hatching is done as continuous thin lines at an angle, preferably 45°, to the principal outlines.
✓ Separate areas of a section of the same component shall be hatched in an identical manner.

✓ The hatching of adjacent components shall be carried out with different directions or spacing.

In case of large areas, the hatching may be limited to a

zone, following the contour of the hatched area.
Where sections of the same part in parallel planes are Hatching should be interrupted when it is not
shown side by side, the hatching shall be identical, but possible to place inscriptions outside the
may be off-set along the dividing line between the hatched area
sections
Machine parts not sectioned: In principle: shafts, handles, bolts, studs, screws, washers, nuts, rivets, keys,
pins, gib, cotters, webs, stiffening ribs, spokes, arms, teeth of gears, bearings etc., are not cut in longitudinal
sections and therefore should not be hatched.
✓ Full Section: A sectional view obtained by assuming that the object is completely cut by a plane is called a
full section or sectional view.
✓ It may be noted that, in order to obtain a sectional view, only one half of the object is imagined to be
removed.
✓ Further, in a sectional view, the portions of the object that have been cut by the plane are represented by
hatching.
✓ The view should also contain the visible parts behind the cutting plane.
✓ Half Section: A half sectional view is preferred for symmetrical objects.
✓ For a half section, the cutting plane removes only one quarter of an object.
✓ To obtain an half sectional view, the object is cut by two imaginary planes at right angles to each other, so as
to pass through two mutually perpendicular centre lines of the object.
✓ In this, only one half of the object is shown in section while its other half will be shown as unsectioned.
✓ Partial or Local Section: Sometimes it may be required to expose only a small portion of the interior of the
object. In such cases, instead of showing either a full section or half section, local or partial section is taken.
✓ To draw a local section, the object is imagined as broken partially to expose the required detail and the
break is indicated by a continuous thin wavy line..
✓ Revolved or Superimposed section: The true shape of external surfaces of some objects like structural
members, spokes of wheels, arms, handles etc., may be shown without an additional view by means of
revolved sections.
✓ A revolved section is obtained by passing a section plane through the part perpendicular to the centre line or
axis and then the section plane with the cross section lying on it is revolved through 90 degrees so as to
superimpose the cross section on the exterior view.
✓ Removed section: This is similar to the revolved section except that the sectional view is removed from the
actual view and drawn separately either, near to and connected with the view by a chain line or in a different
position and identified by the designation.
✓ The removed sections are preferred to revolved sections in cases where superimposed cross section is not
desirable.
✓ Successive section: Successive sections are similar to the removed sections. A series of parallel section
planes are passes successively at different positions of a long shaft of different diameters so as to expose the
details such as keyways, slots, holes etc., on the cross sections as shown below.
✓ The removed sections are preferred to revolved sections in cases where superimposed cross section is not
desirable.
IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS IN THE ASSEMBLY SHOWN
 UNIT 3
LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCES
3. LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCES
Definitions: Limits, Fits and Tolerances - Upper limit, lower limit, tolerance, deviation, upper deviation, lower
deviation, tolerance zone - Standard tolerance grades - Computation of IT tolerance using formulae and tables -
Fundamental deviation - Computation of fundamental deviation - System of fits - Clearance fit - Interference fit -
Transition fit - Problems on clearance and interference fit on shaft and hole basis system.

✓ What is a machine?
✓ A machine is an assembly of many parts such as bolts, nuts, screws, bearings, gears, chains, couplings
etc.,.
✓ These are standard parts of any machine and the remaining parts are specially designed for that particular
machine.
✓ Standard parts are commercially available in the market in standard sizes and manufactured by mass
production.
✓ Designed parts are manufactured as per the design specifications.
✓ If the machines are required in large numbers, then even the design parts are manufactured by mass
production.
✓ The parts produced by mass production must be interchangeable. ✓ The cost of manufacture will be higher
since greater care and skill is required while
machining the part very close to the basic
size.
✓ Therefore, it is inevitable to tolerate
variations in the basic size so that the actual
machined sizes may lie within the specified
limits of variations.
✓ The amount of variation permitted for a
basic size is called tolerance.
BOLTS - BATCH A NUTS - BATCH B ✓ The maximum and minimum permissible

✓ Interchangeable: A part picked at random must fit properly with its sizes within which the actual machined size
lies are called limits.
counterpart also picked randomly, and both of them must satisfy
✓ The functional relationship between the
functionally.
two adjacent parts achieved by the specified
✓ It is highly impossible to manufacture large number of identical
tolerances is called fit.
parts accurately to the specified exact size economically due to the
inherent limitations in men, material and machines.
 BASIC SHAFT MINIMUM SHAFT MAXIMUM SHAFT ACTUAL SHAFT

✓ Basic size: Theoretical size of a part derived from the design. The tolerances are always specified to the basic size.

✓ The dimension 30 mm is the basic size.

✓ Actual size: Size actually obtained by the machining. The actual size of the shaft is ϕ29.925 mm.

✓ Zero line: Since the deviations are measured from the basic size, to indicate the deviations graphically: the basic shaft, the
minimum shaft, the actual shaft and the maximum shaft are aligned at the bottom and a straight line, called zero line is
drawn. Deviations above this line will be positive and below this line will be negative.
 ✓ Limits: Two extreme permissible sizes between
which the actual size lies.
✓ Maximum limit: Maximum permissible size for a
given basic size. From the fig, the maximum limit is
ϕ30+0.035 = ϕ30.035 mm.
✓ Minimum limit: Minimum permissible size for a
given basic size. From the fig, the minimum limit is
ϕ30-0.215 = ϕ29.785 mm.
✓ Tolerance: Amount of variation permitted to a basic
size.
It is the difference between the maximum and
minimum limits of a basic size.
From the fig., the tolerance is = ϕ30.035- ϕ29.785 =
0.25 mm.

✓ Deviation: It is the difference between the limit sizes (either maximum or minimum) and the corresponding basic size.
✓ Upper Deviation: Algebraic difference between the maximum limit and the basic size = ϕ30.035-ϕ30 = 0.035 mm.
✓ Lower Deviation: Algebraic difference between the minimum limit and the basic size = ϕ29.785-ϕ30 = -0.215 mm.
 ✓ Actual Deviation: Algebraic difference between the
actual measured size and the basic size = ϕ29.925-ϕ30
= -0.075 mm.
✓ Tolerance zone: It is the zone bounded by the upper
and lower limits of the basic size, shown hatched.

TOLERANCES

✓ Tolerance on a basic size is obtained based on its performance.

✓ To achieve the required tolerance, the manufacturing process has to be selected.
✓ This manufacturing process should be capable of accomplishing the specified tolerance economically.
✓ The various manufacturing processes ranging from the fine gauge manufacture to the coarse manufacturing
process such as sand casting, are classified by BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) into sixteen grades,
numbering from 1 to 16.
✓ The tolerance is expressed in micron(micrometer).
✓ Note: 1 MICRON = 0.001 mm = 10-6 m.
 Degree of Accuracy Expected of Manufacturing Process

PROCESS Grad No

Slip blocks, Reference gauges 1

High quality gauges, Plug gauges 2

Good quality gauges, Gap gauges 3

Gauges, fits of extreme precision by lapping 4

Ball bearing, machine lapping, diamond or fine boring, fine grinding 5

Grinding, fine honing 6

High quality turning, broaching, honing 7

Centre lathe turning and boring, reaming, capstun or automatic in good condition 8

Worn capstun or automatic; horizontal or vertical boring machines 9

Milling, slotting, planing, metal rolling or extrusion 10

Drilling, rough turning or boring, precision tube drawing 11

Light press work, tube drawing 12

Press work, tube rolling 13

Die casting or moulding; rubber moulding 14

Stamping 15

Sand casting, flame cutting 16

 STANDARD TOLERANCE GRADES
RECOMMENDED BY BIS

BASIC SIZE BIS GRADES TABLE NO TOTAL NO OF GRADES

Upto 500 mm IS: 919-1963 IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2......IT16 7.3 18

Above 500 mm
and
upto 3150 mm IS: 2101-1962 IT6......IT16 7.4 11

✓ The symbol IT indicates the recommended standard tolerance grades.

