COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

A Computer is an electronic device that stores, manipulates and retrieves the

data. We can also refer computer computes the information supplied to it and
generates data.
A System is a group of several objects with a process. For Example: Educational
System involves teacher, students (objects). Teacher teaches subject to students i.e.,
teaching (process). Similarly a computer system can have objects and process.
The following are the objects of computer System
a) User ( A person who uses the computer)
b) Hardware
c) Software

Hardware: Hardware of a computer system can be referred as anything which we

can touch and feel. Example : Keyboard and Mouse.
The hardware of a computer system can be
classified as Input Devices(I/P)
Processing Devices
(CPU) Output
Devices(O/P)

ALU: It performs the Arithmetic and Logical Operations such as

+,-,*,/ (Arithmetic
Operators) &&, || ( Logical
Operators)
CU: Every Operation such as storing , computing and retrieving the data should be
governed by the control unit.
MU: The Memory unit is used for storing the
data. The Memory unit is classified into two
types.
They are 1) Primary Memory
2) Secondary Memory

Primary memory: The following are the types of memoruies which are treated as
primary ROM: It represents Read Only Memory that stores data and instructions even
when the computer is turned off. The Contents in the ROM can‘t be modified once if
they are written . It is used to store the BIOS information.
RAM: It represents Random Access Memory that stores data and instructions when the
computer is turned on. The contents in the RAM can be modified any no. of times by
instructions. It is used to store the programs under execution.
Cache memory: It is used to store the data and instructions referred by processor.
Secondary Memory: The following are the different kinds of memories

Magnetic Storage: The Magnetic Storage devices store information that can be read,
erased and rewritten a number of times.
Example: Floppy Disks, Hard Disks, Magnetic Tapes

Optical Storage: The optical storage devices that use laser beams to read and write
stored data. Example:CD(Compact Disk),DVD(Digital Versatile Disk)

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software of a computer system can be referred as anything which we can feel

and see. Example: Windows, icons
Computer software is divided in to two broad categories: system software and
application software .System software manages the computer resources .It provides the
interface between the hardware and the users. Application software, on the other hand
is directly responsible for helping users solve their problems.

System Software

System software consists of programs that manage the hardware resources of a

computer and perform required information processing tasks. These programs are
divided into three classes: the operating system, system support, and system
development.
The operating system provides services such as a user interface, file and database
access, and interfaces to communication systems such as Internet protocols. The
primary purpose of this software is to keep the system operating in an efficient manner
while allowing the users access to the system.
System support software provides system utilities and other operating services.
Examples of system utilities are sort programs and disk format programs. Operating
services consists of programs that provide performance statistics for the operational
staff and security monitors to protect the system and data.
The last system software category, system development software, includes the
language translators that convert programs into machine language for execution
,debugging tools to ensure that the programs are error free and computer –assisted
software engineering(CASE) systems.

Application software

Application software is broken in to two classes: general-purpose software and

application – specific software. General purpose software is purchased from a
software developer and can be used for more than one application. Examples of
general purpose software include word processors, database management systems
,and computer aided design systems. They are labeled general purpose because they
can solve a variety of user computing problems.
Application –specific software can be used only for its intended purpose.

A general ledger system used by accountants and a material requirements planning

system used by a manufacturing organization are examples of application-specific
software. They can be used only for the task for which they were designed they cannot
be used for other generalized tasks.
The relationship between system and application software is shown below. In this
figure, each circle represents an interface point .The inner core is hard ware. The user
is represented by the out layer. To work with the system, the typical user uses some
form of application software. The application software in turn interacts with the operating
system, which is a part of the system software layer. The system software provides the
direct interaction with the hard ware. The opening at the bottom of the figure is the path
followed by the user who interacts directly with the operating system when necessary.
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS

The word compute‘ is used to refer to the process of converting information to

data. The advent of several new kinds of computers created a need to have different
computing environments.
The following are the different kinds of computing environments available
1. Personal Computing Environment
2. Time Sharing Environment
3. Client/Server Environment
4. Distributed Computing Environment
Personal Computing Environment

In 1971, Marcian E. Hoff, working for INTEL combined the basic elements of the
central processing unit into the microprocessor. If we are using a personal computer
then all the computer hardware components are tied together. This kind of computing is
used to satisfy the needs of a single user, who uses the computer for the personal
tasks.
Ex: Personal Computer

Time-Sharing Environment

The concept of time sharing computing is to share the processing of the

computer basing on the criteria time. In this environment all the computing must be
done by the central computer.
The complete processing is done by the central computer. The computer which ask for
processing are only dumb terminals.

Client/Server Environment

A Client/Server Computing involves

the processing between two machines. A client Machine is the one which requests
processing. Server Machine is the one which offers the processing. Hence the client is
Capable enough to do processing. A portion of processing is done by client and the
core(important) processing is done by Server.
Distributed Computing

A distributed computing environment provides a seamless integration of

computing functions between different servers and clients. A client not just a requestor
for processing the information from the server. The client also has the capability to
process information. All the machines Clients/Servers share the processing task.
 Example: Ebay on Internet

COMPUTER LANGUAGES

To write a program (tells what to do) for a computer, we must use a computer
language. Over the years computer languages have evolved from machine languages
to natural languages. The following is the summary of computer languages
1940‘s -- Machine Languages
1950‘s -- Symbolic Languages
1960‘s -- High Level
Languages
Machine Language

In the earliest days of computers, the only programming languages available

were machine languages. Each computer has its own machine language which is made
of streams of 0‘s and 1‘s. The instructions in machine language must be in streams of
0‘s and 1‘s. This is also referred as binary digits. These are so named as the machine
can directly understood the programs
Advantages:
1) High speed execution
2) The computer can understood instructions immediately

3) No translation is needed.
Disadvantages:
1) Machine dependent
2) Programming is very difficult
3) Difficult to understand
4) Difficult to write bug free programs
5) Difficult to isolate an error
 Example Additon of two numbers

2 0010
+ 3 0011

5 0101

Symbolic Languages (or) Assembly Language

In the early 1950‘s Admiral Grace Hopper, a mathematician and naval officer,
developed the concept of a special computer program that would convert programs into
machine language. These early programming languages simply mirrored the machine
languages using symbols or mnemonics to represent the various language instructions.
These languages were known as symbolic languages. Because a computer does not
understand symbolic language it must be translated into the machine language. A
special program called an Assembler translates symbolic code into the machine
language. Hence they are called as Assembly language.
Advantages:
1) Easy to understand and use
2) Easy to modify and isolate error
3) High efficiency

4) More control on hardware

Disadvantages:
1) Machine Dependent Language
2) Requires translator
3) Difficult to learn and write programs
4) Slow development time

5) Less efficient
Example:
2 PUSH 2,A
3 PUSH 3,B
+ ADD A,B
5 PRINT C
 High-Level Languages

The symbolic languages greatly improved programming efficiency they still

required programmers to concentrate on the hardware that they were using working
with symbolic languages was also very tedious because each machine instruction had
to be individually coded. The desire to improve programmer efficiency and to change
the focus from the computer to the problems being solved led to the development of
high-level languages.
High-level languages are portable to many different computer allowing the
programmer to concentrate on the application problem at hand rather than the
intricacies of the computer.
C A systems implementation Language
C++ C with object oriented enhancements
JAVA Object oriented language for internet and general applications using basic C
syntax

Advantages:
1) Easy to write and understand
2) Easy to isolate an error
3) Machine independent language
4) Easy to maintain
5) Better readability
6) Low Development cost
7) Easier to document

8) Portable
Disadvantages:
1) Needs translator
2) Requires high execution time
3) Poor control on hardware

4) Less efficient Example:C

language #include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
scanf("%d%d%",&a,&b);
 c=a+b;
printf("%d",c)
;
}

Difference between Machine, Assembly, High Level Languages

Feature Machine Assembly High Level

Form 0‘s and 1‘s Mnemonic codes Normal English
Machine Dependent Dependent Dependent Independent
Translator Not Needed Needed(Assembler) Needed(Compiler)
Execution Time Less Less High
Languages Only one Different Manufactgurers Different Languages
Nature Difficult Difficult Easy
Memory Space Less Less More

Language Translators

These are the programs which are used for converting the programs in one
language into machine language instructions, so that they can be excuted by the
computer.

1)Compiler:
It is a program which is used to convert the high level language
programs into machine language
2) Assembler:
It is a program which is used to convert the assembly level
language programs into machine language
3) Interpreter: It is a program, it takes one statement of a high level language
program, translates it into machine language instruction and then
immediately executes the resulting machine language instruction and
so on.
Comparison between a Compiler and Interpreter

COMPILER INTERPRETER
A Compiler is used to compile an An interpreter is used to translate each
entire program and an executable line of the program code immediately as
program is it is entered
generated through the object program
The executable program is stored in a The executable program is generated in
RAM
disk for future use or to run it in another
and the interpreter is required for each
computer
run of the program
The compiled programs run faster The Interpreted programs run slower
Most of the Languages use compiler A very few languages use interpreters.

CREATING AND RUNNING PROGRAMS

The procedure for turning a program written in C into machine Language. The process
is presented in a straightforward, linear fashion but you shuld recognize that these steps
are repeated many times during development to correct errors and make improvements
to the code.
The following are the four steps in this process
1) Writing and Editing the program
2) Compiling the program
3) Linking the program with the required modules
4) Executing the program
Sl. No. Phase Name of Code Tools File Extension
1 TextEditor Source Code C .C
Compilers
Edit,
Notepad Etc..,
2 Compiler Object Code C Compiler .OBJ
3 Linker Executable C Compiler .EXE
Code
4 Runner Executable C Compiler .EXE
Code

Writing and Editing Programs

The software used to write programs is known as a text editor. A text

editor helps us enter, change and store character data. Once we write the program in
the text editor we save it using a filename stored with an extension of .C. This file is
referred as source code file.
Compiling Programs

The code in a source file stored on the disk must be translated into machine
language. This is the job of the compiler. The Compiler is a computer program that
translates the source code written in a high-level language into the corresponding object
code of the low-level language. This translation process is called compilation. The entire
high level program is converted into the executable machine code file. The Compiler
which executes C programs is called as C Compiler. Example Turbo C, Borland C, GC
etc.,
The C Compiler is actually two separate programs:

T h e
Preprocessor
The Translator
The Preprocessor reads the source code and prepares it for the translator. While
preparing the code, it scans for special instructions known as preprocessor commands.
These commands tell the preprocessor to look for special code libraries. The result of
preprocessing is called the translation unit.
After the preprocessor has prepared the code for compilation, the translator does
the actual work of converting the program into machine language. The translator reads
the translation unit and writes the resulting object module to a file that can then be
combined with other precompiled units to form the final program. An object module is
the code in the machine language.

Linking Programs

The Linker assembles all functions, the program‘s functions and system‘s
functions into one executable program.

Executing Programs

To execute a program we use an operating system command, such as run, to

load the program into primary memory and execute it. Getting the program into memory
is the function of an operating system program known as the loader. It locates the
executable program and
reads it into memory. When everything is loaded the program takes control and it begin
execution.

ALGORITHM

Algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, each of which has a clear meaning and
can be performed with a finite amount of effort in a finite length of time. No matter what
the input values may be, an algorithm terminates after executing a finite number of
instructions.
We represent an algorithm using a pseudo language that is a combination of the
constructs of a programming language together with informal English statements.
The ordered set of instructions required to solve a problem is known as an
algorithm. The characteristics of a good algorithm are:
Precision – the steps are precisely stated (defined).

Uniqueness – results of each step are uniquely defined and only depend
on the input and the result of the preceding steps.
Finiteness – the algorithm stops after a finite number of instructions are executed.
Input – the algorithm receives input.
Output – the algorithm produces output.
Generality – the algorithm applies to a set of inputs.
Example

Q. Write a algorithem to find out number is odd or

even? Ans.
step 1 : start
step 2 : input number
step 3 : rem=number
mod 2 step 4 : if rem=0
then
print "number
even" else
print "number
odd" endif
step 5 : stop

FLOWCHART

Flowchart is a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm. Flowchart is very helpful in

writing program and explaining program to others.
Symbols Used In Flowchart

Different symbols are used for different states in flowchart, For example: Input/Output
and decision making has different symbols. The table below describes all the symbols
that are used in making flowchart

Symbol Purpose Description

Used to indicate the flow of logic by

Flow line
connecting symbols.

Terminal(Stop/Start) Used to represent start and end of flowchart.

Input/Output Used for input and output operation.

Used for airthmetic operations and

Processing
data- manipulations.

Used to represent the operation in which

Desicion
there are two alternatives, true and false.

On-page Connector Used to join different flowline

Off-page Connector Used to connect flowchart portion on different

page.

Predefined Used to represent a group of statements

Process/Functi performing one processing task.
on
Examples of flowcharts in programming
Draw a flowchart to add two numbers entered by user.
Draw flowchart to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.

INTRODUCTION TO C LANGUAGE

C is a general-purpose high level language that was originally developed by Dennis

Ritchie for the Unix operating system. It was first implemented on the Digital
Eqquipment Corporation PDP-11 computer in 1972.
 The Unix operating system and virtually all Unix applications are written in the C
language. C has now become a widely used professional language for various reasons.
Easy to learn
Structured language
It produces efficient programs.
It can handle low-level activities.
It can be compiled on a variety of computers.
Facts about C
C was invented to write an operating system called UNIX.
C is a successor of B language which was introduced around 1970

The language was formalized in 1988 by the American National Standard Institue
(ANSI).
By 1973 UNIX OS almost totally written in C.
Today C is the most widely used System Programming Language.
Most of the state of the art software have been implemented using C
Why to use C?

C was initially used for system development work, in particular the programs that make-
up the operating system. C was adoped as a system development language because it
produces code that runs nearly as fast as code written in assembly language. Some
examples of the use of C might be:
Operating Systems
Language Compilers
Assemblers
Text Editors
Print Spoolers
Network Drivers
Modern Programs
Data Bases
Language Interpreters

Utilities C
Program File
All the C programs are writen into text files with extension ".c" for example hello.c. You
can use "vi" editor to write your C program into a file.

HISTORY TO C LANGUAGE

C is a general-purpose language which has been closely associated with the UNIX
operating system for which it was developed - since the system and most of the
programs that run it are written in C.
Many of the important ideas of C stem from the language BCPL, developed by Martin
Richards. The influence of BCPL on C proceeded indirectly through the language B,
which was written by Ken Thompson in 1970 at Bell Labs, for the first UNIX system on a
DEC PDP-
7. BCPL and B are "type less" languages whereas C provides a variety of data types.