 TABLE 7.3
FUNDAMENTAL
TOLERANCES
OF GRADES
01, 0 & 1 to 16
FOR SIZES
UPTO 500 mm
 TABLE 7.4
FUNDAMENTAL
TOLERANCES
OF GRADES
6 to 16 FOR
SIZES
UPTO 500 mm
COMPUTATION OF IT TOLERANCE FOR SIZES UPTO 500 mm
 HOW TO COMPUTE THE IT TOLERANCE FOR SIZES UPTO 500 mm
1. Calculate the ‘Geometric Mean of the extreme diameters of each step (D)’ using Table 7.8
where D = (product of the diameter steps) in mm.
2. Use Table 7.5 to find tolerance unit ‘i’ for the corresponding given GRADE, in microns.
3. Use Table 7.6 to find the relative magnitude of IT tolerance for the given IT grade, in microns.
4. Use Table 7.9 to round off the above value.
5. Verify the obtained answer using Table 7.3.
Q: Compute the IT tolerance of diameter 40 mm of tolerance grade 5.

Soln:
✓ 1. Calculate the ‘Geometric Mean of the extreme diameters of each step (D)’ using Table 7.8
where D = (product of the diameter steps) in mm.
The given diameter 40 mm lies in the diameter step 30 mm and 50 mm.
Hence, D = (30x50) = 38.73 mm.
✓ 2. Use Table 7.5 to find tolerance unit ‘i’ for the corresponding given GRADE, in microns.
For the tolerance grade IT5, = 1.5225+0.03873 = 1.56123 microns.

✓ 3. Use Table 7.6 to find the relative magnitude of IT tolerance, in microns.

Magnitude of IT tolerance = 7i = 7x1.56123 = 10.92861 microns.
✓ 4. Use Table 7.9 to round off the above value.
Rounding off to the nearest 1 and hence: Magnitude of IT tolerance = 11 microns.
✓ 5. Verify the obtained answer using Table 7.3, Page 59 of KRG.
The value of fundamental IT tolerance corresponding to grade 5 and diameter 40 mm is 11 microns. This
verifies the answer computed above.
 HOW TO COMPUTE THE IT TOLERANCE FOR SIZES ABOVE 500 mm UPTO 3150 mm
1. Calculate the ‘Geometric Mean of the extreme diameters of each step (D)’ using Table 7.8
where D = (product of the diameter steps) in mm.
2. Use the empirical formla to find tolerance unit ‘i’, i = 0.004D+2.1 in microns.
3. Use Table 7.7 to find the relative magnitude of IT tolerance for the given IT grade, in microns.
4. Use Table 7.9 to round off the above value.
5. Verify the obtained answer using Table 7.4.
Q: Compute the IT tolerance of diameter 700 mm of tolerance grade 9.

Soln:
✓ 1. Calculate the ‘Geometric Mean of the extreme diameters of each step (D)’ using Table 7.8
where D = (product of the diameter steps) in mm.
The given diameter 700 mm lies in the diameter step 630 mm and 800 mm.
Hence, D = (630x800) = 709.93 mm.
✓ 2. Use the empirical formla to find tolerance unit ‘i’, i = 0.004D+2.1 in microns.
i = (0.004x709.93)+2.1 = 4.9397 microns.
✓ 3. Use Table 7.7 to find the relative magnitude of IT tolerance, in microns.
Magnitude of IT tolerance = 40i = 40x4.9397 = 197.58 microns.
✓ 4. Use Table 7.9 to round off the above value.
Rounding off to the nearest 5 and hence: Magnitude of IT tolerance = 200 microns.
✓ 5. Verify the obtained answer using Table 7.4, Page 59/60 of KRG.
The value of fundamental IT tolerance corresponding to grade 9 and diameter 700 mm is 200 microns. This
verifies the answer computed above.
 FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION

✓ Fundamental Deviation: The upper or lower deviation that is chosen to specify the position of the tolerance zone.
✓ For both the hole and shaft, the fundamental deviations are indicated by letter symbols.
✓ Fundamental deviations for the holes indicated by: UPPER CASE(CAPITAL) LETTERS.
✓ Fundamental deviations for the shafts indicated by: LOWER CASE LETTERS.
✓ BIS recommended 25 types of fundamental deviations for the holes and shafts of basic sizes less than 500 mm (IS:919-1963).
✓ For holes: A B C D E F G H Js J K M N P R S T U V X Y Z ZA ZB ZC (Refer Table 7.10/Page 64 & 65).
✓ For shafts: a b c d e f g h js j k m n p r s t u v x y z za zb zc (Refer Table 7.11/Page 66 & 67).

✓ BIS recommended 14 types of fundamental deviations for the holes and shafts of basic sizes above 500 mm & up to 3150 mm.
✓ For holes: D E F G H Js K M N P R S T U.
✓ For shafts: d e f g h js k m n p r s t u.

✓ The symbols used for the fundamental deviations for the shafts and holes are as follows:
HOLES SHAFTS
✓ Upper Deviation (E’cart Superior) ES es
✓ Lower Deviation (E’cart Inferior) EI ei
✓ For shafts: es = ei + IT
✓ For holes: ES = EI + IT
FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATIONS FOR SHAFTS OF a to zc
FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATIONS FOR HOLES OF A to ZC
 TABLE 7.10
FUNDAMENTAL
DEVIATIONS
FOR SHAFTS OF
a to zc
FOR SIZES
UPTO 500 mm
 TABLE 7.10
FUNDAMENTAL
DEVIATIONS
FOR SHAFTS OF
a to zc
FOR SIZES
UPTO 500 mm
 TABLE 7.11
FUNDAMENTAL
DEVIATIONS
FOR HOLES OF
A to ZC
FOR SIZES
UPTO 500 mm
 TABLE 7.11
FUNDAMENTAL
DEVIATIONS
FOR HOLES OF
A to ZC
FOR SIZES
UPTO 500 mm
✓ How to indicate ‘tolerance size?’
✓ 50g7 value 50 indicates basic size in mm, g indicates the tolerance zone for the shaft and 7 indicates the tolerance
grade.
✓ 50D6 value 50 indicates basic size in mm, D indicates the tolerance zone for the HOLE and 6 indicates the tolerance
grade.

HOW TO COMPUTE THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION FOR HOLE?

Q: Compute the fundamental deviations for a circular hole of 35 mm diameter finished to H7 tolerance (Φ35H7).

Soln:
✓ 1. From Table 7.8, Page 61, 35 mm lies in the diameter steps
Magnitude of the
fundamental IT

Directly from the Table 7.3

between 30 mm and 50 mm. Hence, D = (30x50) = 38.73 mm.
tolerance

✓ 2. Use Table 7.5 to find tolerance unit ‘i’ for the corresponding
Using the empirical formula given
given GRADE 7, in microns.
in Table 7.5 and Table 7.6
For the tolerance grade IT7,
i = 1.5225+0.03873 = 1.56123 microns.
✓ 3. Use Table 7.6, Magnitude of IT tolerance = 16i = 16x1.56123 = 24.979 microns.
✓ 4. Use Table 7.9 to round off the above value.
Rounding off to the nearest 1 and hence: Magnitude of IT tolerance, IT = 25 microns = 0.025 mm.
✓ 5. Verify the obtained answer using Table 7.3, Page 59 of KRG.
The value of fundamental IT tolerance corresponding to grade 7 and diameter 35 mm is 25 microns. This
verifies the answer computed above.
✓ 6. Using Table 7.11, Page 66,either the lower or upper deviation is obtained.
Corresponding to the basic size of 35 mm and tolerance zone H, we found that lower deviation, EI, is zero.
✓ 7. Wkt: ES = EI + IT
ES = 0 + 0.025 mm.
✓ 8. The numerical equivalent of tolerance dimension, Φ35H7 =
Soln:
✓ 1. From Table 7.8, Page 61, 35 mm lies in the diameter steps between 30 mm and 50 mm. Hence,
D = (30x50) = 38.73 mm.