In 1972 Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs writes C and in 1978 the publication of The C
Programming Language by Kernighan & Ritchie caused a revolution in the computing
world.
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a committee to
provide a modern, comprehensive definition of C. The resulting definition, the ANSI
standard, or "ANSI C", was completed late 1988.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAMMING

 1. Documentation section: The documentation section consists of a set of
comment lines giving the name of the program, the author and other details,
which the programmer would like to use later.
2. Link section: The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link
functions from the system library such as using the #include directive.
3. Definition section: The definition section defines all symbolic constants such
using the #define directive.
4. Global declaration section: There are some variables that are used in more
than one function. Such variables are called global variables and are declared in
the global declaration section that is outside of all the functions. This section also
declares all the user-defined functions.
5. main () function section: Every C program must have one main function
section. This section contains two parts; declaration part and executable part
1. Declaration part: The declaration part declares all the variables used in
the executable part.
2. Executable part: There is at least one statement in the executable part.
These two parts must appear between the opening and closing braces.
The program execution begins at the opening brace and ends at the
closing brace. The closing brace of the main function is the logical end of
the program. All statements in the declaration and executable part end
with a semicolon.
6. Subprogram section: If the program is a multi-function program then the
subprogram section contains all the user-defined functions that are called in the
main () function. User-defined functions are generally placed immediately after
the main () function, although they may appear in any order.

PROCESS OF COMPILING AND RUNNING C PROGRAM

We will briefly highlight key features of the C Compilation model here.
 The C Compilation Model
The Preprocessor
The Preprocessor accepts source code as input and is responsible for
removing comments

Interpreting special preprocessor directives denoted by #. For

example
#include -- includes contents of a named file. Files usually called header files. e.g
o #include <math.h> -- standard library maths file.
o #include <stdio.h> -- standard library I/O file
#define -- defines a symbolic name or constant. Macro substitution.
o #define MAX_ARRAY_SIZE 100
C Compiler

The C compiler translates source to assembly code. The source code is

received from the preprocessor.
Assembler

The assembler creates object code. On a UNIX system you may see files with a
.o suffix (.OBJ on MSDOS) to indicate object code files.
Link Editor

If a source file references library functions or functions defined in other source files
the link editor combines these functions (with main()) to create an executable file.
C TOKENS
C KEYWORDS

C keywords are the words that convey a special meaning to the c compiler. The
keywords cannot be used as variable names.
The list of C keywords is given below:

auto break case char const

continue default do double else

enum extern float for goto

if int long register return

short signed sizeof static struct

switch typedef union unsigned void

volatile while
C IDENTIFIERS

Identifiers are used as the general terminology for the names of variables, functions
and arrays. These are user defined names consisting of arbitrarily long sequence of
letters and digits with either a letter or the underscore(_) as a first character.
There are certain rules that should be followed while naming c
identifiers: They must begin with a letter or underscore (_).
They must consist of only letters, digits, or underscore. No other special character is
allowed. It should not be a keyword.
It must not contain white space.

It should be up to 31 characters long as only first 31 characters are

significant. Some examples of c identifiers:
Name Remark
_A9 Valid
Temp.var Invalid as it contains special character other than the underscore
void Invalid as it is a keyword

C CONSTANTS

A C constant refers to the data items that do not change their value during the
program execution. Several types of C constants that are allowed in C are:
Integer Constants

Integer constants are whole numbers without any fractional part. It must have at least
one digit and may contain either + or – sign. A number with no sign is assumed to be
positive.
There are three types of integer constants:
Decimal Integer Constants

Integer constants consisting of a set of digits, 0 through 9, preceded by an optional –

or + sign. Example of valid decimal integer constants
341, -341, 0, 8972
Octal Integer Constants

Integer constants consisting of sequence of digits from the set 0 through 7 starting with
0 is said to be octal integer constants.
Example of valid octal integer
constants 010, 0424, 0, 0540
Hexadecimal Integer Constants

Hexadecimal integer constants are integer constants having sequence of digits

preceded by 0x or 0X. They may also include alphabets from A to F representing
numbers 10 to 15.
Example of valid hexadecimal integer
constants 0xD, 0X8d, 0X, 0xbD
It should be noted that, octal and hexadecimal integer constants are rarely used in
programming.
Real Constants

The numbers having fractional parts are called real or floating point constants.
These may be represented in one of the two forms called fractional form or the
exponent form and may also have either + or – sign preceding it.
Example of valid real constants in fractional form or decimal
notation 0.05, -0.905, 562.05, 0.015
Representing a real constant in exponent form

The general format in which a real number may be represented in exponential or

scientific form is
mantissa e exponent
The mantissa must be either an integer or a real number expressed in decimal notation.

The letter e separating the mantissa and the exponent can also be written in
uppercase i.e. E And, the exponent must be an integer.
Examples of valid real constants in exponent form are:
252E85, 0.15E-10, -3e+8
Character Constants

A character constant contains one single character enclosed within

single quotes. Examples of valid character constants
a‘ , Z‘, 5‘

It should be noted that character constants have numerical values known as ASCII
values, for example, the value of A‘ is 65 which is its ASCII value.
Escape Characters/ Escape Sequences
C allows us to have certain non graphic characters in character constants. Non graphic
characters are those characters that cannot be typed directly from keyboard, for
example, tabs, carriage return, etc.
These non graphic characters can be represented by using escape sequences
represented by a backslash() followed by one or more characters.
NOTE: An escape sequence consumes only one byte of space as it represents a single
character.

Escape Sequence Description

a Audible alert(bell)
b Backspace
f Form feed
n New line
r Carriage return
t Horizontal tab
v Vertical tab
\ Backslash
Double quotation mark
Single quotation mark
? Question mark
Null

STRING CONSTANTS
String constants are sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes. For example,
hello
abc
hello911

Every sting constant is automatically terminated with a special character „ called

thenull character which represents the end of the string.
For example, hello will represent hello in the memory.
Thus, the size of the string is the total number of characters plus one for the null character.
Special Symbols

The following special symbols are used in C having some special meaning and thus,
cannot be used for some other purpose.
[] () {} , ; : * … = #

Braces{}: These opening and ending curly braces marks the start and end of a
block of code containing more than one executable statement.
Parentheses(): These special symbols are used to indicate function calls
and function parameters.
Brackets[]: Opening and closing brackets are used as array element reference.
These indicate single and multidimensional subscripts.

VARIABLES

A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can
manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size and
layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that
memory; and the set of operations that can be applied to the variable.

The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore
character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and lowercase
letters are distinct because C is case-sensitive. Based on the basic types explained in
the previous chapter, there will be the following basic variable types

Type Description

char Typically a single octet(one byte). This is an integer type.

int The most natural size of integer for the machine.

float A single-precision floating point value.

double A double-precision floating point value.

void Represents the absence of type.

C programming language also allows defining various other types of variables like
Enumeration, Pointer, Array, Structure, Union, etc.

Variable Definition in C
A variable definition tells the compiler where and how much storage to create for the
variable. A variable definition specifies a data type and contains a list of one or more
variables of that type as follows
Here, type must be a valid C data type including char, w_char, int, float, double, bool,
or any user-defined object; and variable_list may consist of one or more identifier
names separated by commas. Some valid declarations are shown here
The line int i, j, k; declares and defines the variables i, j, and k; which instruct the
compiler to create variables named i, j and k of type int.

Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The

initializer consists of an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows
Some examples are
For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are implicitly
initialized with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all other variables
are undefined.
Variable Declaration in C
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there exists a variable
with the given type and name so that the compiler can proceed for further compilation
without requiring the complete detail about the variable. A variable definition has its
meaning at the time of compilation only; the compiler needs actual variable definition at
the time of linking the program. A variable declaration is useful when multiple files are
used.

OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS

C language offers many types of operators. They are,

1. Arithmetic operators
2. Assignment operators
3. Relational operators
4. Logical operators
5. Bit wise operators
6. Conditional operators (ternary operators)
7. Increment/decrement operators
8. Special operators

S.n Types of Operators Description

o

These are used to perform mathematical

calculations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and modulus
1 Arithmetic_operators

These are used to assign the values for the

2 Assignment_operators variables in C programs.

These operators are used to compare the value

3 Relational operators of two variables.
4 Logical operators
Theseoperators are used to perform logical
 operations on the given two variables.

These operators are used to perform bit

5 Bit wise operators operations on given two variables.

Conditional Conditional operators return one value if

6 (ternary) operators condition is true and returns another value is
condition is false.

Increment/decreme These operators are used to either increase or

7 nt operators decrease the value of the variable by one.

8 Special operators &, *, sizeof( ) and ternary operators.

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS IN C
C Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical calculations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and modulus in C programs.

Arithmeti
S.no c Operation Example
Operator
s

+ Addition A+B 2 –

Subtrac A-B 3 * multiplication

tion

4 / Division A/B 5

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR C ARITHMETIC

Modulus A OPERATORS
%
In this example program, two values 40 and 20 are
B used to perform arithmetic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
modulus and output is displayed for each
operation.
#include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{

int a=40,b=20,
add,sub,mul,div,mod; add = a+b;
sub = a-b;
mul = a*b;
div = a/b;
mod =
a%b;
printf("Addition of a, b is : %d\n", add);
printf("Subtraction of a, b is : %d\n", sub);
printf("Multiplication of a, b is : %d\n",
mul); printf("Division of a, b is : %d\n",
div); printf("Modulus of a, b is : %d\n",
mod);
}
Operators Example Explanation

Simple
assignme 10 is
nt assigned to
operator = sum = 10
variable sum

sum This is same

+= += 10 as sum = sum
+ 10

This is same
-= sum -= as sum = sum
10 – 10

sum This is same

*= *= 10 as sum = sum
* 10

This is same
/+ sum /= as sum =
10 sum / 10

This is same
sum as sum =
%= 10 sum % 10
%=

This is same
as sum =
sum & 10
&= sum&=10

Compoun sum This is same

d ^= ^= 10 as sum = sum
assignme ^ 10
n t
operators
# include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{

int Total=0,i;
for(i=0;i<10;i++
)
{

Total+=i; // This is same as Total = Toatal+i

printf("Total = %d", Total);

S.no Operators Example Description

x is greater
1 > x>y than y

2 < x<y x is less than y

x is greater
3 >= x >= y than or equal
to y

x is less than
4 <= x <= y or equal to y
 5 == x == y x is equal to y

x is not equal
6 != x != y to y

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR RELATIONAL OPERATORS IN C

In this program, relational operator (==) is used to compare 2 values whether they
are equal are not.
If both values are equal, output is displayed as values are equal. Else, output is
displayed as values are not equal.
Note: double equal sign (==) should be used to compare 2 values. We should not
single equal sign (=).
#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int
m=40,n=20; if
(m == n)
{

printf("m and n are equal");

else

printf("m and n are not equal");

}
S.no Operators Name Example Description

It returns
true when
logica both
l AND conditions
1 && (x>5)&&(y<5) are true

It returns
true when
at-least one
of the
logica condition is
2 || l OR (x>=10)||(y>=10) true

It reverses
the state of
the operand
((x>5) &&
(y<5))

If ((x>5)
&& (y<5)) is
true, logical
NOT
operator
logica makes it
3 ! l NOT !((x>5)&&(y<5)) false

#include
<stdio.h> int
 main()
{
int
m=40,n=20;
int
o=20,p=30;
if (m>n && m !=0)

printf("&& Operator : Both conditions are true\n");

if (o>p || p!=20)

printf("|| Operator : Only one condition is true\n");

if (!(m>n && m !=0))

printf("! Operator : Both conditions are true\n");

else

printf("! Operator : Both conditions are

true. " \ "But, status is inverted as false\n");
}

}
&& operator – if clause becomes true only when both conditions (m>n and m! =0) is
true. Else, it becomes false.
|| Operator – if clause becomes true when any one of the condition (o>p || p!=20) is
true. It becomes false when none of the condition is true.
! Operator – It is used to reverses the state of the operand.
If the conditions (m>n && m!=0) is true, true (1) is returned. This value is
inverted by ! operator.
So, ! (m>n and m! =0) returns false (0).

BIT WISE OPERATORS IN C

These operators are used to perform bit operations. Decimal values are converted into
binary values which are the sequence of bits and bit wise operators work on these bits.
Bit wise operators in C language are & (bitwise AND), | (bitwise OR), ~ (bitwise OR), ^
(XOR),
<< (left shift) and >> (right shift).

TRUTH TABLE FOR BIT WISE OPERATION BIT WISE OPERATORS

x x
& ^
y y
x y x|y Operator_symbol Operator_name

0 0 0 0 0 & Bitwise_AND

0 1 1 0 1 | Bitwise OR

1 0 1 0 1 ~ Bitwise_NOT

1 1 1 1 0 ^ XOR

<< Left Shift

Right Shift
All bit wise operations for x and y are given
below. x&y = 00000000 (binary) = 0 (decimal)
x|y = 01111000 (binary) = 120 (decimal)
~x = 11111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111111111111010111
.. ..= -41 (decimal)
x^y = 01111000 (binary) = 120
(decimal) x << 1 = 01010000 (binary) =
80 (decimal)
x >> 1 = 00010100 (binary) = 20 (decimal)

Note:
Bit wise NOT: Value of 40 in binary
is0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000010100000000000. So,
all 0‘s are
converted into 1‘s in bit wise NOT operation.
Bit wise left shift and right shift : In left shift operation x << 1 , 1 means that the bits
will be left shifted by one place. If we use it as x << 2 , then, it means that the bits will
be left shifted by 2 places.

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR BIT WISE OPERATORS IN C

In this example program, bit wise operations are performed as shown above and output
is displayed in decimal format.
#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int m = 40,n =
80,AND_opr,OR_opr,XOR_opr,NOT_opr ; AND_opr
= (m&n);
OR_opr = (m|n);
NOT_opr = (~m);
XOR_opr =
(m^n);
printf("AND_opr value = %d\n",AND_opr
); printf("OR_opr value = %d\n",OR_opr
); printf("NOT_opr value =
%d\n",NOT_opr );
printf("XOR_opr value = %d\n",XOR_opr
); printf("left_shift value = %d\n", m <<
1); printf("right_shift value = %d\n", m >>
1);
}

#include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{

int x=1, y ;

y = ( x ==1 ? 2 : 0 ) ;

printf("x value is %d\n",

x); printf("y value is %d",
y);
}

C – Increment/decrement
Operators PREVNEXT
Increment operators are used to increase the value of the variable by one and
decrement operators are used to decrease the value of the variable by one in C
programs.
Syntax:
Increment operator: ++var_name ;( or)
var_name++; Decrement operator: – -
var_name; (or) var_name – -;

Example:
Increment operator : ++ i ;i
++ ; Decrement operator : – – i ;
i––;
EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR INCREMENT OPERATORS IN C
In this program, value of i is incremented one by one from 1 up to 9 using i++ operator
and output is displayed as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9.
//Example for increment operators

#include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{

int i=1;
while(i<10
)
{

printf("%d ",i);
i++;
}

}
OUTPUT:

//Example for decrement

operators #include <stdio.h>
int main()

int i=20;
while(i>10
)
{

printf("%d
",i); i--;
}

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE/POST INCREMENT & DECREMENT OPERATORS

IN C
Below table will explain the difference between pre/post increment and decrement
operators in C.
S.no Operator type Operato Description
r
 incremented before
assigning it to variable
i.