✓ 2. Use Table 7.5 to find tolerance unit ‘i’ for the corresponding
given GRADE 7, in microns.
For the tolerance grade IT7, i = 1.5225+0.03873 =
1.56123 microns.
✓ 3. Use Table 7.6, Magnitude of IT tolerance for IT7 = 16i = 16x1.56123 = 24.979 microns.

✓ 4. Use Table 7.9 to round off the above value.

✓ Rounding off to the nearest 1 and hence: Magnitude of IT tolerance, IT = 25 microns = 0.025 mm.

✓ 5. Verify the obtained answer using Table 7.3, Page 59 of KRG.

The value of fundamental IT tolerance corresponding to grade 7 and diameter 35 mm is 25 microns.
This verifies the answer computed above.
✓ 6. Using Table 7.11, Page 66,either the lower or upper deviation is obtained.
Corresponding to the basic size of 35 mm and tolerance zone H, we found that lower deviation, EI, is zero.
✓ 7. Wkt: ES = EI + IT
ES = 0 + 0.025 mm.
✓ 8. The numerical equivalent of tolerance dimension, Φ35H7 =
 HOW TO COMPUTE THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION FOR shaft?
Q: Compute the fundamental deviations for a circular shaft of 60 mm diameter finished to g6 tolerance (Φ60g6).

Soln:
✓ 1. From Table 7.8, Page 61, 60 mm lies in the diameter steps between 50 mm and 80 mm. Hence,
D = (50x80) = 63.24 mm.

✓ 2. Use Table 7.5 to find tolerance unit ‘i’ for the corresponding given GRADE 6, in
microns.
For the tolerance grade IT6, i = 1.7929+0.06324 = 1.856139 microns.

3 3
𝑖 = 0.45 𝐷 + 0.001𝐷 = 0.45 63.24 + 0.001 63.24
= 1.7929 + 0.06324 = 1.856139𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
✓ 3. Use Table 7.6, Magnitude of IT tolerance for IT6 = 10i = 10x1.856139 = 18.56139 microns.

✓ 4. Use Table 7.9 to round off the above value.

✓ Rounding off to the nearest 1 and hence: Magnitude of IT tolerance, IT = 19 microns = 0.019 mm.

✓ 5. Verify the obtained answer using Table 7.3, Page 59 of KRG.

The value of fundamental IT tolerance corresponding to grade 6 and diameter 60 mm is 19 microns.
This verifies the answer computed above.
✓ 6. Using Table 7.10, Page 64, either the lower or upper deviation is obtained.
Corresponding to the basic size of 60 mm and tolerance zone g, we found that upper deviation, es, is -10 microns = -0.010 mm.
✓ 7. Wkt: es = ei + IT
-0.010 = ei + 0.019 mm
ei = -0.010-0.019 = -0.029 mm
✓ 8. The numerical equivalent of tolerance dimension, Φ60g6 =
 METHODS OF INDICATING TOLERANCES ON DRAWING

✓ Rules to be followed while indicating tolerance:

1. The upper deviation should always be written above the lower deviation irrespective of whether it is a shaft or a hole.
2. Both the deviations are expressed to the same number of decimal places, except the cases where the deviation in one
direction is nil.
3. When tolerances are uniform on all the individual dimensions, instead of indicating the tolerances on each of the dimensions,
a general note assigning the uniform tolerances should be stated, for eg., TOLERANCE ON DIMENSION ±0.5. This saves the
drafting time and simplifies the drawing.
✓ Using toleranced symbol

✓ Besides toleranced symbol, with the values of deviation

Toleranced dimension with deviations

✓ Besides toleranced symbol, with the limits of sizes

✓ Deviations expressed in bilateral system

✓ Deviations expressed in unilateral system, the deviation in one direction will be zero

✓ When the upper and lower deviations are equal, the value of the deviation should be
indicated once only, preceded by the sign ±

✓ Direct indication of tolerance using the limit dimensions

✓ If a dimension is to be limited in one direction only, then it

must be indicated by adding “min” or “max”.
Unilateral Tolerance
In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only
on one side of the basic size, i.e. tolerance lies wholly on one
side of the basic size either above or below it.

Bilateral Tolerance
In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on
both the sides of the basic size, i.e. the limits of tolerance lie on
either side of the basic size.
 FITS

✓ The functional relationship between the two adjacent parts achieved by the specified tolerances is called fit.
✓ It is the relationship existing between the mating surfaces of the parts because of the differences in their
dimensions.
✓ It may be defined as the degree of tightness and looseness between two mating parts.

✓ In general, a rod of circular section and a circular hole are termed as shaft and hole respectively.
✓ For the sake of simplicity: even the non circular sections and the space containing or contained by two
parallel faces of any part such as, thickness of a key and the width of the keyway or a slot, are also referred as
shaft and hole respectively.
 CLEARANCE FIT

✓ In clearance fit, a clearance exists between the shaft and hole.

✓ It is defined as the fit established, when a positive clearance exists between the hole and the shaft.
✓ In this, the clearance (i.e., positive clearance) is due to the difference between the dimensions of the
smallest possible hole and the largest possible shaft.
✓ Φ29.95-Φ29.90 = 0.05 mm.
✓ Fig. C shows the conventional representation of clearance fit.
✓ Tolerance zone of the hole lies above that of the shaft.
✓ Hole > Shaft; Hole-shaft > 0;
✓ Allows rotation or sliding between the mating parts.
 TYPES OF CLEARANCE FIT

✓ Loose Fit
It is used between those mating parts where no precision is required. It provides minimum allowance and is
used on loose pulleys, agricultural machineries etc.

✓ Running Fit
For a running fit, the dimension of shaft should be smaller enough to maintain a film of oil for lubrication. It is
used in bearing pair etc.,

✓ Slide Fit or Medium Fit

It is used on those mating parts where great precision is required. It provides medium allowance and is used in
tool slides, slide valve, automobile parts, etc.
 INTERFERENCE FIT

✓ In interference fit, a negative clearance exists between the shaft and hole.
✓ It is defined as the fit established, when a negative clearance exists between the hole and the shaft.
✓ In this, the interference of the surfaces (i.e., negative clearance) is due to the difference between the
dimensions of the largest possible hole and the smallest possible shaft.
✓ Φ30.25-Φ30.30 = -0.05 mm.
✓ Fig. C shows the conventional representation of interference fit.
✓ Tolerance zone of the hole lies below that of the shaft.
✓ Hole < Shaft; Hole-shaft < 0;
✓ Interference fit is obtained by several methods:
(a) a shaft may be driven into the hole with a
considerable force
(b) heating the part having the hole in order to increase
the diameter of the hole
(c) cooling the shaft and thus decreasing its diameter.
 TYPES OF INTERFERENCE FIT

✓ Shrink Fit or Heavy Force Fit

It refers to maximum negative allowance. In assembly of the hole and the shaft, the hole is expanded by
heating and then rapidly cooled in its position. It is used in fitting of rims etc.,