Value of i is
incremented after
i++ assigning it to variable
2 Post–incremen i.
t
Value of i is
decremented before
— –i assigning it to variable
3 Pre decrement i.

Value of i is
decremented after
i– — assigning it to variable
4 Post_decreme i.
nt

//Example for increment

operators #include <stdio.h>
int main()

int i=0;
while(++i < 5
)
{

printf("%d ",i);

}
 return 0;

}
#include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{

int i=0;
while(i++ < 5
)
{

printf("%d ",i);

return 0;

}
#include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{

int i=10;
while(--i > 5
)
{

printf("%d ",i);

return 0;

OUTPUT:
9876

Step 1 : In above program, value of i is decremented from 10 to 9 using pre-

decrement operator.
Step 2 : This decremented value 9 is compared with 5 in while
expression. Step 3 : Then, this decremented value 9 is assigned to the
variable i.
Above 3 steps are continued until while expression becomes false and output is
displayed as
9 8 7 6.

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR POST – DECREMENT OPERATORS IN C:

#include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{
int i=10;
while(i-- > 5
)
{
 printf("%d ",i);

return 0;

Below are some of special operators that C language offers.

S.n Operator Description

o s

This is used to get the

address of the variable.

Example : &a will give

address of a.
1 &

This is used as pointer to a

variable.

Example : * a where, *
is pointer to the variable a.
2 *

This gives the size of the

variable.

Example : size of (char) will

give us 1.
3 Sizeof ()
#include
<stdio.h> int
main()
{

int *ptr,
q; q = 50;
/* address of q is assigned to
ptr */ ptr = &q;
/* display q's value using ptr
variable */ printf("%d", *ptr);
return 0;

OUTPUT:

50

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR SIZEOF() OPERATOR IN C

sizeof() operator is used to find the memory space allocated for each C data types.

#include
<stdio.h>
#include
<limits.h> int
main()
{

int a;
char
b;
float c;
double d;
printf("Storage size for int data type:%d
\n",sizeof(a)); printf("Storage size for char data
type:%d \n",sizeof(b)); printf("Storage size for float
data type:%d \n",sizeof(c)); printf("Storage size for
double data type:%d\n",sizeof(d)); return 0;
}

EXPRESSIONS

Arithmetic expression in C is a combination of variables, constants and operators

written in a proper syntax. C can easily handle any complex mathematical expressions
but these mathematical expressions have to be written in a proper syntax. Some
examples of mathematical expressions written in proper syntax of C are
Note: C does not have any operator for exponentiation.

C OPERATOR PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY

C operators in order of precedence (highest to lowest). Their associativity indicates in

what order operators of equal precedence in an expression are applied.
Operator Descriptio Associativi
n ty
() Parentheses (function call) (see left-to-right
[] Note 1) Brackets (array subscript)
. Member selection via object
-> name Member selection via
++ -- pointer
Postfix increment/decrement (see Note 2)
 ++ -- Prefix right-to-left
+- increment/decrement
!~ Unary plus/minus
(type Logical negation/bitwise complement
) Cast (convert value to temporary value of
* type) Dereference
& Address (of operand)
sizeof Determine size in bytes on this implementation
*/% Multiplication/division/modulus left-to-right
+- Addition/subtraction left-to-right
<< >> Bitwise shift left, Bitwise shift right left-to-right
< <= Relational less than/less than or equal to left-to-right
> >= Relational greater than/greater than or
equal to
== != Relational is equal to/is not equal to left-to-right
& Bitwise AND left-to-right
^ Bitwise exclusive OR left-to-right
| Bitwise inclusive OR left-to-right
&& Logical AND left-to-right
|| Logical OR left-to-right
?: Ternary conditional right-to-left
= Assignment right-to-left
+= -= Addition/subtraction
*= /= assignment
%= &= Multiplication/division
^= |= assignment Modulus/bitwise
<<= >>= AND assignment
Bitwise exclusive/inclusive OR
assignment Bitwise shift left/right
assignment
, Comma (separate expressions) left-to-right
Note 1:
Parentheses are also used to group sub-expressions to force a
different precedence; such parenthetical expressions can be
nested and are evaluated from inner to outer.
Note 2:
Postfix increment/decrement have high precedence, but the
actual increment or decrement of the operand is delayed (to be
accomplished sometime before the statement completes
execution). So in the statement y = x * z++; the current value of z
is used to evaluate the expression (i.e., z++ evaluates to z) and z
only incremented after all else is done.
EVALUATION OF EXPRESSION

At first, the expressions within parenthesis are evaluated. If no parenthesis is present,

then the arithmetic expression is evaluated from left to right. There are two priority
levels of operators in C.
High priority: * / %
Low priority: + -

The evaluation procedure of an arithmetic expression includes two left to right passes
through the entire expression. In the first pass, the high priority operators are applied
as they are encountered and in the second pass, low priority operations are applied as
they are encountered. Suppose, we have an arithmetic expression as:
x = 9 – 12 / 3 + 3 *2 - 1
This expression is evaluated in two left to right passes as:
First Pass
But when parenthesis is used in the same expression, the order of evaluation gets changed.
For example,
x = 9 – 12 / (3 + 3) * (2 – 1)

When parentheses are present then the expression inside the parenthesis are
evaluated first from left to right. The expression is now evaluated in three passes as:
First Pass
Second Pass
Third Pass
 Step 3: x= 7
There may even arise a case where nested parentheses are present (i.e. parenthesis
inside parenthesis). In such case, the expression inside the innermost set of
parentheses is evaluated
first and then the outer parentheses are
evaluated. For example, we have an
expression as:
x = 9 – ((12 / 3) + 3 * 2) – 1
The expression is now evaluated as:
First Pass:
Second Pass
Note: The number of evaluation steps is equal to the number of operators in the arithmetic
expression.

TYPE CONVERSION IN EXPRESSIONS

When variables and constants of different types are combined in an expression then
they are converted to same data type. The process of converting one predefined type
into another is called type conversion.
Type conversion in c can be classified into the following two types:
Implicit Type Conversion

When the type conversion is performed automatically by the compiler without

programmer‘s intervention, such type of conversion is known as implicit type
conversion or type promotion. The compiler converts all operands into the data type
of the largest operand.
The sequence of rules that are applied while evaluating expressions are
given below: All short and char are automatically converted to int, then,
If either of the operand is of type long double, then others will be converted to long
double and result will be long double.
Else, if either of the operand is double, then others are converted to double.
Else, if either of the operand is float, then others are converted to float.

Else, if either of the operand is unsigned long int, then others will be converted to
unsigned long int.
Else, if one of the operand is long int, and the other is unsigned int, then

if a long int can represent all values of an unsigned int, the unsigned int is converted to
long int. otherwise, both operands are converted to unsigned long int.
Else, if either operand is long int then other will be converted to long int.
Else, if either operand is unsigned int then others will be converted to unsigned int.

It should be noted that the final result of expression is converted to type of variable on
left side of assignment operator before assigning value to it.
Also, conversion of float to int causes truncation of fractional part, conversion of double
to float causes rounding of digits and the conversion of long int to int causes dropping
of excess higher order bits.

Explicit Type Conversion

The type conversion performed by the programmer by posing the data type of the
expression of specific type is known as explicit type conversion.
The explicit type conversion is also known as type
casting. Type casting in c is done in the following
form: (data_type)expression;
where, data_type is any valid c data type, and expression may be constant,
variable or expression.
For example, x=(int)a+b*d;

The following rules have to be followed while converting the expression from one
type to another to avoid the loss of information:
All integer types to be converted to
float. All float types to be converted
to double.
All character types to be converted to integer.
FORMATTED INPUT AND OUTPUT

The C Programming Language is also called the Mother of languages. The C

language was developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 and is a second
and third generation of languages. The C language provides both low and high level
features it provides both the power of low-level languages and the flexibility and
simplicity of high-level languages.
C provides standard functions scanf() and printf(), for performing formatted input and
output. These functions accept, as parameters, a format specification string and a
list of variables.
The format specification string is a character string that specifies the data type of each
variable to be input or output and the size or width of the input and output.
Now to discuss formatted output in functions.
Formatted Output

The function printf() is used for formatted output to standard output based on a format
specification. The format specification string, along with the data to be output, are the
parameters to the printf() function.
Syntax:
printf (format, data1, data2,… );

In this syntax format is the format specification string. This string contains, for each
variable to be output, a specification beginning with the symbol % followed by a
character called the conversion character.
Example:
printf (%c, data1);

The character specified after % is called a conversion character because it allows one
data type to be converted to another type and printed.
See the following table conversion character and their meanings.

Conversio Meaning
n
Character
d The data is converted to decimal (integer)
c The data is taken as a character.
s The data is a string and character from the string , are printed until a NULL,
character is reached.
f The data is output as float or double with a default Precision 6.
Symbols Meaning
\n For new line (linefeed return)
\t For tab space (equivalent of 8 spaces)
Example
printf (%c\n,data1);
The format specification string may also have text.
Example
printf (Character is:%c\n, data1);
The text "Character is:" is printed out along with the value of data1.

Example with
program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Main()
{

Char alphabh="A";
int number1= 55;
float
number2=22.34;
printf(char= %c\n,alphabh);
printf(int= %d\n,number1);
printf(float= %f\n,number2);
getch();
clrscr();
retrun
0;
}
Output Here…
char =A

int= 55
flaot=22.34000
0
What is the output of the statement?

printf(Integer is: %d; Alphabet is:%c\n,number1, alpha);

Where number1 contains 44 and alpha contains "Krishna
Singh". Give the answer below.
Between the character % and the conversion character, there may be:
A minus sign: Denoting left adjustment of the data.

A digit: Specifying the minimum width in which the data is to be output, if the data
has a larger number of characters then the specified width occupied by the
output is larger. If the data consists of fewer characters then the specified width,
it is padded to the right or to the left (if minus sign is not specified) with blanks. If
the digit is prefixed with a zero, the padding is done with zeros instead of blanks.
A period: Separating the width from the next digit.

A digit following the period: specifying the precision (number of decimal

places for numeric data) or the maximum number of characters to be
output.
Letter 1: To indicate that the data item is a long integer and not an int.

Format specification string Data Output

|%2d| 9 |9|
|%2d| 123 |123|
|%03d| 9 |009|
|%-2d| 7 |7|
|%5.3d| 2 |002|
|%3.1d| 15 |15|
|%3.5d| 15 |0015|
|%5s| Output sting |Output string|
|%15s| Output sting |Output string|
|%-15s| Output sting |Output string|
|%15.5s| Output sting |Output string|
|%.5s| Output sting |Output|
|%15.5s| Output sting |Output|
|%f| 87.65 |87.650000|
|%.4.1s| 87.65 |87.71|

Example based on the conversion character:

#include<stdio.h
>
#include<conio.h
> main()
{
Int num=65;
printf(Value of num is : %d\n:, num);

printf(Character equivalent of %d is %c\n, num ,

num); getch();
clrscr();
rerurn o;
}

Output
Here… char
=A
int= 55
flaot=22.340000
Formatted
Input
The function scanf() is used for formatted input from standard input and provides
many of the conversion facilities of the function printf().
Syntax
scanf (format, num1, num2,……);

The function scnaf() reads and converts characters from the standards input
depending on the format specification string and stores the input in memory
locations represented by the other arguments (num1, num2,….).
For Example:
scanf( %c %d,&Name, &Roll No);
Note: the data names are listed as &Name and &Roll No instead of Name and Roll No
respectively. This is how data names are specified in a scnaf() function. In case of
string type data names, the data name is not preceded by the character &.
Example with program

Write a function to accept and display the element number and the weight of a
proton. The element number is an integer and weight is fractional.
Solve here:

#include<stdio.h
>
#include<conio.h
> main()
{
Int
e_num;
Float
e_wt;

printf (Enter the Element No. and Weight of a

Proton\n); scanf (%d %f,&e_num, &e_wt);
printf (The Element No.is:,e_num);

printf (The Weight of a Proton is: %f\n,

e_wt); getch();
return 0;
}
 UNIT-II
CONTROL STRUCTURES, ARRAYS AND STRINGS

DECISION STATEMENTS
If statement:
Syntax :

if(expression
)
statement1;
Explanation
:
Expression is Boolean Expression
It may have true or false value

Meaning of If Statement :
It Checks whether the given Expression is Boolean or not !!
If Expression is True Then it executes the statement otherwise jumps to
next_instruction
Sample Program
Code : void main()
{
int
a=5,b=6,c;
c=a+b;
 if (c==11)
printf("Execute me 1");

printf("Execute me 2");
}
Output :
Execute me 1

If Statement :
if(conditional)
{
Statement No 1
Statement No 2
Statement No 3
.
.
.
Statement No N
}
Note :
More than One Conditions can be Written inside If statement.

1. Opening and Closing Braces are required only when Code after if
statement occupies multiple lines.

if(conditional)
Statement No
1
Statement No 2
Statement No 3
In the above example only Statement 1 is a part of if Statement.
1. Code will be executed if condition statement is True.
2. Non-Zero Number Inside if means “TRUE Condition”
if(100)
printf("True Condition");
if-else Statement :
We can use if-else statement in c programming so that we can check any condition and
depending on the outcome of the condition we can follow appropriate path. We have
true path as well as false path.

Syntax :
if(expression)
{
statement
1;
statement
2;
}
else
{
statement
1;
statement
2;
}

next_stateme
nt;
Explanation :

If expression is True then Statement1 and Statement2 are

executed Otherwise Statement3 and Statement4 are
executed.
Sample Program on if-else Statement :
void main()
{
int marks=50;
if(marks>=40
)
{
printf("Student is Pass");
}
else
{
printf("Student is Fail");
 }
}
Output :
Student is Pass
Flowchart : If Else Statement
Consider Example 1 with
Explanation: Consider Following
Example –
int num = 20;

if(num == 20)
{
printf("True Block");
}
else
{
printf("False Block");
}
If part Executed if Condition Statement is
True. if(num == 20)
{
printf("True Block");
}

True Block will be executed if condition is

True. Else Part executed if Condition
Statement is False. else
{
printf("False Block");
}
Consider Example 2 with Explanation :
More than One Conditions can be Written inside If statement.
int num1 =
20; int num2
= 40;

if(num1 == 20 && num2 == 40)

{
printf("True Block");
}
Opening and Closing Braces are required only when Code after if statement occupies
multiple lines. Code will be executed if condition statement is True. Non-Zero Number
Inside
if means “TRUE Condition”
If-Else Statement :
if(conditional)
{
//True code
}
else
{
//False code
}
Note :

Consider Following
Example – int num = 20;
if(num == 20)
{
printf("True Block");
}
else
{
printf("False Block");
}
If part Executed if Condition Statement is
True. if(num == 20)
{
printf("True Block");
 }

True Block will be executed if condition is

True. Else Part executed if Condition
Statement is False.
else
{
printf("False Block");
}
More than One Conditions can be Written inside If
statement. int num1 = 20;
int num2 = 40;

if(num1 == 20 && num2 == 40)

{
printf("True Block");
}
Opening and Closing Braces are required only when Code after if statement occupies
multiple lines.
Code will be executed if condition statement is
True. Non-Zero Number Inside if means “TRUE
Condition”

Switch statement
Why we should use Switch Case?

One of the classic problem encountered in nested if-else / else-if

ladderis called problem of Confusion.
It occurs when no matching else is available for if .

As the number of alternatives increases the Complexity of program

increases drastically.
To overcome this , C Provide a multi-way decision statement called
Switch Statement
See how difficult is this scenario?
if(Condition 1)
Statement
1 else
{
Statement 2
if(condition 2)
{
if(condition 3)
 statement
3 else
if(condition 4)
{
statement 4
}
}
else
{
statement 5
}
}
First Look of Switch Case
switch(expression)
{
case
value1 :
body1
break;

case
value2 :
body2
break;

case
value3 :
body3
break;

default :
default-
body
break;
}
next-
statement;
Flow Diagram
:
*Steps are Shown in Circles.
How it works?

Switch case checks the value of expression/variable against the list of case
values and when the match is found , the block of statement associated with
that case is executed
Expression should be Integer Expression / Character
Break statement takes control out of the case.
Break Statement is Optional.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int roll = 3 ;
switch ( roll
)
{
case 1:
printf ( " I am Pankaj ");
break;
case 2:
printf ( " I am Nikhil
"); break;
case 3:
printf ( " I am John
"); break;
default :
printf ( "No student
found"); break;
}
}
As explained earlier –
3 is assigned to integer variable roll

On line 5 switch case decides – We have to execute block of code specified in

3rd case. Switch Case executes code from top to bottom.
It will now enter into first Case [i.e case 1:]

It will validate Case number with variable

Roll. If no match found then it will jump to
Next Case..
When it finds matching case it will execute block of code specified in that case.
LOOP CONTROL STATEMENTS
While statement:
While Loop Syntax:
initialization;
while(condition
)
{

incrementation;
}

Note :

For Single Line of Code – Opening and Closing braces are not
needed. while(1) is used for Infinite Loop
Initialization , Incrementation and Condition steps are on different Line.

While Loop is also Entry Controlled Loop.[i.e conditions are checked if found true then
and then only code is executed ]

Do while:
Do-While Loop Syntax
: initialization;
do
{

incrementation;
}while(condition);
Note :
It is Exit Controlled Loop.
Initialization , Incrementation and Condition steps are on different Line.

It is also called Bottom Tested [i.e Condition is tested at bottom and Body has to
execute at least once ]
For statement:

We have already seen the basics of Looping Statement in C. C Language provides

us different kind of looping statements such as For loop, while loop and do-while
loop. In this chapter we will be learning different flavors of for loop statement.
Different Ways of Using For Loop in C Programming

In order to do certain actions multiple times, we use loop control

statements. For loop can be implemented in different verities of using
for loop –
Single Statement inside For Loop
Multiple Statements inside For Loop
No Statement inside For Loop
Semicolon at the end of For Loop
Multiple Initialization Statement inside For
Missing Initialization in For Loop
Missing Increment/Decrement Statement
Infinite For Loop
Condition with no Conditional Operator.
Way 1 : Single Statement inside For Loop
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf("Hello");
Above code snippet will print Hello word 5
times. We have single statement inside for
loop body.
No need to wrap printf inside opening and closing curly
block. Curly Block is Optional.

Way 2 : Multiple Statements inside

For Loop for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("Statement 1");
printf("Statement 2");
printf("Statement 3");

if(condition)
{

}
}
If we have block of code that is to be executed multiple times then we can use curly
braces to wrap multiple statement in for loop.
Way 3 : No Statement inside For Loop
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{

}
this is bodyless for loop. It is used to increment value of i.This verity of for loop is not
used generally.
At the end of above for loop value of i will be 5.

Way 4 : Semicolon at the end of

For Loop for(i=0;i<5;i++);
Generally beginners thought that , we will get compile error if we write semicolon at
the end of for loop.
This is perfectly legal statement in C
Programming. This statement is similar to
bodyless for loop. (Way 3)

Way 5 : Multiple Initialization Statement

inside For for(i=0,j=0;i<5;i++)
{
statement
1 ;
statement
2 ;
statement
3;
}
Multiple initialization statements must be seperated by Comma in for loop.

Way 6 : Missing Increment/Decrement

Statement for(i=0;i<5;)
{
statement
1 ;
statement
2 ;
statement
 3; i++;
}
however we have to explicitly alter the value i in the loop body.

Way 7 : Missing Initialization in

For Loop i = 0;
for(;i<5;i++)
{
statement
1 ;
statement
2 ;
statement
3;
}
we have to set value of i‘ before entering in the loop otherwise it will take garbage value of i‘.

Way 8 : Infinite For

Loop i = 0;
for(;;)
{
statement
1 ;
statement
2 ;
statement
3;

if(breaking
condition) break;

i++;
}

Infinite for loop must have breaking condition in order to break for loop. otherwise it will
cause overflow of stack.

Summary of Different Ways of Implementing For Loop

Form Comment

for ( i=0 ; i < 10 ; i++

) Statement1; Single Statement
for ( i=0 ;i <10; i++) Multiple Statements within for
{
Statement
1 ;
Statement
2 ;
Statement
3;
}
for ( i=0 ; i < 10;i++) ; For Loop with no Body (Carefully Look at
the Semicolon)
for Multiple initialization & Multiple
(i=0,j=0;i<100;i++,j++) Update Statements Separated by Comma
Statement1;
for ( ; i<10 ; i++) Initialization not used

for ( ; i<10 ; ) Initialization & Update not used

for ( ; ; ) Infinite Loop, Never Terminates

JUMP STATEMENTS:

Break statement
Break Statement Simply Terminate Loop and takes control out of the loop.

Break in For Loop :

for(initialization ; condition ; incrementation)
{
Statement
1 ;
Statement
2; break;
}

Break in While Loop :

initialization ;
while(condition
)
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
incrementatio
n break;
}

Break Statement in Do-While :

initialization
; do
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
incrementatio
n break;
}while(condition);
Way 1 : Do-While Loop

Way 2 : Nested for

Way 3 : For Loop

Way 4 : While Loop

Continue statement:
loop
{
continue;
//code
}

Note :
It is used for skipping part of Loop.

Continue causes the remaining code inside a loop block to be skipped and causes
execution to jump to the top of the loop block

Loop Use of Continue !!

for
while

do-while

Goto statement:

goto label;

label :

Whenever goto keyword encountered then it causes the program to continue on the
line , so long as it is in the scope .

Types of Goto
Forward
Backward
ARRAYS:

What is an array?

An array is a collection of similar datatype that are used to allocate

memory in a sequential manner.
Syntax : <data type> <array name>[<size of an array>]

Subscript or indexing: A subscript is property of an array that distinguishes all its

stored elements because all the elements in an array having the same name (i.e. the
array name). so to distinguish these, we use subscripting or indexing option.
e.g. int ar[20];

First element will be: int ar[0];

Second element will be: int
ar[1]; Third element will be: int
ar[2]; Fourth element will be:
int ar[3]; Fifth element will be:
int ar[4]; Sixth element will be:
int ar[5]; So
on……………………
Last element will be: int ar[19];
· NOTE: An array always starts from 0 indexing.
· Example: int ar[20];

This above array will store 20 integer type values from 0

to 19. Advantage of an array:
· Multiple elements are stored under a single unit.
· Searching is fast because all the elements are stored in a sequence.

Types of Array
1. Static Array
2. Dynamic Array.

Static Array

An array with fixed size is said to be a static array.

Types of static array:
1. One Dimensional Array
2. Two Dimensional Array.
3. Multi Dimensional Array.

1. One Dimensional Array

An Array of elements is called 1 dimensional, which stores data in column or

row form. Example: int ar[5];
This above array is called one dimensional array because it will store all the
elements in column or in row form
2. Two Dimensional Array.
An array of an array is said to be 2 dimensional array , which stores data in column androw
form

Example: int ar[4][5];

This above array is called two dimensional array because it will store all the elements
in column and in row form
NOTE: In above example of two dimensional array, we have 4 rows and 5
columns. NOTE: In above example of two dimensional array, we have total
of 20 elements.
3. Multi Dimensional Array.
This array does not exist in c and c++.

Dynamic Array.

This type of array also does not exist in c and

c++. Example: Program based upon array:
WAP to store marks in 5 subjects for a student. Display marks in 2nd and
5thsubject. #include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h
> void main()
{

int
ar[5];
int i;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{

printf( \n Enter marks in ,i, subject);

scanf(%d,&ar[i]);
}

printf(Marks in 2nd subject is:

,ar[1]); printf(Marks in 5th subject is:
,ar[4]);

}
STRINGS
What is String?
· A string is a collection of characters.
· A string is also called as an array of characters.
· A String must access by %s access specifier in c and c++.
· A string is always terminated with \0 (Null) character.
· Example of string: Gaurav
· A string always recognized in double quotes.
· A string also consider space as a character.
 · Example: Gaurav Arora
· The above string contains 12 characters.
· Example: Char ar[20]

· The above example will store 19 character with I null character.

Example: Program based upon String.
WAP to accept a complete string (first name and last name) and display hello
message in the output.
#
include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h
>
#include<string.h
> void main ()
{

char
str1[20];
char
str2[20];
printf(Enter First Name);
scanf(%s,&str1);
printf(Enter last Name);
scanf(%s,&str2);
puts(str1);
puts(str2);
}

String Functions in C:

Our c language provides us lot of string functions for manipulating the

string. All the string functions are available in string.h header file.

These String functions are:

1. strlen().
2. strupr().
3. strlwr().
4. strcmp().
5. strcat().
6. strapy().
7. strrev().

1. strlen().
This string function is basically used for the purpose of computing the ength of string.

Example: char str=Gaurav Arora;

int length= strlen(str);
printf(The length of the string is =,str);

2. strupr().

This string function is basically used for the purpose of converting the case
sensitiveness of the string i.e. it converts string case sensitiveness into uppercase.

Example: char str = gaurav

strupr(str);
printf(The uppercase of the string is : %s,str);

3. strlwr ().

This string function is basically used for the purpose of converting the case
sensitiveness of the string i.e it converts string case sensitiveness into lowercase.
Example: char str = gaurav
strlwr(str);
printf(The Lowercase of the string is :%s ,str);

4. strcmp ().

This string function is basically used for the purpose of comparing two
string. This string function compares two strings character by
characters.
Thus it gives result in three cases:
Case 1: if first string > than second string then, result will be true.
Case 2: if first string < than second string then, result will be
false. Case 3: if first string = = to second string then, result
will be zero.

Example:

char str1= Gaurav;

char str2= Arora;
char
str3=strcmp(str1,str2);
printf(%s,str3);

5. strcat().

This string function is used for the purpose of concatenating two strings ie.(merging two
or more strings)

Example:

char str1 = Gaurav;

char str2 = Arora;
char str3[30];
str3=strcat(str1,str2)
; printf(%s,str3);

6. strcpy()

This string function is basically used for the purpose of copying one string into
another string. char str1= Gaurav;
char str2[20];

str2 =
strcpy(str2,str1);
printf(%s,str2);

6. strrev()

This string function is basically used for the purpose of reversing the
string. char str1= Gaurav;
char str2[20];
str2=
strrev(str2,str1);
printf(%s,str2);

Example: Program based upon string functions.

WAP to accept a string and perform various operations:
1. To convert string into upper case.
2. To reverse the string .
3. To copy string into another string.
4. To compute length depending upon user choice.

#
include<stdio.h>
#
include<conio.h>
#include<string.h
>

void main()
{

char str[20];
char
str1[20]; int
opt,len;
printf(\n MAIN MENU);

printf(\n 1. Convert string into upper

case); printf(\n 2. Reverse the string);
printf(\n 3. Copy one string into another
string); printf(\n 4.Compute length of string );
printf(Enter string );
scanf(%s, &str);
printf(Enter your choice);
scanf(%d,&opt);
switch(opt)
{
case 1: strupr(str);
 printf(The string in uppercase is :%s
,str); break;

case 2: strrev(str);

printf(The reverse of string is :

%s,str); break;
case 3: strcpy(str1,str);

printf(New copied string is :

%s,str1); break;
case 4: len=strlen(str);

printf(The length of the string is :

%s,len); break;
default: printf(Ypu have entered a wrong choice.);
}
 FUNCTIONS

UNIT-III FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS

A function is itself a block of code which can solve simple or complex task/calculations.

A function performs calculations on the data provided to it is called "parameter" or

"argument". A function always returns single value result.

Types of function:

1. Built in functions(Library
functions) a.) Inputting Functions.
b.) Outputting functions.

2. User defined
functions. a.) fact();
b.) sum();

Parts of a function:
1. Function declaration/Prototype/Syntax.
2. Function Calling.
3. Function Definition.

1.)Function Declaration:
Syntax: <return type > <function name>(<type of argument>)
The declaration of function name, its argument and return type is called function declaration.

2.) Function Calling:

The process of calling a function for processing is called function
calling. Syntax: <var_name>=<function_name>(<list of
arguments>).