✓ Medium Force Fit

These fits have medium negative allowance. Considerable pressure is required to assemble the hole and the
shaft. It is used in car wheels, armature of dynamos etc.,

✓ Tight Fit or Force Fit

One part can be assembled into the other with a hand hammer or by light pressure. A slight negative
allowance exists between two mating parts. It gives a semi permanent fit and is used on a keyed pulley and
shaft, rocker arm, etc.,
 TRANSITION FIT

✓ In transition fit, a positive or a negative clearance exists between the shaft and hole.
✓ It is defined as the fit established, when the dimensions of the hole and the shaft are such that there exists
a positive clearance or a negative clearance when the shaft is fitted into the hole.
✓ Positive clearance when the smallest possible shaft if fitted into the largest possible hole.
✓ Φ30.60-Φ30.55 = 0.05 mm (Fig. C).
✓ Negative clearance when the largest possible shaft is fitted into the smallest possible hole.
✓ Φ30.50-Φ30.65 = -0.15 mm (Fig. D).
✓ Fig. B shows the conventional representation of
interference fit.
✓ Tolerance zone of the hole and shaft overlap.
 TYPES OF TRANSITION FIT

✓ Push Fit or Snug Fit

It refers to zero allowance and a light pressure is required in assembling the hole and the shaft. The moving
parts show least vibration with this type of fit.

✓ Force Fit or Shrink Fit

A force fit is used when the two mating parts are to be rigidly fixed so that one cannot move without the other.
It either requires high pressure to force the shaft into the hole or the hole to be expanded by heating. It is used
in railway wheels, etc.,

✓ Wringing Fit
A slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts in wringing fit. It requires pressure to force the
shaft into the hole and gives a light assembly. It is used in fixing keys, pins, etc.
 TYPE OF FIT HOLE SHAFT CLEARANCE
Clearance fit Smallest possible hole Largest possible shaft Positive
Interference fit Largest possible hole Smallest possible shaft Negative
Largest possible hole Smallest possible shaft Positive
Transition fit Smallest possible hole Largest possible shaft Negative
 SYSTEM OF FITS

SYSTEM OF FITS HOLE SHAFT RULE

✓ Lower deviation of hole is
Hole Basis System Hole size is kept constant Shaft size is varied to get zero(EI = 0).
different types of fits ✓ Minimum limit of the hole =
Basic size of the hole.
✓ Upper deviation of shaft is
Shaft Basis System Hole size is varied to get Shaft size is kept constant zero(es = 0).
different types of fits ✓ Maximum limit of the shaft =
Basic size of the shaft.
✓ BIS recommends both the systems, but the selection depends on the production methods.

Why hole basis system is preferred?

 Hole Basis System Shaft Basis System

✓ Fig. A shows the tolerance zone for the hole having its ✓ Fig. A shows the tolerance zone for the shaft having its
lower limit equal to the basic size. maximum limit equal to the basic size.
✓ Zero line is drawn through the lower limit since the lower ✓ Zero line is drawn through the upper limit since the
deviation is zero. upper deviation is zero.
✓ Both the limit dimensions of the shaft lie below the zero ✓ Both the limit dimensions of the hole lie above the zero
line for the clearance fit as in Fig. B, while they are line for the clearance fit as in Fig. B, while they are
above the zero line for the interference fit as in Fig. C. below the zero line for the interference fit as in Fig. C.
 Why hole basis system is preferred?

✓ Generally the holes are produced by drilling, boring, reaming, broaching, etc., whereas shafts are produced
by turning.
✓ Suppose, if the shaft basis system is used (shaft diameter kept constant), then for different types of fits,
holes of different sizes are required which in turn requires tools of different types and sizes.
✓ If, instead, if the hole basis system is used (hole diameter kept constant), then there will be reduction in
production costs as only one tool is required to produce the hole and also the shaft can be machined to any
desired size with single tool.
✓ Hence, hole basis system is preferred over shaft basis system in most of the industry.

✓ However, shaft basis system is preferred when a single shaft

has to mate with holes of different sizes to give different sizes
to give different kinds of fits, such as in the mating of a
gudgeon pin both with the piston and connecting rod; outer
rings of antifriction bearings with various bores in housings
etc.,
 Clearance fit on hole basis system
(0.025 mm)
Compute the limit dimensions for clearance fit on the hole basis system for a (0.050 mm)
basic size of 20 mm diameter with a minimum clearance of 0.100 mm,
tolerance on the hole 0.025 mm and tolerance on the shaft 0.050 mm.

Given: Hole Basis System; Basic size of hole = 20 mm; Minimum

clearance = 0.100 mm; Tolerance on the hole = 0.025 mm; Tolerance on the
shaft = 0.050 mm

Computation: ✓ Minm Clearance = Minm hole – Maxm shaft

✓ Lower deviation of hole is zero(EI = 0)
In the hole basis system: ✓ Maxm Clearance = Maxm hole – Minm shaft

Minimum limit of the hole = Basic size of the hole = 20 mm

Maximum limit of the hole = Minimum limit of the hole + Tolerance on the hole = Φ20.000+0.025 = Φ20.025 mm.
Maximum limit of the shaft = Minimum limit of the hole – Minimum clearance = Φ20.000-0.100 = Φ19.900 mm.
Minimum limit of the shaft = Maximum limit of the shaft – Tolerance on the shaft = Φ19.900-0.050 = Φ19.850 mm.

Thus,
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑19.900 𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡 = 𝜑20.025 𝑚𝑚
Limits of the shaft are: 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑19.850 𝑚𝑚 Limits of the hole are: 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑20.000 𝑚𝑚
 Clearance fit on shaft basis system
(0.025 mm)
Compute the limit dimensions for clearance fit on the shaft basis system for (0.050 mm)
a basic size of 20 mm diameter with a minimum clearance of 0.100 mm,
tolerance on the hole 0.025 mm and tolerance on the shaft 0.050 mm.

Given: Shaft Basis System; Basic size of shaft = 20 mm; Minimum

clearance = 0.100 mm; Tolerance on the hole = 0.025 mm; Tolerance on the
shaft = 0.050 mm

Computation: ✓ Minm Clearance = Minm hole – Maxm shaft

✓ Upper deviation of shaft is zero(es = 0)
In the shaft basis system: ✓ Maxm Clearance = Maxm hole – Minm shaft
Maximum limit of the shaft = Basic size of the shaft = 20 mm
Minimum limit of the shaft = Maximum limit of the shaft - Tolerance on the shaft = Φ20.000-0.050 = Φ19.950 mm.
Minimum limit of the hole = Maximum limit of the shaft + Minimum clearance = Φ20.000+0.100 = Φ20.100 mm.
Maximum limit of the hole = Minimum limit of the hole + Tolerance on the hole = Φ20.100+0.025 = Φ20.125 mm.

Thus,
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑20.000 𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑20.125 𝑚𝑚
Limits of the shaft are: 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑19.950 𝑚𝑚 Limits of the hole are: 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑20.100 𝑚𝑚
 Interference fit on hole basis system

Compute the limit dimensions for interference fit on the hole basis system for a basic (0.025 mm) (0.050 mm)
size of 20 mm diameter with a negative clearance or maximum interference of 0.100 mm,
tolerance on the hole 0.025 mm and tolerance on the shaft 0.050 mm.

Given: Hole Basis System; Basic size of hole = 20 mm; Negative

clearance = -0.100 mm(Maximum interference); Tolerance on the hole = 0.025
mm; Tolerance on the shaft = 0.050 mm.

Computation: ✓ Maximum interference = Minm hole – Maxm shaft

✓ Lower deviation of hole is zero(EI = 0)
In the hole basis system: ✓ Minimum interference = Maxm hole – Minm shaft
Minimum limit of the hole = Basic size of the hole = 20 mm.
Maximum limit of the hole = Minimum limit of the hole + Tolerance on the hole = Φ20.000+0.025 = Φ20.025 mm.
Maximum limit of the shaft = Minimum limit of the hole – Maximum interference = Φ20.000- (-0.100) = Φ20.100 mm.
Minimum limit of the shaft = Maximum limit of the shaft – Tolerance on the shaft = Φ20.100-0.050 = Φ20.050 mm.

Thus,
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑20.100 𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡 = 𝜑20.025 𝑚𝑚
Limits of the shaft are: 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑20.050 𝑚𝑚 Limits of the hole are: 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜑20.000 𝑚𝑚
 Interference fit on shaft basis system

Compute the limit dimensions for interference fit on the shaft basis system for a basic (0.025 mm)
(0.050 mm)
size of 20 mm diameter with a negative clearance or maximum interference of 0.100 mm,
tolerance on the hole 0.025 mm and tolerance on the shaft 0.050 mm.

Given: Shaft Basis System; Basic size of shaft = 20 mm; Negative

clearance = -0.100 mm(Maximum interference); Tolerance on the hole = 0.025
mm; Tolerance on the shaft = 0.050 mm

✓ Maximum interference = Minm hole – Maxm shaft

✓ Upper deviation of shaft is zero(es = 0)
✓ Minimum interference = Maxm hole – Minm shaft
 METHODS OF INDICATING FITS

✓ Tolerance symbol of the hole must be placed before that of ✓ The dimensions of each of the components of the
the shaft as in A. assembled parts should be preceded by the name as
✓ Tolerance symbol of the hole must be placed above that of in A or item reference as in B.
the shaft as in B. ✓ In both the cases, the dimension for the hole must be
✓ When it is necessary to specify the numerical values of the placed above that of the shaft.
deviations, they should be written in brackets as in C.
Geometrical Tolerance
✓ The tolerances for the sizes, called linear tolerances, are
specified only to ensure that the actual manufacturing sizes are
well within the acceptable limits.
✓ A shaft may have its diameter well within the specified limits of
size, but may not be truly circular.
✓ Similarly, a square slot may not have its surfaces exactly
perpendicular or a hole may not have its center correctly located.
✓ Thus it necessitates to specify the permissible deviations not
only for its sizes but also for the geometrical variations in the
form of surfaces and the variations for their locations.
✓ The geometry variations are called form variation and the
location variations are called position variation.
✓ Specifying of the permissible variations for both form and
position using symbols and letters is called geometrical
tolerancing.
 UNIT 4
SURFACE TEXTURE
4. SURFACE TEXTURE
Nominal surface - Roughness - Waviness - Lay - Sampling length - Indication of surface roughness by
roughness values, roughness grade number, roughness symbols - Indication of surface roughness by surface
texture symbol with all the characteristics.

✓ SURFACE TEXTURE – It is defined as a degree of finish conveyed to the machinist by a system of symbols devised by a
Standards Association, e.g., ASA – American Standards Association; BS – British Standards; BIS – Bureau of Indian
Standards etc.,
✓ These symbols provide a standard system of determining and indicating surface finish.
✓ Unit for surface finish: micrometer(μm).
✓ Modern technology demands improved surface finish to ensure proper functioning and long life of machine parts.
✓ Piston, bearings, and gears depend to a great extent on a good surface finish for proper functioning.
✓ Finer finishes often require additional operation, such as lapping or honing.
✓ Higher or finer finishes result in higher production costs.
✓ Finer finishes are not always required on parts.
✓ To prevent over-finishing a part, the desired finish is indicated on the shop drawing.
SURFACE TEXTURE TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

NOMINAL SURFACE (Fig. A)

✓ The surface of an object is its exterior boundary.
✓ Nominal surface is a surface that has been finished by any one of the machining
processes contains numerous small peaks and valleys that deviate from the
geometrically perfect surface.
FLAWS
✓ Flaws or defects are random irregularities, such as scratches, cracks, holes,
depression, seams, tears or inclusions.
✓ These defects can be caused during machining or production processes such as
moulding, drawing, forging etc.,
✓ For eg., holes caused by air bubbles during casting, crack and tears by forging
and drawing process.
 LAY
✓ Lay or directionality, is the direction of predominant
surface pattern caused by the machining process and it
is usually visible to the naked eye.
✓ The direction of lay is determined by the production
method employed.

ROUGHNESS (Fig. B)
✓ It is defined as the closely spaced, irregular deviation on a scale smaller than that of waviness.
✓ It is the micro irregularity of a surface produced by cutting tool or the abrasive grain action and the machine feed.
✓ Roughness may be superimposed on waviness.
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT
✓ Roughness height is the deviation to the centreline in micrometres.
ROUGHNESS WIDTH
✓ Roughness width is the distance between successive roughness peaks parallel to the nominal surface in millimetres.
WAVINESS (Fig. C)
✓ Waviness is a recurrent deviation from a flat surface much like the waves on the surface of water.
✓ It is the surface undulations of larger magnitudes.
✓ Waviness can be caused by:
1. deflection of tools, dies or the work piece. 2. force or temperature sufficient to cause warping
3. uneven lubrication 4. vibrations 5. any periodic mechanical or thermal variations on the system during
machining operations.
SAMPLING OR CUT-OFF LENGTH
✓ It is a particular length of the profile decided for the evaluation of the surface irregularities on any chosen portion of the
machined surface.
✓ The sampling length is selected depending upon the type of machining process.
✓ It is recommended to choose smaller value for the finer grade and the larger value for the coarser grade for a given machining
process when more than one values are given.
SYMBOLS FOR INDICATING SURFACE TEXTURE
 STANDARD SYMBOLS TO DESCRIBE SURFACE TEXTURE/FINISH

✓ The surface roughness may be indicated in the basis symbol by

1. Roughness value in micrometre
2. Roughness grade numbers
3. Triangle symbol
BIS recommends the first two types for indicating the surface roughness.

✓ Sometimes, the roughness number is used as a

substitute for the roughness value, for eg., N7 is equal
to 1.6 μm.
 UNIT 5
THREADED FASTENERS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
5. THREADED FASTENERS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Screw thread terminology - Basic forms of screw threads - Standard forms of V threads - Basic form of square threads -Modified forms of square
threads - Basic knuckle thread - Standard form of knuckle thread Conventional representation of internal V thread and external V thread - Square
thread - Designation of threads - Empirical proportions of hexagon and square head bolt and nut.

Screw
 Screw is a cylindrical rod with a helical groove cut on it.
 Screw transforms the input motion of rotation into output motion of translation.

 Screw thread is a temporary fastener.

 A screw thread is a continuous helical ridge formed by cutting a helical groove on a cylindrical or conical
shank.
 Screw threads are used
1. to fasten the parts together.
2. to transmit motion and power.
 To perform the above functions, threads of different profiles are used.

 External thread is the

thread cut on the outer
surface of rod.
 Internal thread is the
thread cut on the inner
surface of a hole.
 Root – It is the bottom portion of the surface of a
thread, either flat or rounded which joins the sides
of the adjacent threads.
 Crest – It is the top portion of the surface of a
thread, either flat or rounded which joins the sides
of the same thread.
 Flank or side – It is the surface of a thread that
connects the crest with the root and also it offers
the surface contact with its counterpart.
 Angle of the thread – It is the angle included
between the sides of the two adjacent threads.
 Depth of the thread – It is the distance between
the crest and the root of a thread which is
measured normal to the axis. It is designated as
h 3.
 Nominal diameter – It is the diameter of the
cylindrical rod on which the threads are cut. This
diameter specifies the size of the screw.
 Major diameter – It is the diameter of an
imaginary coaxial cylinder which bounds the
crests of an external thread or the roots of an
internal thread.
D – Major diameter of internal thread.
d – Major diameter of external thread.
 Minor or core or root diameter - It is the diameter
of an imaginary coaxial cylinder which bounds the
roots of an external thread or the crests of an
internal thread.
DI – Minor diameter of internal thread.
d3 – Minor diameter of external thread.
 Pitch Diameter - It is the diameter of the thread at
which an imaginary coaxial cylinder that can be
passed so as to cut the thread so that the width of
the cut thread will be equal to the width of the
groove.