3.) Function defination:

The process of writing a code for performing any specific task is called function
defination. Syntax:
<return type><function name>(<type of arguments>)
{
<statement-1>

<statement-
2>
return(<vlaue
>)
}
Example: program based upon function:

WAP to compute cube of a no. using function.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h
> void main()
{
int c,n;

int cube(int);
printf("Enter a
no.");
scanf("%d",&n);
c=cube(n);
printf("cube of a no. is=%d",c);
}
int cube(int n)
{

c=n*n*n;
return(c)
;
}

WAP to compute factorial of a no. using function:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h
> void main()
{

int n,f=1;
int
fact(int)
printf("Enter a
no.");
scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);
printf("The factorial of a no. is:=%d",f);
}

int fact(int
n) int f=1;
{
for(int i=n;i>=n;i--)
{
f=f*i;
}
return(f);
}

Recursion
Firstly, what is nested function?

When a function invokes another function then it is called nested

function. But,
When a function invokes itself then it is called recursion.

NOTE: In recursion, we must include a terminating condition so that it won't execute to

infinite time.

Example: program based upon recursion:

WAP to compute factorial of a no. using

Recursion: #include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h
> void main()
{
int n,f;

int fact(int)
printf("Enter a
no.");
scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);
printf("The factorial of a no. is:=%d",f);
}

int fact(int
n) int f=1;
{

if(n=0)
return(f)
; else
return(n*fact(n-1));
}
Passing parameters to a function:
Firstly, what are parameters?
parameters are the values that are passed to a function for processing.

There are 2 types of parameters:

a.) Actual
Parameters. b.)
Formal Parameters.

a.) Actual Parameters:

These are the parameters which are used in main() function for function
calling. Syntax: <variable name>=<function name><actual argument>
Example: f=fact(n);

b.) Formal Parameters.

These are the parameters which are used in function defination for processing.
Methods of parameters passing:

1.) Call by
reference. 2.) Call
by value.

1.) Call by reference:

In this method of parameter passing , original values of variables are passed

from calling program to function.
Thus,
Any change made in the function can be reflected back to the calling program.

2.) Call by value.

In this method of parameter passing, duplicate values of parameters are passed

from calling program to function defination.
Thus,
Any change made in function would not be reflected back to the calling program.

Example: Program based upon call by

value: # include<stdio.h>
#
include<conio.h>
void main()
{

int
a,b;
a=10;
b=20;
void swap(int,int)

printf("The value of a before

swapping=%d",a); printf("The value of b
before swapping=%d",b); void swap(a,b);
printf("The value of a after
swapping=%d",a); printf("The value of b
after swapping=%d",b);
}
void swap(int x, int y)
{

i n t
t ;
t=x;
x=y;
y=t;
}

STORAGE CLASSES
Every Variable in a program has memory associated with it.

Memory Requirement of Variables is different for different types of

variables. In C, Memory is allocated & released at different places

Term Definition

Scope Region or Part of Program in which Variable is accessible

Extent Period of time during which memory is associated with variable

Storag Manner in which memory is allocated by the Compiler for

e Variable
Class Different Storage Classes

Storage class of variable Determines following things

Where the variable is

stored Scope of Variable
Default initial
value Lifetime of
variable

A. Where the variable is stored:

Storage Class determines the location of variable, where it is declared. Variables

declared with auto storage classes are declared inside main memory whereas
variables declared with keyword register are stored inside the CPU Register.
B. Scope of Variable

Scope of Variable tells compile about the visibility of Variable in the block. Variable
may have Block Scope, Local Scope and External Scope. A scope is the context
within a computer program in which a variable name or other identifier is valid and can
be used, or within which a declaration has effect.
C. Default Initial Value of the Variable

Whenever we declare a Variable in C, garbage value is assigned to the variable.

Garbage Value may be considered as initial value of the variable. C Programming
have different storage classes which has different initial values such as Global
Variable have Initial Value as 0 while the Local auto variable have default initial
garbage value.

D. Lifetime of variable
Lifetime of the = Time Of variable Declaration - Time of Variable Destruction

Suppose we have declared variable inside main function then variable will be
destroyed only when the control comes out of the main .i.e end of the program.

Different Storage
Classes: Auto
Storage Class Static
Storage Class Extern
Storage Class
Register Storage
Class

Automatic (Auto) storage class

This is default storage class
All variables declared are of type Auto by default

In order to Explicit declaration of variable use auto‘

keyword auto int num1 ; // Explicit Declaration
Features:

Storage Memory
Scope Local / Block Scope
Life time Exists as long as Control remains
in the block

Default Garbage
initial Value

Example

void main()
{
auto mum = 20 ;
{
auto num = 60 ;
printf("nNum : %d",num);
}
printf("nNum : %d",num);
}

Output :
Num : 60
Num : 20

Note :

Two variables are declared in different blocks , so they are treated as different
variables External ( extern ) storage class in C Programming

Variables of this storage class are Global variables

Global Variables are declared outside the function and are accessible to all
functions in the program
Generally , External variables are declared again in the function using
keyword extern In order to Explicit declaration of variable use extern‘ keyword
extern int num1 ; // Explicit Declaration
Features :
Storage Memory

Scope Global / File Scope

Life time Exists as long as variable is

running Retains value within the
function
Default initial Value Zero

Example

int num = 75 ;

void display();
void main()
{
extern int num ;
printf("nNum :
%d",num); display();
}

void display()
{
extern int num ;
printf("nNum : %d",num);
}

Output :
Num : 75
Num : 75

Note :
Declaration within the function indicates that the function uses external variable

Functions belonging to same source code , does not require declaration (no need to
write extern) If variable is defined outside the source code , then declaration using
extern keyword is required
Static Storage Class
The static storage class instructs the compiler to keep a local variable in existence
during the life-time of the program instead of creating and destroying it each time it
comes into and goes out of scope. Therefore, making local variables static allows
them to maintain their values between function calls.
The static modifier may also be applied to global variables. When this is done, it
causes that variable's scope to be restricted to the file in which it is declared.
In C programming, when static is used on a class data member, it causes only one
copy of that member to be shared by all the objects of its class.
#include <stdio.h>

/* function declaration
*/ void func(void);

static int count = 5; /* global

variable */ main() {
while(count--)
{ func();
}

return 0;
}

/* function definition
*/ void func( void ) {

static int i = 5; /* local static variable */

i++;

printf("i is %d and count is %d\n", i, count);

}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result i is 6 and count is 4
i is 7 and count is
3 i is 8 and count
is 2 i is 9 and
count is 1 i is 10
and count is 0
Register Storage Class

register keyword is used to define local variable.

Local variable are stored in register instead of
RAM.
As variable is stored in register, the Maximum size of variable = Maximum Size of
Register unary operator [&] is not associated with it because Value is not stored in
RAM instead it is stored in Register.
This is generally used for faster
access. Common use is Counter
Syntax
{
register int count;
}
Register storage classes example
#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
int num1,num2;
register int sum;

printf("\nEnter the Number 1 :

"); scanf("%d",&num1);

printf("\nEnter the Number 2 :

"); scanf("%d",&num2);

sum = num1 + num2;

printf("\nSum of Numbers : %d",sum);

return(0);
}
Explanation of program
Refer below animation which depicts the register storage classes –
In the above program we have declared two variables num1,num2. These two
variables are stored in RAM.
Another variable is declared which is stored in register variable.Register variables are
stored in the register of the microprocessor.Thus memory access will be faster than
other variables.
If we try to declare more register variables then it can treat variables asAuto storage
variables as memory of microprocessor is fixed and limited.
Why we need Register Variable ?

Whenever we declare any variable inside C Program then memory will be randomly
allocated at particular memory location.
We have to keep track of that memory location. We need to access value at that
memory location using ampersand operator/Address Operator i.e (&).
If we store same variable in the register memory then we can access that
memory location directly without using the Address operator.
Register variable will be accessed faster than the normal variable thus increasing the
operation and program execution. Generally we use register variable as Counter.
Note : It is not applicable for arrays, structures or pointers.
Summary of register Storage class

Keyword register

Storage Location CPU Register

Keyword register

Initial Value Garbage

Life Local to the block in which variable is declared.

Scope Local to the block.

Preprocessor directives

Before a C program is compiled in a compiler, source code is processed by a

program called preprocessor. This process is called preprocessing.
Commands used in preprocessor are called preprocessor directives and they begin with
# symbol.
Below is the list of preprocessor directives that C language offers.

S.no Preprocessor Syntax Description

This macro
defines constant
value and can be
1 Macro #define any of the basic
data types.
The source code
of the file
file_name is
Header #include included in the
file main program at
<file_name>
2 the specified
inclusion
place
 Set of commands
are included or
excluded in source
#ifdef,
Conditiona program before
#endif, #if,
l #else, #ifndef compilation with
3 compilatio respect to the
n
 condition

#undef is used to
undefine a defined
macro variable.
#Pragma is used to
call a function before
and after main
Other function in a C
4 directives #undef, #pragma program

A program in C language involves into different processes. Below diagram will help you
to understand all the processes that a C program comes across.

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR #DEFINE, #INCLUDE PREPROCESSORS IN C:

#define – This macro defines constant value and can be any of the basic data
types. #include <file_name> – The source code of the file file_name is included
in the main C program where #include <file_name> is mentioned.

#include

<stdio.h>

#define height

100
#define number
3.14 #define letter
'A'
#define letter_sequence
"ABC" #define
backslash_char '\?'

void main()
{
printf("value of height : %d \n", height
); printf("value of number : %f \n",
number ); printf("value of letter : %c
 \n", letter );
printf("value of letter_sequence : %s \n",
letter_sequence); printf("value of backslash_char :
%c \n", backslash_char);

}
OUTPUT
:
EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR CONDITIONAL COMPILATION DIRECTIVES:
A) EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR #IFDEF, #ELSE AND #ENDIF IN C:

#ifdef directive checks whether particular macro is defined or not. If it is defined, If

clause statements are included in source file.
Otherwise, else clause statements are included in source file for compilation and execution.

#include
<stdio.h>
#define RAJU
100

int main()
{
#ifdef RAJU
printf("RAJU is defined. So, this line will be added
in " \ "this C file\n");
#else
printf("RAJU is not
defined\n"); #endif
return 0;
}
OUTPUT:

B) EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR #IFNDEF AND #ENDIF IN C:

#ifndef exactly acts as reverse as #ifdef directive. If particular macro is not defined, If
clause statements are included in source file.
Otherwise, else clause statements are included in source file for compilation and execution.

#include
<stdio.h>
#define RAJU
100
int main()
{
#ifndef SELVA
{
printf("SELVA is not defined. So, now we are going
to " \ "define here\n");
#define SELVA 300
}
#else
printf("SELVA is already defined in the program);

#endif
return 0;

}
OUTPUT
:

C) EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR #IF, #ELSE AND #ENDIF IN C:

If clause statement is included in source file if given condition is true.
Otherwise, else clause statement is included in source file for compilation and execution.

#include
<stdio.h>
#define a 100
int main()
{
#if (a==100)
printf("This line will be added in this C file since
" \ "a \= 100\n");
#else
printf("This line will be added in this C file since
" \ "a is not equal to 100\n");
#endif
return 0;
}

OUTPUT:
EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR UNDEF IN C:

This directive undefines existing macro in the

program. #include <stdio.h>
#define height
100 void main()
{
printf("First defined value for height:
%d\n",height); #undef height// undefining variable
#define height 600 // redefining the same for
new value printf("value of height after undef \&
redefine:%d",height);
}
OUTPUT:

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR PRAGMA IN C:

Pragma is used to call a function before and after main function in a C

program. #include <stdio.h>
void function1(
); void
function2( );

#pragma startup
function1 #pragma exit
function2

int main( )
{
printf ( "\n Now we are in main function"
) ; return 0;
}

void function1( )
{
printf("\nFunction1 is called before main function call");
}

void function2( )
{
 printf ( "\nFunction2 is called just before end
of " \ "main function" ) ;"
}
OUTPUT:

MORE ON PRAGMA DIRECTIVE IN C:

S.no Pragma command description

#Pragma startup This directive executes

1 <function_name_1> function named
function_name_1 before
This directive executes
#Pragma exit function named
2 function_name_2 just before
<function_name_2>
termination of the program.
If function doesn‘t return a
value, then warnings are
3 #pragma warn – rvl suppressed by this directive
while compiling.
If function doesn‘t use passed
function parameter , then
4 #pragma warn – par warnings are suppressed

If a non reachable code is

written inside a program, such
5 #pragma warn – rch warnings are suppressed by
this directive.
 POINTERS
Pointer Overview

Consider above Diagram which clearly shows pointer concept in c programming –

i is the name given for particular memory location of ordinary variable.

Let us consider it‘s Corresponding address be 65624 and the Value stored in variable
„i is 5 The address of the variable „i is stored in another integer variable whose name
is „j and which is having corresponding address 65522
thus we can say
that – j = &i;
i.e
j = Address of i

Here j is not ordinary variable , It is special variable and called pointer variable as it
stores the address of the another ordinary variable. We can summarize it like –

Variable Name Variable Value Variable Address

i 5 65524

j 65524 65522

B. C Pointer Basic
Example: #include
<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr, i;
i = 11;

/* address of i is assigned to ptr */

 ptr = &i;

/* show i's value using ptr

variable */ printf("Value of i : %d",
*ptr);

return 0;
}
See Output and Download »
You will get value of i = 11 in the above program.
C. Pointer Declaration Tips :
1. Pointer is declared with preceding * :

int *ptr; //Here ptr is Integer Pointer

Variable int ptr; //Here ptr is Normal
Integer Variable
2. Whitespace while Writing Pointer :

pointer variable name and asterisk can contain whitespace because whitespace is
ignored by compiler.
int *ptr;

int *
ptr; int *ptr;
All the above syntax are legal and valid. We can insert any number of spaces or
blanks inside declaration. We can also split the declaration on multiple lines.
D. Key points for Pointer :

Unline ordinary variables pointer is special type of variable which stores the address of
ordinary variable.
Pointer can only store the whole or integer number because address of any type of
variable is considered as integer.
It is good to initialize the pointer immediately after
declaration & symbol is used to get address of variable
* symbol is used to get value from the address given by pointer.
E. Pointer Summary :

Pointer is Special Variable used to Reference and de-reference memory. (*Will be

covered in upcoming chapter)
When we declare integer pointer then we can only store address of integer variable
into that pointer.
Similarly if we declare character pointer then only the address of character variable is
stored into the pointer variable.