 Height of the fundamental triangle, H – The

imaginary equilateral triangle, ABC, which bounds
a V-thread.
 Pitch – It is the distance from a point on a screw thread
to a corresponding point on the next thread, measured
parallel to the axis.
It may be indicated as the distance from crest to crest
or from root to root, but the former is the convention.
 Lead – It is the axial distance advanced by a nut for its
one full turn over a threaded rod.
For single start thread: Lead = pitch
For double start thread: Lead = 2 x pitch
For triple start thread: Lead = 3 x pitch
 Also, Lead = no of starts x pitch
BASIC PROFILES OF SCREW THREADS Basic Forms of V Threads
1. Whitworth Thread – British Standard

Fastening Device 2. Sellers Thread – Earlier American Standard

3. Unified Thread – ISO Thread – Indian Standard
• Triangular profile known as V thread
Basic Form of Square Thread
Indian Standard
Power Transmission Element
Modified Forms of Square Threads
• Square thread 1. ACME Thread
2. Traphezoidal Thread – Indian Standard substitute
for ACME Thread
3. Buttress Thread
4. Saw Tooth Thread - Indian Standard substitute
for Buttress Thread
5. Basic Knuckle Thread
Standard Form of Knuckle Thread
Basic Profile Basic Forms Abbreviation Thread Angle

Whitworth Thread –
BSW 55⁰
British Standard

V Thread
Sellers Thread –
Earlier American 60⁰

Standard

Unified Thread –
ISO Thread – 60⁰

Indian Standard
Basic Profile Basic Forms Thread
Angle
 Indian Standard
 The flank or the sides
of the this thread are
perpendicular to the
Basic Form of
axis of the thread.
Square Thread 90⁰
 The depth and
thickness of the thread
is equal to half the
pitch.
 Depth of internal thread
= 0.5P + 0.25 mm
Basic Profile Basic Forms Thread
Angle
 ACME Thread
- Unlike the square thread it
is easier to cut and is
stronger at the root.
Modified Forms - The inclined sides of the
of Square thread facilitate quick and
Threads easy engagement and
29⁰
disengagement (Eg., split
nut of the lead screw of
lathe).
Application: Power screws
like brake screws, jack
screws and on the valve
operating screws for axial
power transmission.
Basic Profile Basic Forms Thread
Angle
 Trapezoidal Thread
 Indian standard substitute
for ACME Thread
 Trapezoidal Thread is 30⁰
designated as: Tr 40 x 7
40 – Nominal Diameter
Modified Forms 7 – Pitch

of Square  Buttress Thread

- Combination of square and V
Threads 45⁰
threads, combining the
advantages of the square
thread like ability to transmit vices and

power and low frictional breech

resistance with the strength of locks of

the V thread. guns to

Application: For transmitting resist the

unidirectional load in screw press, recoil.

 Basic Basic Forms Thread
Profile Angle

 Saw Tooth Thread

 Indian standard substitute for
Buttress Thread.
 ISO thread profile adopted by 30⁰
BIS in preference to Buttress
Modified thread.
Forms of  Basic Knuckle Thread

Square  Sharp corners of the square thread

which are liable for damage are
Threads
rounded off.
Advantage: It can be rolled in a sheet
metal or cast so as to have shallow
depths which makes its use on electric
bulbs and sockets, bottle tops, etc.,
Application: Used where heavy wear
and rough use is expected as in railway
carriage for coupling screw.
 Basic Basic Forms Thread
Profile Angle

 Standard Form of Knuckle

Thread
 ISO thread profile adopted by
BIS in preference to the basic
knuckle thread. 30⁰
Modified
 Knuckle Thread is designated
Forms of
as: K 10 x 2.54
Square
10 – Nominal Diameter
Threads
2.54 – Pitch
 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF V PROFILE THREADS – EXTERNAL THREAD

 The external v threads are represented by two thin

continuous lines on the non-circular view, and by a thin
complete circle for about three fourth of its circumference on
the circular view.

 The thin lines must be drawn at a distance equal to

0.9xdiameter of the rod.

 When the externally added parts are to be shown in section,

the thin lines and incomplete thin circle representing the root
diameter must be drawn on the hatched area.
 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF V PROFILE THREADS – INTERNAL THREAD

CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF SQUARE & OTHER FORMS OF THREADS

 The form of thread should be indicated as above in the case of square thread profile.
DESIGNATION OF THREADS  Threads are designated by indicating: the type of thread, the major diameter and the pitch.

 V-threads of ISO profile are designated by the letter M followed by major diameter and pitch
as M10x1.25; M representing Metric Thread; 10 – Major Diameter; 1.25 – Pitch;

 V-threads designated without indicating the pitch; it means the threads are cut with coarse pitch, whose
values is to obtained from the relevant Indian Standard Codes.

 Multi-start threads are designated by specifying the number of starts.

 Screw threads are always considered as right hand unless otherwise specified.
 When left hand threads are used, the abbreviation LH must be used.

 Square threads are designated by the □ symbol.

 Trapezoidal threads are designated by the letters Tr.
 EMPIRICAL PROPORTIONS OF HEXAGON AND SQUARE HEAD BOLT & NUT

DETAIL PROPORTIONS
Nominal Diameter d = Size of bolt or Nut, mm
Width Across Flats S = 1.5d + 3 mm
Width Across Corners e = 2d
Thickness of Bolt Head k = 0.8 d
Thickness of Nut m = 0.9 d
Root Diameter d1 = d – (2 x Depth of thread) or
= d – (4 x Thickness of lines) or
= 0.9 d (approximate)

Length of Bolt l = As specified

Thread Length b = 2d + 6 mm (for l < 150 mm)

= 2d + 12 mm ( for l > 150 mm)
Radius of Bolt End r = d ( for spherical ends)
Chamfer of Bolt End Z = Depth of thread x 45° or
= 0.1 d ( Approximate)
Chamfer Angle of Bolt Head & Nut 30°
 EMPIRICAL PROPORTIONS OF HEXAGON AND SQUARE HEAD BOLT & NUT

DETAIL PROPORTIONS
Nominal Diameter d = Size of bolt or Nut, mm
Width Across Flats S = 1.5d + 3 mm
Width Across Corners e = 2d
Thickness of Bolt Head k = 0.8 d
Thickness of Nut m = 0.9 d
Root Diameter d1 = d – (2 x Depth of thread) or
= d – (4 x Thickness of lines) or
= 0.9 d (approximate)

Length of Bolt l = As specified

Thread Length b = 2d + 6 mm (for l < 150 mm)

= 2d + 12 mm ( for l > 150 mm)
Radius of Bolt End r = d ( for spherical ends)
Chamfer of Bolt End Z = Depth of thread x 45° or
= 0.1 d ( Approximate)
 UNIT 6
RIVETED JOINTS, WELDED JOINTS AND KEYS
6. RIVETED JOINTS, WELDED JOINTS AND KEYS
Application of riveted joints - Difference between a bolt and a rivet - Disadvantages of riveted joints - Types of
riveted joints - Empirical proportions of riveted joints - Types of welded joints - Symbolic representation of weld -
Elementary weld symbols - Keys - Application of keys.

FASTENERS

 A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together.
 It is defined as a hardware which can be easily installed and removed with hand tool or power tool.
 Fasteners have only one intended function which is to clamp two parts together.
 Fasteners are not meant to position parts relative to one another.
 They are also not meant to function as pivots, axles and fulcrums.
 Common fasteners include screws, bolts, nuts, keys and rivets.
 Male fasteners – Hexagonal headed bolt, slotted head bolt, countersunk head bolt, square headed bolt, round
head bolt etc.,
 Female fasteners – Hexagonal nuts, lock nuts, square headed nuts etc.,
 The most widely mechanical property associated with standard threaded fasteners is tensile strength.
 Over 90 % of all fasteners are made of carbon steel.

Temporary fasteners

• Removable – which permits the parts to be readily disconnected without damaging the fastener – Nuts and Bolts
• semi-permanent type where the parts can be disconnected, but some damage usually occurs to the fastener – Cotter pin,
Keys.

Permanent fasteners

• Permanent type where the parts are never be disassembled – Rivets, welded joints
 RIVETS AND RIVETED JOINTS

 A riveted joint is permanent type of fastener used to join the metal plates or rolled steel sections together.
Applications:
- Used in structural works such as bridges and roof trusses,
- Used in the construction of pressure vessels such as storage tanks, boilers etc.,

 What is advantages of riveted joints over welded joints?

- Although welded joints are best suited to several of these
applications than the riveted joints, however, riveted joints are ideal in
cases where the joints will be subjected to pronounced vibrating
loads.
 Riveted joints are also used when a non-metallic plate and a metallic plate are to be connected together.
 They are also used when the joints are not subjected to heating while joining as in welding, which may cause
warping and tempering of the finished surfaces of the joints.

Warping - make or become bent or twisted out of shape, typically as a result of the effects of heat.
Tempering – increases ductility thereby decreasing the brittleness.

Disadvantages of riveted joints are:

1. More metal is removed while making the holes which weakens the working cross sections along the line of
centers of the rivet holes.
2. Weight of the rivets increase the weight of the riveted members.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A BOLT AND A RIVET

 Although the shape of the rivet is similar to that of a bolt, unlike the bolts, its shank end is not
threaded.
 Rivet is used as a permanent fastener to withstand shear forces acting perpendicular to its axis.
 Bolt is used as a temporary fastener to withstand axial tensile forces.
 RIVETS

 A rivet is a round rod made of mild steel or non-ferrous materials such as Cu, Al etc., with a head, of any one
of the shapes shown below, formed at one end and a tail end being slightly tapered.
 The length of the shank of the rivet must be sufficient enough to accommodate the connecting plates and also
provide enough material for forming a head at its shank end.
 Length of shank of the rivet = sum of thickness of connecting plates + (1.5 to 1.7)(diameter of the rivet).
 i.e., l = Σt + (1.5 to 1.7)d.

 Riveting – It is the process of forming a well shaped

concentric head from the projection portion of the shank
end of the rivet inserted in the holes previously drilled in
the plates to be fastened, without allowing it to develop an
initial stress so that it can take up the working shear load.
 The riveting process involves:
- Making the holes in the plates
- Formation of the rivet head.
 RIVETING

 The holes drilled in the plates have to be slightly larger

than the diameter of the rivet as shown, so that the rivet
shank fills the hole after forming the rivet head.
 For general purposes, the rivet hole will be 1.5 to 2 mm
greater than the diameter of the rivet.
 For boiler work, the rivet hole will be 1 to 2 mm greater
than the diameter of the rivet.
 After making the holes, the rivets heated earlier in a
furnace are inserted in the holes.
 The head of the rivet is pressed against the bearing plate
Pneumatic riveting
by a supporting aid called ‘dolly’, while the tail end is
gun for industrial
hammered or squeezed and then using a hollowed tool riveting.
having a recess of the same shape of the rivet head, the
required head is formed.
FORMS & PROPORTIONS OF
RIVET HEADS
 Various forms of rivet heads
for use in general
engineering work and boiler
work as recommended by
BIS are shown.
 The different proportions of
these rivet heads are given in
terms of nominal diameter, d,
of the rivet.
 For general purpose:
Diameter of rivet head is
below 12 mm :- IS: 2155-
1962.
 For diameters between 12
and 48 mm :- IS: 1929-1961.
 For boiler work :- IS: 1928-
1961.
 For ship building :- IS: 4732-1968.
 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS

 LAP JOINTS
- The simplest way to connect two plates by riveting, is to overlap
them over a short distance along their edges and drill a row of
holes through both of them in the overlapped portion and a joint
is made by riveting.

 BUTT JOINTS
- When the plates are subjected to heavy loads, the connecting
plates are placed in alignment so as to butt each other and a
cover plate called strap is placed over the joint between them
and riveted to hold both the plates together.
- In a butt joint, the load is transferred from one of the butt plates
Butt joint with single strap/cover
to the cover plate and then from the cover plate to the other butt
plate. Buckling occurs due to this pull
- With this kind of arrangement, the rivets will be subjected to Butt joint with single strap is also subjected to buckling which can be
shear forces for which they are designed. avoided by placing one more cover at the bottom.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LAP JOINTS

SINGLE RIVETED LAP JOINT

- When only one row of rivets are used to

make a lap joint, then it is called single
riveted lap joint.
 DOUBLE RIVETED LAP JOINT

 When the lapping width of the plates is more, one row of rivets may not be sufficient to withstand the shearing load and
prevent the buckling of the lapping plates.
 In such cases, to prevent the buckling of the lapping plates, one more row of rivets are used. It is called double riveted lap
joint.
 If three rows of rivets are used to make a joint, then it is called treble riveted lap joint.
 When more than one row of rivets are used, the rivets are arranged in
(a) chain formation (chain riveting)
- rivets in the adjoining rows are placed directly opposite to each other.
- generally used in the structural work.
Adv: Greater number of rivets can be provided per meter length than zig-zag which reduces the bearing pressure on the
rivets.
(b) zig-zag formation (zig-zag riveting)
- rivets in the adjoining rows are staggered to place the rivets in between those of the previous row.
- generally used in the boiler construction.
DOUBLE RIVETED LAP JOINT
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUTT JOINTS - SINGLE RIVETED BUTT JOINT

 Although two rows of rivets are used to make a simple butt joint, since each of the butt plates are connected to the cover plates by only one row of
rivets, the joint is called single riveted butt joint with double cover plates.
 If the two rows of rivets are used for each of the butt plates, then the joint is called double riveted butt joint with double cover plates.
 If three rows of rivets are used for each of the butt plates, then the joint is called treble riveted butt joint with double cover plates.
 The rows of rivets in double and treble riveted butt joints will be arranged in chain or zig-zag form.
 TERMINOLOGY USED IN RIVETED JOINTS
 Longitudinal pitch, p
- It is the distance from the center of one rivet to
the center of next rivet in the same row measured
parallel to the caulking edge of the plate.
 Margin, m
- It is the distance between the edge of the plate
and the nearest rivet hole.
- margin = diameter of the rivet.
- since m = d, the distance between the center of
the rivet and the caulked edge of the plate will
always be equal to 1.5d.
 Transverse pitch, pt
- It is the perpendicular distance between the
rows of rivets. It is called row pitch.
 Diagonal pitch, pd
- It is the distance from the center of a rivet in a
row to the center of the next rivet in the adjoining
row.
 DIAMOND OR LOZENZE JOINT

 This is a particular kind of butt joint with single or double cover plates in which the rivets will be arranged as shown.
 This arrangement of rivets provides the most efficient joint as along the section AA, the plate is weakened due to only one rivet hole.
 Along the section BB, the plate is weakened due to two rivet holes, but before the plate can fail on this section, the rivet on AA must also fail in
shear. Therefore the joint is stronger on BB.
Application:
- To connect tie bars in bridges and roof structural works.
 WELDED JOINTS

 Welding is a process of fastening metal parts together permanently.