Pointer storing the address of following DT Pointer is called as

Integer Integer Pointer

Character Character Pointer

Double Double Pointer

Float Float Pointer

Pointer is a variable which stores the address of another variable

Since Pointer is also a kind of variable , thus pointer itself will be stored at different
memory location.
2 Types of Variables :
Simple Variable that stores a value such as integer,float,character

Complex Variable that stores address of simple variable i.e pointer

variables Simple Pointer Example #1 :
#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
int a = 3;
int *ptr;
ptr = &a;

return(0);
}
Explanation of Example :

Point Variable 'a' Variable 'ptr'

Name of Variable a ptr

Point Variable 'a' Variable 'ptr'

Type of Value that it holds Integer Address of Integer 'a'

Value Stored 3 2001

Address of Variable 2001 (Assumption) 4001 (Assumption)

Simple Pointer Example

#2 : #include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 3;
int *ptr,**pptr;
ptr = &a;
pptr =
&ptr;
return(0);
}
Explanation of Example
With reference to above program –

We have following associated points –

Point Variable 'a' Variable 'ptr' Variable 'pptr'

Name of Variable a ptr pptr

Type of Value that it holds Integer Address of 'a' Address of 'ptr'

Value Stored 3 2001 4001

Point Variable 'a' Variable 'ptr' Variable 'pptr'

Address of Variable 2001 4001 6001

Pointer address operator in C Programming

Pointer address operator is denoted by &‘
symbol
When we use ampersand symbol as a prefix to a variable name &‘, it gives the address
of that variable.
lets take an example –
&n - It gives an address on variable n
Working of address
operator
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n = 10;
printf("\nValue of n is : %d",n);
printf("\nValue of &n is :
%u",&n);
}
Output :

Value of n is : 10
Value of &n is :
1002
Consider the above example, where we have used to print the address of the
variable using ampersand operator.
In order to print the variable we simply use name of variable while to print the
address of the variable we use ampersand along with %u
printf("\nValue of &n is :
%u",&n); Understanding
address operator Consider the
following program –
#include<stdio.h
> int main()
{
int i =
5; int
*ptr;
ptr = &i;

printf("\nAddress of i :
%u",&i); printf("\nValue of ptr is
: %u",ptr);

return(0);
}
After declaration memory map will be like
this – int i = 5;
int *ptr;

after Assigning the address of variable to pointer , i.e after the execution of this
statement – ptr = &i;

Invalid Use of pointer address

operator Address of literals
In C programming using address operator over literal will throw an error. We cannot
use address operator on the literal to get the address of the literal.
&75

Only variables have an address associated with them, constant entity does not
have corresponding address. Similarly we cannot use address operator over
character literal – &('a')
Character a‘ is literal, so we cannot use address
operator. Address of expressions
(a+b) will evaluate addition of values present in variables and output of (a+b)is
nothing but Literal, so we cannot use Address operator
&(a+b)

Memory Organization for Pointer Variable:

When we use variable in program then Compiler keeps some memory for that
variable depending on the data type
The address given to the variable is Unique with that variable name

When Program execution

starts the variable name is automatically translated into the corresponding
address.

Explanation :
Pointer Variable is nothing but a memory address which holds another address .

In the above program i is name given for memory location for human
understanding , but compiler is unable to recognize i . Compiler knows only
address.
In the next chapter we will be learning , Memory requirement for storing pointer variable.

Syntax for Pointer Declaration in

C : data_type *<pointer_name>;
Explanation :
data_type
Type of variable that the pointer points to
OR data type whose address is stored in pointer_name
Asterisk(*)
Asterisk is called as Indirection Operator
It is also called as Value at address Operator
It Indicates Variable declared is of Pointer type
pointer_name
Must be any Valid C identifier

Must follow all Rules of Variable name

declaration Ways of Declaring Pointer
Variable:
[box] * can appears anywhere between Pointer_name and Data Type
int *p;
int * p;
int * p;

Example of Declaring Integer Pointer:

int n =
20; int
*ptr;
Example of Declaring Character Pointer:

char ch =
'A'; char
*cptr;
Example of Declaring Float Pointer:

float fvar =
3.14; float *fptr;
How to Initialize Pointer in C
Programming? pointer = &variable;
Above is the syntax for initializing pointer variable in C.
Initialization of Pointer can be done using following 4
Steps : Declare a Pointer Variable and Note down the
Data Type.
Declare another Variable with Same Data Type as that of Pointer
Variable. Initialize Ordinary Variable and assign some value to it.
Now Initialize pointer by assigning the address of ordinary variable to pointer variable.

below example will clearly explain the initialization of Pointer

Variable. #include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a; //
Step 1 int *ptr;//
Step 2
a = 10; //
Step 3 ptr = &a;//
Step 4

return(0);
}
Explanation of Above Program :
Pointer should not be used before initialization.

ptr is pointer variable used to store the address of the

variable. Stores address of the variable „a .
Now ptr will contain the address of the variable a
. Note :
[box]Pointers are always initialized before using it in the program[/box]
Example : Initializing Integer
Pointer #include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a =
10; int
*ptr;

ptr = &a;
printf("\nValue of ptr : %u",ptr);

return(0);
}
Output :
Value of ptr : 4001

Pointer arithematic

Incrementing Pointer:

Incrementing Pointer is generally used in array because we have contiguous memory in

array and we know the contents of next memory location.
Incrementing Pointer Variable Depends Upon data type of the Pointer
variable Formula : ( After incrementing )
new value = current address + i * size_of(data
type) Three Rules should be used to increment
pointer –
Address + 1 =

Address Address++

= Address
++Address = Address
Pictorial Representation :

Dat Older Address stored Next Address stored in pointer

a in pointer after incrementing (ptr++)
Typ
e
int 1000 1002

float 1000 1004

char 1000 1001

Explanation : Incremeting Pointer

Incrementing a pointer to an integer data will cause its value to be incremented by 2 .

This differs from compiler to compiler as memory required to store integer vary
compiler to compiler
[box]Note to Remember : Increment and Decrement Operations on pointer should
be used when we have Continues memory (in Array).[/box]
Live Example 1 : Increment Integer
Pointer #include<stdio.h>
int main(){

int *ptr=(int

*)1000; ptr=ptr+1;
printf("New Value of ptr : %u",ptr);
return 0;
}
Output :
New Value of ptr : 1002

Live Example 2 : Increment Double

Pointer #include<stdio.h>
int main(){

double *ptr=(double

*)1000; ptr=ptr+1;
printf("New Value of ptr : %u",ptr);

return 0;
}
Output :
New Value of ptr : 1004

Live Example 3 : Array of

Pointer #include<stdio.h>
int main(){

float
var[5]={1.1f,2.2f,3.3f};
float(*ptr)[5];

ptr=&var;
printf("Value inside ptr : %u",ptr);

ptr=ptr+1;
printf("Value inside ptr : %u",ptr);

return 0;
}
Output :

Value inside ptr :

1000 Value inside
ptr : 1020
Explanation :
Address of ptr[0] = 1000

We are storing Address of float array to

ptr[0]. – Address of ptr[1]
= Address of ptr[0] + (Size of Data Type)*(Size of Array)
= 1000 + (4 bytes) * (5)
= 1020
Address of Var[0]…Var[4] :

Address of var[0] = 1000

Address of var[1] = 1004
Address of var[2] = 1008
Address of var[3] = 1012
Address of var[4] = 1016
Formula : ( After
decrementing )
new_address = (current address) - i * size_of(data type)

[box]Decrementation of Pointer Variable

Depends Upon : data type of the Pointer variable[/box] Example :
Dat Older Address stored Next Address stored in pointer
a in pointer after incrementing (ptr–)
Typ
e
int 1000 0998

float 1000 0996

char 1000 0999

Explanation:
Decrementing a pointer to an integer data will cause its value to be decremented by 2

This differs from compiler to compiler as memory required to store integer vary
compiler to compiler
Pointer Program: Difference between two integer
Pointers #include<stdio.h>
int main(){

float *ptr1=(float
*)1000; float
*ptr2=(float *)2000;

printf("\nDifference : %d",ptr2-

ptr1); return 0;
}
Output :

Difference :
250
Explanation :
Ptr1 and Ptr2 are two pointers which holds memory address of Float
Variable. Ptr2-Ptr1 will gives us number of floating point numbers that
can be stored. ptr2 - ptr1 = (2000 - 1000) / sizeof(float)
= 1000 / 4
= 250

Live Example 2:
#include<stdio.h
>
struct var{
 char
cvar; int
ivar;
float
fvar;
};

int main(){

struct var *ptr1,*ptr2;

ptr1 = (struct var

*)1000; ptr2 = (struct
var *)2000;

printf("Difference= %d",ptr2-

ptr1); return 0;
}
Output :

Difference =
142
Explanation :
ptr2-ptr1 = (2000 - 1000)/Sizeof(struct var)
= 1000 / (1+2+4)
= 1000 / 7
= 142
Adding integer value with Pointer

In C Programming we can add any integer number to Pointer variable. It is perfectly

legal in c programming to add integer to pointer variable.
In order to compute the final value we need to use following
formulae : final value = (address) + (number * size of data type)
Consider the following
example – int *ptr , n;
ptr = &n ;
ptr = ptr +
3;
Live Example 1 : Increment Integer
Pointer #include<stdio.h>
int main(){

int *ptr=(int *)1000;

ptr=ptr+3;
printf("New Value of ptr : %u",ptr);

return 0;
}
Output :

New Value of ptr :

1006 Explanation of
Program :
In the above
program – int
*ptr=(int *)1000;
this line will store 1000 in the pointer variable considering 1000 is memory location for
any of the integer variable.
Formula :
ptr = ptr + 3 * (sizeof(integer))
= 1000 + 3 * (2)
= 1000 + 6
= 1006

Similarly if we have written above statement like

this – float *ptr=(float *)1000;
then result may be
ptr = ptr + 3 * (sizeof(float))
= 1000 + 3 * (4)
= 1000 + 12
= 1012
Suppose we have subtracted n from pointer of any data type having initial addess as

init_address then after subtraction we can

write – ptr = initial_address - n *
(sizeof(data_type))
Subtracting integer value with
Pointer int *ptr , n;
ptr = &n ;
ptr = ptr -
3;
Live Example 1 : Decrement Integer
Pointer #include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int *ptr=(int

*)1000; ptr=ptr-3;
printf("New Value of ptr : %u",ptr);

return 0;
}
Output :

New Value of ptr :

994 Formula :
ptr = ptr - 3 * (sizeof(integer))
= 1000 - 3 * (2)
= 1000 - 6
= 994
Summary
:

Pointer - Pointer =
Integer Pointer -
Integer = Pointer

Differencing Pointer in C Programming

Language : Differencing Means Subtracting
two Pointers.
Subtraction gives the Total number of objects between
them . Subtraction indicates How apart the two
Pointers are ?
C Program to Compute Difference Between
Pointers : #include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num , *ptr1 ,*ptr2 ;

ptr1 = &num ;
ptr2 = ptr1 + 2
;

printf("%d",ptr2 -

ptr1); return(0);
}
Output :
2
ptr1 stores the address of Variable
num Value of ptr2 is incremented by
4 bytes Differencing two Pointers
Important Observations :
Suppose the Address of Variable num = 1000.

Statement Value of Ptr1 Value of Ptr2

int num , *ptr1 ,*ptr2 ; Garbage Garbage

ptr1 = &num ; 1000 Garbage

ptr2 = ptr1 + 2 ; 1000 1004

ptr2 - ptr1 1000 1004

Computation of Ptr2 – Ptr1 :

Remember the following formula while computing the difference between two
pointers – Final Result = (ptr2 - ptr1) / Size of Data Type
Step 1 : Compute Mathematical Difference (Numerical
Difference) ptr2 - ptr1 = Value of Ptr2 - Value of Ptr1
= 1004 - 1000
=4

Step 2 : Finding Actual Difference (Technical

Difference) Final Result = 4 / Size of Integer
=4/2
=2
Numerically Subtraction ( ptr2-ptr1 ) differs by 4
As both are Integers they are numerically Differed by 4 and Technically by 2 objects

Suppose Both pointers of float the they will be differed numerically by 8 and
Technically by 2 objects
Consider the below statement and refer the following
table – int num = ptr2 - ptr1;
and

If Two Pointers are of Following Numerica Technical

Data Type l Differenc
Differenc e
e
Integer 2 1

Float 4 1

Character 1 1

Comparison between two Pointers :

Pointer comparison is Valid only if the two pointers are Pointing to same array

All Relational Operators can be used for comparing pointers of

same type All Equality and Inequality Operators can be used
with all Pointer types Pointers cannot be Divided or Multiplied
Point 1 : Pointer
Comparison
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr1,*ptr2;

ptr1 = (int
*)1000; ptr2 =
(int *)2000;

if(ptr2 > ptr1)

 printf("Ptr2 is far from ptr1");

return(0);
}
Pointer Comparison of Different Data Types :
#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
int *ptr1;
float
*ptr2;

ptr1 = (int *)1000;

ptr2 = (float
*)2000;

if(ptr2 > ptr1)

printf("Ptr2 is far from ptr1");

return(0);
}
Explanation :
Two Pointers of different data types can be compared .

In the above program we have compared two pointers of different

data types. It is perfectly legal in C Programming.
[box]As we know Pointers can store Address of any data type, address of the data type is

Integer so we can compare address of any two pointers although they are of different
data types.[/box]
Following operations on pointers :

> Greater Than

< Less Than

>= Greater Than And Equal To

<= Less Than And Equal To

== Equals
!= Not Equal

Divide and Multiply

Operations :
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr1,*ptr2;

ptr1 = (int
*)1000; ptr2 =
ptr1/4;

return(0);
}
Output :

Pointer to pointer
Pointer to Pointer in C Programming
Declaration : Double Pointer
int **ptr2ptr;

Consider the Following Example :

int num = 45 , *ptr , **ptr2ptr

; ptr = &num;
ptr2ptr = &ptr;

What is Pointer to Pointer ?

Double (**) is used to denote the double Pointer
Pointer Stores the address of the Variable
Double Pointer Stores the address of the Pointer Variable

Statement What will be the Output ?

*ptr 45

**ptr2ptr 45

ptr &n

ptr2ptr &ptr

Notes :

Conceptually we can have Triple ….. n

pointers Example : *****n,****b can be another
example Live Example :
#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
int num = 45 , *ptr , **ptr2ptr
;
ptr
= &num;

ptr2ptr = &ptr;

printf("%d",**ptr2ptr);
return(0);
}
Output :

45
 UNIT-IV
STRUCTURES AND
UNIONS

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE

As we know that Array is collection of the elements of same type , but many time we
have to store the elements of the different data types.
Suppose Student record is to be stored, then for storing the record we have to group
together all the information such as Roll, name, Percent which may be of different
data types.

Ideally Structure is collection of different variables under single

name. Basically Structure is for storing the complicated data.
A structure is a convenient way of grouping several pieces of related information together.

Definition of Structure in C

Structure is composition of the different variables of different data types, grouped

under same name.

typedef struct {

char name[64];
char
course[128]; int
age;
int year;

} student;

Some Important Definitions of Structures

Each member declared in Structure is called

member. char name[64];
char course[128];
int age;

int year;
are some examples of members.

Name given to structure is called as tag

Structure member may be of different data type including user defined data-type also

typedef struct {

char name[64];
char
course[128];
book b1;
int year;

} student;

Here book is user defined data type.

Declaring Structure Variable in C

In C we can group some of the user defined or primitive data types together and form
another compact way of storing complicated information is called as Structure. Let us
see how to declare structure in c programming language –

Syntax of Structure in C
Programming struct tag
{

d a t a _ t y p e 1
m e m b e r 1 ;
d a t a _ t y p e 2
m e m b e r 2 ;
d a t a _ t y p e 3
m e m b e r 3 ;
};
Structure Alternate Syntax

struct <structure_name>

structure_Element
1;
structure_Element
2;
 structure_Element3;

...

...

};

Some Important Points Regarding Structure in C Programming:

Struct keyword is used to declare structure.

Members of structure are enclosed within opening and closing braces.

Declaration of Structure reserves no space.

It is nothing but the Template / Map / Shape of the structure .

Memory is created, very first time when the variable is created /Instance is
created. Different Ways of Declaring Structure Variable:
Way 1 : Immediately after Structure Template

struct date

int date;

char month[20];

int year;

}today;

// 'today' is name of Structure variable

Way 2 : Declare Variables using struct Keyword

struct date

int date;

char month[20];
 int year;

};

struct date today;

where date is name of structure and today is name of variable.

Way 3 : Declaring Multiple Structure Variables

struct Book

int pages;

char name[20];

int year;

}book1,book2,book3;

C Structure Initialization

When we declare a structure, memory is not allocated for un-initialized variable.

Let us discuss very familiar example of structure student , we can initialize structure
variable in different ways –

Way 1 : Declare and Initialize

struct student

char name[20];
 int roll;

float marks;

}std1 = { "Pritesh",67,78.3 };

In the above code snippet, we have seen that structure is declared and as soon as after
declaration we have initialized the structure variable.
std1 = { "Pritesh",67,78.3 }

This is the code for initializing structure variable in C

programming Way 2 : Declaring and Initializing Multiple
Variables
struct student

char name[20];

int roll;

float marks;

std1 = {"Pritesh",67,78.3};

std2 = {"Don",62,71.3};

In this example, we have declared two structure variables in above code. After
declaration of variable we have initialized two variable.

std1 = {"Pritesh",67,78.3};

std2 = {"Don",62,71.3};

Way 3 : Initializing Single member

struct student

i n t
mark1;
 i n t
mark2;
i n t
mark3;
} sub1={67};

Though there are three members of structure,only one is initialized , Then

remaining two members are initialized with Zero. If there are variables of other
data type then their initial values will be –
Data Type Default value if not initialized

integer 0

float 0.00

char NULL

Way 4 : Initializing inside main

struct student

i n t
mark1;
i n t
mark2;
i n t
mark3;
};

void main()

struct student s1 = {89,54,65};

- - - - --

- - - - --

- - - - --
};

When we declare a structure then memory won‘t be allocated for the structure. i.e only
writing below declaration statement will never allocate memory

struct student

{
 i n t
mark1;
i n t
mark2;
i n t
mark3;
};

We need to initialize structure variable to allocate some memory to the structure.

struct student s1 = {89,54,65};

Some Structure Declarations and It‘s Meaning :

struct

int length;

char *name;

}*ptr;

Suppose we initialize these two structure members with following

values – length = 30;
*name = "programming";

Now Consider Following Declarations one by

One –

Example 1 : Incrementing Member

++ptr->length

++ Operator is pre-increment operator.

Above Statement will increase the value of
length Example 2 : Incrementing Member
(++ptr)->length

Content of the length is fetched and then ptr is incremented.

Consider above Structure and Look at the Following Table:-

Expression Meaning

++ptr->length Increment the value of length

(++ptr)->length Increment ptr before accessing length

(ptr++)->length Increment ptr after accessing length

*ptr->name Fetch Content of name

*ptr->name++ Incrementing ptr after Fetching the value

(*ptr->name)++ Increments whatever str points to

*ptr++->name Incrementing ptr after accessing whatever str points to

Accessing Structure Members

Array elements are accessed using the Subscript variable, Similarly Structure
members are accessed using dot [.] operator.

(.) is called as Structure member Operator.

Use this Operator in between “Structure name” & “member name”

Live Example :
#include<stdio.h
>
struct Vehicle

int wheels;

char vname[20];

char color[10];

}v1 = {4,"Nano","Red"};

int main()

printf("Vehicle No of Wheels :
%d",v1.wheels); printf("Vehicle Name:
%s",v1.vname); printf("Vehicle
: %s",v1.color);
Color
return(0);
}

Output :

Vehicle No of Wheels :
4 Vehicle
Name
: Nano
Vehicle Color :
Red Note :
Dot operator has Highest Priority than unary, arithmetic, relational, logical Operators

Initializing Array of Structure in C Programming

Array elements are stored in consecutive memory Location.

Like Array , Array of Structure can be initialized at compile

time. Way1 : Initializing After Declaring Structure Array :
struct Book

char bname[20];

int pages;

char author[20];

float price;

}b1[3] = {

{"Let us C",700,"YPK",300.00},

{"Wings of Fire",500,"APJ Abdul Kalam",350.00},

{"Complete C",1200,"Herbt Schildt",450.00}

};

Explanation :

As soon as after declaration of structure we initialize structure with the pre-defined

values. For each structure variable we specify set of values in curly braces. Suppose
we have 3 Array Elements then we have to initialize each array element individually
and all individual sets are combined to form single set.

{"Let us C",700,"YPK",300.00}

Above set of values are used to initialize first element of the array. Similarly –

{"Wings of Fire",500,"APJ Abdul

Kalam",350.00} is used to initialize second
element of the array.
Way 2 : Initializing in Main

struct Book
{

char bname[20];

int pages;

char author[20];
 float price;

};

void main()

struct Book b1[3] = {

{"Let us C",700,"YPK",300.00},

{"Wings of Fire",500,"Abdul Kalam",350.00},

{"Complete C",1200,"Herbt Schildt",450.00}

};

Some Observations and Important Points:

Tip #1 : All Structure Members need not be initialized

#include<stdio.h>
struct Book

char bname[20];

int pages;

char author[20];

float price;

}b1[3] = {

{"Book1",700,"YPK"},
 {"Book2",500,"AAK",350.00},

{"Book3",120,"HST",450.00}

};
void main()

printf("\nBook Name :
%s",b1[0].bname); printf("\nBook Pages
: %d",b1[0].pages); printf("\nBook
Author : %s",b1[0].author);
printf("\nBook Price : %f",b1[0].price);

Output :

Book Name :
Book1 Book Pages
: 700 Book Author :
YPK Book Price :
0.000000
Explanation :
In this example , While initializing first element of the array we have not specified the
price of book 1.It is not mandatory to provide initialization for all the values. Suppose
we have 5 structure elements and we provide initial values for first two element then
we cannot provide initial values to remaining elements.

{"Book1",700,,90.00}

above initialization is illegal and can cause compile time error.

Tip #2 : Default Initial Value

struct Book

{
char bname[20];

int pages;
 char author[20];

float price;

}b1[3] = {

{},

{"Book2",500,"AAK",350.00},

{"Book3",120,"HST",450.00}

};

Output :

Book Name :

Book Pages : 0
Book Author :
Book Price : 0.000000

It is clear from above output , Default values for different data types.

Data Type Default Initialization Value

Integer 0

Float 0.0000

Character Blank

Passing Array of Structure to Function in C

Programming Array of Structure can be passed to
function as a Parameter. Function can also return
Structure as return type.
Structure can be passed as
follow Live Example :
#include<stdio.h
>
#include<conio.h
>
//

struct Example

int num1;

int num2;

}s[3];

//

void accept(struct Example sptr[],int n)

int i;

for(i=0;i<n;i++)

printf("\nEnter num1 : ");

scanf("%d",&sptr[i].num1);
printf("\nEnter num2 : ");
scanf("%d",&sptr[i].num2);
}

//
void print(struct Example sptr[],int n)

int i;

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
 {

printf("\nNum1 : %d",sptr[i].num1);

printf("\nNum2 : %d",sptr[i].num2);

//

void main()

int i;
clrscr()
;
accept(s,3);

print(s,3);

getch();

Output :

Enter num1 :
10 Enter
num2 : 20
Enter num1 :
30 Enter
num2 : 40
Enter num1 :
50 Enter
num2 : 60
Num1 : 10
Num2 : 20

Num1 : 30

Num2 : 40
Num1 : 50

Num2 : 60

Explanation :

Inside main structure and size of structure array is passed.

When reference (i.e ampersand) is not specified in main , so this passing is simple pass
by value. Elements can be accessed by using dot [.] operator
Pointer Within Structure in C Programming:
Structure may contain the Pointer variable as
member. Pointers are used to store the address of
memory location. They can be de-referenced by „*
operator.
Example :
struct
Sample
{

int *ptr; //Stores address of integer Variable

char *name; //Stores address of Character
String
}s1;

s1 is structure variable which is used to access the “structure

members”. s1.ptr = &num;
s1.name = "Pritesh"

Here num is any variable but it‘s address is stored in the Structure member ptr
(Pointer to Integer)
Similarly Starting address of the String Pritesh is stored in structure variable name(Pointer to
Character array)
Whenever we need to print the content of variable num , we are dereferancing
the pointer variable num.
printf("Content of Num : %d
",*s1.ptr); printf("Name :
%s",s1.name);
Live Example : Pointer Within
Structure #include<stdio.h>

struct Student

int *ptr; //Stores address of integer Variable

char *name; //Stores address of Character String

}s1;

int main()

int roll = 20;

s1.ptr = &roll;
s1.name = "Pritesh";

printf("\nRoll Number of Student :

%d",*s1.ptr); printf("\nName of
Student
: %s",s1.name);

return(0);
}

Output :

Roll Number of Student : 20

Name of Student :
Pritesh Some Important
Observations :
printf("\nRoll Number of Student : %d",*s1.ptr);

We have stored the address of variable roll‘ in a pointer member of structure thus we
can access value of pointer member directly using de-reference operator.

printf("\nName of Student : %s",s1.name);

Similarly we have stored the base address of string to pointer variable name‘. In order to
de- reference a string we never use de-reference operator.

Array of Structure :

Structure is used to store the information of One particular object but if we need to
store such 100 objects then Array of Structure is used.

Example :
struct
Bookinfo
{

char[20]
bname; int
pages;
int price;

}Book[100];

Explanation :

Here Book structure is used to Store the information of one Book.

In case if we need to store the Information of 100 books then Array of Structure is used.

b1[0] stores the Information of 1st Book , b1[1] stores the information of 2nd Book
and So on We can store the information of 100 books.

book[3] is shown Below

Accessing Pages field of Second
Book : Book[1].pages
Live Example :
#include
<stdio.h>

struct Bookinfo

char[20] bname;

int pages;

int price;

}book[3];

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

int i;

for(i=0;i<3;i++)

{
printf("\nEnter the Name of
Book
: "); gets(book[i].bname);
printf("\nEnter the Number of Pages : ");
 scanf("%d",book[i].pages);
printf("\nEnter the Price of Book :
"); scanf("%f",book[i].price);
}

printf("\n--------- Book Details ");

for(i=0;i<3;i++)

printf("\nName of Book :
%s",book[i].bname); printf("\nNumber of
Pages : %d",book[i].pages); printf("\nPrice
of Book : %f",book[i].price);
}

return 0;

Output of the Structure

Example: Enter the Name of
Book : ABC Enter the Number
of Pages : 100 Enter the Price
of Book 200
Enter the Name of Book :
EFG Enter the Number of
Pages : 200 Enter the Price
of Book 300
Enter the Name of Book:
HIJ Enter the Number of
Pages : 300 Enter the Price
of Book500

Book Details
Name of Book :
ABC Number of Pages :
100 Price of Book :
200 Name of
Book
: EFG Number of Pages
: 200 Price of Book :
300 Name of Book
: HIJ
Number of Pages : 300
Price of Book : 500
Union in C
Programming :
In C Programming we have came across Structures. Unions are similar
tostructure syntactically.Syntax of both is almost similar. Let us discuss some
important points one by one –

Note #1 : Union and Structure are Almost Similar

union stud struct stud

{ {

int roll; int roll;

char name[4]; char name[4];

int marks; int marks;

}s1; }s1;

If we look at the two examples then we can say that both structure and union are
same except Keyword.

Note #2 : Multiple Members are Collected Together Under Same Name

int roll;

char name[4];
int marks;

We have collected three variables of different data type under same name
together. Note #3 : All Union Members Occupy Same Memory Area

For the union maximum memory allocated will be equal to the data member with
maximum size. In the example character array name‘ have maximum size thus
maximum memory of the union will be 4 Bytes.

Maximum Memory of Union = Maximum Memory of

Union Data Member
Note #4 : Only one Member will be active at a time.

Suppose we are accessing one of the data member of union then we cannot
access other data member since we can access single data member of union
because each data member shares same memory. By Using Union we can Save
Lot of Valuable Space

Simple Example:

union u

char a;

int b;

How to Declare Union in C ?

Union is similar to that of Structure. Syntax of both are same but major difference
between structure and union is memory storage.
In structures, each member has its own storage location, whereas all the members
of union use the same location. Union contains many members of different types,

Union can handle only one member at a

time. Syntax :
union tag

union_member
1 ;
union_member
2 ;
union_member
3;
..

..

..

union_memberN;

}instance;

Note :

Unions are Declared in the same way as a Structure.Only struct Keyword is

replaced with union

Sample Declaration of Union :

union stud

int roll;
 char name[4];

int marks;

}s1;<
How Memory is Allocated ?

So From the Above fig. We can Conclude –

Union Members that compose a union, all share the same storage area within the
computers memory

Each member within a structure is assigned its own unique storage area

Thus unions are used to observe memory.

Unions are useful for application involving multiple members, where values
need not be assigned to all the members at any one time.

C Programming accessing union members

While accessing union, we can have access to single data member at a time. we can
access single union member using following two Operators –

Using DOT Operator

Using ARROW Operator

Accessing union members DOT operator

In order to access the member of the union we are using the dot operator. DOT
operator is used inside printf and scanf statement to get/set value from/of union
member location.