 Both ferrous (steel, CI, ferrous alloys) and non-ferrous metals (Br, Cu, Al) can be joined by welding.

Pressure welding or forge welding

• Two parts around the joints are heated to the plastic state and then joined together by applying the external pressure.
• WI and low carbon steels can be pressure welded.

Fusion welding (Eg: Gas welding and arc welding)

• Parts around the joints are heated to the liquid state and then the weld metal called filler metal is added in the molten state
to fill the space between the parts being welded which forms the joint when cooled.

 Resistance welding employs both the pressure welding and fusion welding principles.
 FIVE BASIC TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF WELD

 Arrow line: Pointing to the point where the weld is to be made.

 Dual reference line: It consists of two parallel lines: continuous and dashed line.
 Weld symbol: A basic symbol to specify the type of weld.
 A supplementary symbol to characterize the shape of the external surface of the
weld.
 Dimension of the weld.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF REFERENCE LINES AND
PLACING OF WELD SYMBOL ELEMENTARY AND SUPPLEMENTARY WELD SYMBOLS

 Weld symbols may be placed above the reference line as

in A and D or below the reference line as in B and C.
 Weld symbols will be placed on the continuous reference
line if the weld is on the arrow side of the joint as in A and
B.
 Weld symbols will be placed on the dashed reference line
if the weld is on the other side of the joint as in C and D.
 For symmetrical welds, the dashed line is omitted and
the weld symbols are shown above and beneath the
continuous reference line.
DIMENSIONING OF WELDS Main dimensions required to make a welded joint are:
 Size of the weld
- Minimum distance from the surface of the part up to the
bottom of the penetration
- Height of the largest isosceles triangle in the case of fillet
welds.
- Size will be indicated on the left hand side of the weld
symbol.
 Length of the weld
- Length of the weld will be indicated on the right hand side of
the weld symbol.
 For fillet welds, either the throat thickness ‘a’ or the leg length
‘z’ are indicated.
 In Fig. C: a5 300 means that the weld is a fillet weld of
throat thickness 5 mm and length of the weld is 300 mm.
 In Fig. D: z7 300 means that the weld is a fillet weld of leg
length 7 mm and length of the weld is 300 mm.
 KEYS

 Keys are temporary fasteners.

 Keys are used to transmit power from the shaft to the parts to which it is connected.
 There is no relative rotation between them to effect the transmission from one to the other.
 Key will be driven such that it sits partly into the shaft and partly into the part mounted on it.
 To insert the key, axial grooves, called key ways are cut both in the shaft and the part mounted on it.
 While transmitting power, the key will be subjected to shear and crushing forces.
 Keys are extensively used to hold pulleys, gears, couplings, clutches, sprockets etc., and the shafts rigidly so that they
rotate together.
 Keys are also used to mount the milling cutters, grinding wheels, etc., on their spindles.

uniform width
and tapering thickness
 TYPES OF KEYS

 Various types of keys are used for securing the hub of a pulley or a flange or a machine part over a shaft. They are:
 Sunk key (Taper sunk key, Parallel sunk key)
 Saddle key (Taper key)
 Flat key (Taper key)
 Gib-head key (Taper key)
 Feather key
 Peg key (Parallel or Feather key)
 Single head key (Parallel or Feather key)
 Double head key (Parallel or Feather key)
 Spline shaft (Parallel or Feather key)
 Woodruff key
 Pin key
 Cone key
 CLASSIFICATION OF KEYS

 Keys are classified into two types namely:

1. Taper keys
- Taper key is of rectangular cross section having uniform width and tapering thickness.
- Taper keys are used to transmit only the torque (turning moment) between the shaft and the hub without any relative
rotational and axial motion between them.
2. Parallel or feather keys
- Parallel key is also of rectangular cross section of uniform width and thickness throughout.
- Parallel keys are used to transmit the turning moment between the shaft and the hub along with the provision to allow a
small sliding axial motion between them wherever required.
 Woodruff key, cone key and pin key are the special purpose keys used for specific applications.
 SUNK TAPER KEY

 It is of rectangular or square cross section of uniform width having its bottom surface straight and top surface tapered.
 This key is driven between the shaft and the hub with half of its thickness to fit in the flat key way made in the shaft
and the other half having the tapered surface to fit in the tapered key way made in the hub.
 Used to transmit heavy loads.
 HOLLOW SADDLE KEY

 It is of uniform width but tapering in thickness having its upper side flat and the underside hollow so as to sit on a shaft.
 Since the saddle key holds the shaft and the part mounted on it only by friction, it is not suitable for heavy loads.
 This key is used when there is frequent alterations in the position of the key on the shaft is expected.
 FLAT SADDLE KEY

 A flat saddle key is similar to a hollow saddle key, except its underneath surface is flat.
 The key sits over the flat surface formed on the shaft and fits into the key way in the hub.
 This key is not suitable heavy loads and cannot be used for shafts which frequently change their direction of rotation.
 GIB-HEAD KEY

 When a tapered sunk key is used, it can be removed by striking at its exposed thin end.
 If this end is not accessible, a head called gib is provided integral with the sunk taper key at its thicker end.
 When a gib-head is to be removed, a wedge is forced vertically in the gap between the head of the key and the vertical
face of the hub.
 FEATHER KEY OR PARALLEL KEY

 A feather key or a parallel key permits an axial sliding movement for the wheel over a shaft when both of them are
rotating together.
 This kind of arrangement is required in several power transmission applications like gear boxes, loose pulleys, clutches,
universal coupling and flexible types of coupling.
 In a gear box, any one of the driven gears have to moved axially over the driven shaft so as to engage with the driving
gear to obtain different speeds.
 PEG KEY

 A peg key is a feather type of key having a peg provided in the center of the top face of the key.
 The peg fits in the hole drilled in the key way in the hub.
 The key is a sliding fit in the key way of the shaft.
 SINGLE HEAD KEY DOUBLE HEAD KEY

 A single head key is a feather key provided  A double head key is a feather key having integral gib-
with a gib-head at one of its ends. head at its ends.
 The key is connected to the hub by a  It fits tight in the hub and slides along with it in the key way
screw. in the shaft.
 The key is a sliding fit in the shaft.  The key is a sliding fit in the shaft.
 SPLINE SHAFT

 A spline shaft has a series of lengthwise rectangular grooves extending for a small portion of its length leaving an equal
number of feathers in between them.
 These feathers engage with the corresponding recesses provided in the hub.
 Advantages of spline shaft
- transmission of heavier loads.
- accurate centering of hub.
- increased strength of the joint.
 WOODRUFF KEY

 Used in light classes of work for holding the hub over the shaft so as to prevent it from slipping.
 It is not designed to withstand shear force.
 It has a uniformly thick curved-base of shape somewhat less than a semicircle.
 It fits into a similarly shaped key way in the tapered shaft or the spindle.
 PIN KEY CONE KEY

 A pin key is either a plain or tapered rod driven in the hole  A cone key consists of three segments of a hollow conical
partly drilled in the shaft and partly in the hub. bush.
 Used generally to hold small toothed wheels, hand  The hub of the pulley will have a tapered bore to suit that
wheels, levers, etc., on the spindles to prevent them from of the cone key.
slipping.  The segments of the cone key are driven between the
 It is also used with shrunk-on wheel hub. shaft and the hub so as to hold them from slipping by the
friction grip.
 Used when pulleys having holes larger than the shaft are
to be mounted on them.