Syntax :

variable_name.member

consider the below union, when we declare a variable of union type then we will be
accessing union members using dot operator.

union emp

int id;

char name[20];

}e1;

id can be Accessed by – union_variable.member

Syntax Explanation

e1.id Access id field of union

e1.name Access name field of union

Accessing union members Arrow operator

Instead of maintain the union variable suppose we store union at particular address
then we can access the members of the union using pointer to the union and arrow
operator.

union emp
{

int id;

char name[20];

}*e1;
id can be Accessed by – union_variable->member

Syntax Explanation

e1->id Access id field of union

e1->name Access name field of union

C Programs

Program #1 : Using dot

operator #include <stdio.h>
union emp

int id;

char name[20];

}e1;

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

e1.id = 10;

printf("\nID : %d",e1.id);
strcpy(e1.name,"Pritesh");
printf("\nName :
%s",e1.name); return 0;
}

Output :
ID : 10

Name : Pritesh

Program #2 : Accessing same memory

#include <stdio.h>

union emp

int id;

char name[20];

}e1;

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

e1.id = 10;
strcpy(e1.name,"Pritesh");
printf("\nID : %d",e1.id);
printf("\nName :
%s",e1.name); return 0;
}

Output :

ID : 1953067600

Name : Pritesh

As we already discussed in the previous article of union basics, we have seen how
memory is shared by all union fields. In the above example –

Total memory for union = max(sizeof(id),sizeof(name))

= sizeof(name)

= 20 bytes
Firstly we have utilized first two bytes out of 20 bytes for storing integer value. After
execution of statement again same memory is overridden by character array so while
printing the ID value, garbage value gets printed

Program #3 : Using arrow operator

#include <stdio.h>

union emp

int id;

char name[20];

}*e1;

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

e1->id = 10;

printf("\nID : %d",e1->id);
strcpy(e1->name,"Pritesh");
printf("\nName : %s",e1-
>name); return 0;
}

Output :

ID : 10

Name :
Pritesh Bit
fiels:
Suppose your C program contains a number of TRUE/FALSE variables grouped in a
structure called status, as follows

struct {

unsigned int
 widthValidated; unsigned
int heightValidated;
} status;
This structure requires 8 bytes of memory space but in actual, we are going to store
either 0 or 1 in each of the variables. The C programming language offers a better way
to utilize the memory space in such situations.
If you are using such variables inside a structure then you can define the width of a
variable which tells the C compiler that you are going to use only those number of
bytes. For example, the above structure can be re-written as follows

struct {

unsigned int widthValidated :

1; unsigned int
heightValidated : 1;
} status;

The above structure requires 4 bytes of memory space for status variable, but only 2
bits will be used to store the values.
If you will use up to 32 variables each one with a width of 1 bit, then also the status
structure will use 4 bytes. However as soon as you have 33 variables, it will allocate the
next slot of the memory and it will start using 8 bytes. Let us check the following
example to understand the concept

#include
<stdio.h>
#include
<string.h>

/* define simple structure

*/ struct {
unsigned int
widthValidated; unsigned
int heightValidated;
} status1;

/* define a structure with bit fields

*/ struct {
unsigned int widthValidated : 1;
 unsigned int heightValidated : 1;

} status2;

int main( ) {

printf( "Memory size occupied by status1 : %d\n",

sizeof(status1)); printf( "Memory size occupied by status2 :
%d\n", sizeof(status2)); return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result Memory size occupied by status1 : 8
Memory size occupied by status2 : 4

Bit Field Declaration

The declaration of a bit-field has the following form inside a

structure struct {
type [member_name] : width ;

};

The following table describes the variable elements of a bit field

Elements Description

type An integer type that determines how a bit-field's value is

interpreted. The type may be int, signed int, or unsigned int.

member_name The name of the bit-field.

width The number of bits in the bit-field. The width must be less than or
equal to the bit width of the specified type.

The variables defined with a predefined width are called bit fields. A bit field can
hold more than a single bit; for example, if you need a variable to store a value from
0 to 7, then you can define a bit field with a width of 3 bits as follows
struct {

unsigned int age : 3;

} Age;

The above structure definition instructs the C compiler that the age variable is going to
use only 3 bits to store the value. If you try to use more than 3 bits, then it will not allow
you to do so. Let us try the following example

#include
<stdio.h>
#include
<string.h> struct {
unsigned int age : 3;

} Age;

int main( ) {
Age.age = 4;
printf( "Sizeof( Age ) : %d\n",
sizeof(Age) ); printf( "Age.age : %d\n",
Age.age ); Age.age = 7;
printf( "Age.age : %d\n",
Age.age ); Age.age = 8;
printf( "Age.age : %d\n",
Age.age ); return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled it will compile with a warning and when executed, it
produces the following result

Sizeof( Age ) :
4 Age.age : 4
Age.age : 7
Age.age : 0

Typedef:

The C programming language provides a keyword called typedef, which you can use
to give a type, a new name. Following is an example to define a termBYTE for one-
byte numbers

typedef unsigned char BYTE;

After this type definition, the identifier BYTE can be used as an abbreviation
for the type unsigned char, for example..

BYTE b1, b2;

By convention, uppercase letters are used for these definitions to remind the user
that the type name is really a symbolic abbreviation, but you can use lowercase, as
follows

typedef unsigned char byte;

You can use typedef to give a name to your user defined data types as well. For
example, you can use typedef with structure to define a new data type and then use
that data type to define structure variables directly as follows

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
typedef struct Books {
char title[50];
char author[50];
char
subject[100]; int
book_id;
} Book;

int main( ) {
Book
book;
strcpy( book.title, "C
Programming"); strcpy(
book.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( book.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
 book.book_id = 6495407;

printf( "Book title : %s\n", book.title);

printf( "Book author : %s\n",
book.author); printf( "Book subject :
%s\n", book.subject);
printf( "Book book_id : %d\n",
book.book_id); return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result Book title : C Programming
Book author : Nuha Ali

Book subject : C Programming

Tutorial Book book_id : 6495407
typedef vs #define

#define is a C-directive which is also used to define the aliases for various data
types similar to typedef but with the following differences
typedef is limited to giving symbolic names to types only where as#define can be used
to define alias for values as well, q., you can define 1 as ONE etc.
typedef interpretation is performed by the compiler whereas #definestatements are
processed by the pre-processor.

The following example shows how to use #define in a

program #include <stdio.h>
#define TRUE 1

#define FALSE
0 int main( ) {
printf( "Value of TRUE : %d\n", TRUE);
printf( "Value of FALSE : %d\n",
FALSE);
 return 0;

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result Value of TRUE : 1
Value of FALSE : 0

Enumerated data type:

An enumeration is a user-defined data type consists of integral constants and

each integral constant is give a name. Keyword enum is used to defined
enumerated data type.

enum type_name{ value1, value2,...,valueN };

Here, type_name is the name of enumerated data type or tag. And

value1,value2,. ,valu
eN are
values of type type_name.

By default, value1 will be equal to 0, value2 will be 1 and so on but, the programmer
can change the default value.

// Changing the default value of enum

elements enum suit{
club=0;
diamonds=1
0;
hearts=20;
spades=3;
};

Declaration of enumerated variable

Above code defines the type of the data but, no any variable is created.
Variable of type enum can be created as:

enum
boolean{
false;
true;
};

enum boolean check;

Here, a variable check is declared which is of type enum boolean.

Example of enumerated
type #include <stdio.h>
enum week{ sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday,
saturday}; int main(){
enum week today;
today=wednesday;
printf("%d
day",today+1); return 0;
}

Outpu
t4
day
You can write any program in C language without the help of enumerations but,
enumerations helps in writing clear codes and simplify programming.

Dynamic memory allocation

The exact size of array is unknown untill the compile time,i.e., time when a compier
compiles code written in a programming language into a executable form. The size of
array you have declared initially can be sometimes insufficient and sometimes more
than required. Dynamic memory allocation allows a program to obtain more memory
space, while running or to release space when no space is required.
Although, C language inherently does not has any technique to allocated memory
dynamically, there are 4 library functions under "stdlib.h" for dynamic memory
allocation.
Function Use of Function

malloc() Allocates requested size of bytes and returns a pointer first byte of allocated
space
Allocates space for an array elements, initializes to zero and then returns a
calloc() pointer to memory

free() dellocate the previously allocated space

realloc() Change the size of previously allocated space

malloc()

The name malloc stands for "memory allocation". The function malloc()reserves a
block of memory of specified size and return a pointer of type voidwhich can be
casted into pointer of any form.

Syntax of malloc()

ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)

Here, ptr is pointer of cast-type. The malloc() function returns a pointer to an area of
memory with size of byte size. If the space is insufficient, allocation fails and returns
NULL pointer.

ptr=(int*)malloc(100*sizeof(int));

This statement will allocate either 200 or 400 according to size of int 2 or 4 bytes
respectively and the pointer points to the address of first byte of memory.

calloc()

The name calloc stands for "contiguous allocation". The only difference between
malloc() and calloc() is that, malloc() allocates single block of memory whereas
calloc() allocates multiple blocks of memory each of same size and sets all bytes to
zero.

Syntax of calloc()

ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(n,element-size);
This statement will allocate contiguous space in memory for an array of nelements. For
example: ptr=(float*)calloc(25,sizeof(float));
This statement allocates contiguous space in memory for an array of 25 elements
each of size of float, i.e, 4 bytes.

free()

Dynamically allocated memory with either calloc() or malloc() does not get return on
its own. The programmer must use free() explicitly to release space.

syntax of
free()
free(ptr);
This statement cause the space in memory pointer by ptr to be
deallocated. Examples of calloc() and malloc()
Write a C program to find sum of n elements entered by user. To perform this
program, allocate memory dynamically using malloc() function.

# i n c l u d e
< s t d i o . h >
# i n c l u d e
<stdlib.h> int
main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;

printf("Enter number of elements:

"); scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using
malloc if(ptr==NULL)
{

printf("Error! memory not

allocated."); exit(0);
}

printf("Enter elements of array:

"); for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
 scanf("%d",ptr+i
); sum+=*(ptr+i);
}

printf("Sum=%d",sum
); free(ptr);
return 0;

Write a C program to find sum of n elements entered by user. To perform this

program, allocate memory dynamically using calloc() function.

# i n c l u d e
< s t d i o . h >
# i n c l u d e
<stdlib.h> int
main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;

printf("Enter number of elements:

"); scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int));
if(ptr==NULL)
{

printf("Error! memory not

allocated."); exit(0);
}

printf("Enter elements of array:

"); for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
 sum+=*(ptr+i);

printf("Sum=%d",sum
); free(ptr);
return 0;

realloc()

If the previously allocated memory is insufficient or more than sufficient. Then, you can
change memory size previously allocated using realloc().

Syntax of realloc()
ptr=realloc(ptr,newsiz
e);
Here, ptr is reallocated with size of
newsize. #include <stdio.h>
#include
<stdlib.h> int
main(){
int *ptr,i,n1,n2;

printf("Enter size of array: ");

scanf("%d",&n1);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n1*sizeof(int));
printf("Address of previously allocated
memory: "); for(i=0;i<n1;++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr+i);
printf("\nEnter new size of array:
"); scanf("%d",&n2);
ptr=realloc(ptr,n2);
 for(i=0;i<n2;++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr+i);
return 0;

}
 UNIT-IV
FILES

DRAWBACKS OF TRADITIONAL I/O SYSTEM

Until now we are using Console Oriented I/O functions.

Console Application means an application that has a text-based interface. (black

screen window))
Most applications require a large amount of data , if this data is entered through
console then it will be quite time consuming task
Main drawback of using Traditional I/O :- data is temporary (and will not be available
during re- execution )

Consider example –

We have written C Program to accept person detail from user and we are going to
print these details back to the screen.
Now consider another scenario, suppose we want to print same data that we
have entered previously.
We cannot save data which was entered on the console before.

Now we are storing data entered (during first run) into text file and when we need this
data back (during 2nd run), we are going to read file.
Introduction to file handling in C
New way of dealing with data is file handling.

Data is stored onto the disk and can be retrieve whenever

require. Output of the program may be stored onto the disk
In C we have many functions that deals with file handling

A file is a collection of bytes stored on a secondary storage

device(generally a disk) Collection of byte may be interpreted as –
Single
character
Single Word
Single Line
Complete Structure.

File I/O Streams in C Programming Language

In C all input and output is done with streams

Stream is nothing but the sequence of bytes of
data
A sequence of bytes flowing into program is called input stream

A sequence of bytes flowing out of the program is called output

stream Use of Stream make I/O machine independent.
Predefined Streams :

stdin Standard Input

stdout Standard Output

stdin Standard Input

stderr Standard Error

Standard Input Stream Device

stdin stands for (Standard

Input) Keyboard is standard
input device .
Standard input is data (Often Text) going into a program.

The program requests data transfers by use of the read

operation. Not all programs require input.
Standard Output Stream Device

stdout stands for (Standard Output)

Screen(Monitor) is standard output
device .
Standard output is data (Often Text) going out from a
program. The program sends data to output device by using
write operation. Difference Between Std. Input and Output
Stream Devices :

Point Std i/p Stream Device Standard o/p Stream Device

Stand
Standard Input Standard Output
s For

Example Keyboard Screen/Monitor

Point Std i/p Stream Device Standard o/p Stream Device

Data (Often Text) going data (Often Text) going out

Data Flow
into a program from a program

Operation Read Operation Write Operation

Some Important Summary :

Point Input Stream Output Stream

Standard Device 1 Keyboard Screen

Standard Device 2 Scanner Printer

IO Function scanf and gets printf and puts

IO Operation Read Write

Data Data goes from stream data comes into stream

Text file Format in C Programming

Text File is Also Called as Flat File.

Text File Format is Basic File Format in C

Programming. Text File is simple Sequence of
ASCII Characters.
Each Line is Characterized by EOL Character (End of Line).
Text File Formats
Text File have .txt Extension.
Text File Format have Little contains very little formatting .

The precise definition of the .txt format is not specified, but typicallymatches the
format accepted by the system terminal or simple text editor.
Files with the .txt extension can easily be read or opened by any program that reads
text and, for that reason, are considered universal (or platform independent).
Text Format Contain Mostly English Characters
What are Binary Files

Binary Files Contain Information Coded Mostly in Binary

Format. Binary Files are difficult to read for human.
Binary Files can be processed by certain applications or processors.

Only Binary File Processors can understood Complex FormattingInformation

Stored in Binary Format.
Humans can read binary files only after
processing. All Executable Files are Binary
Files.

Explanation :

As shown in fig. Binary file is stored in Binary Format (in 0/1). This Binary file is difficult
to read for humans. So generally Binary file is given as input to the Binary file
Processor. Processor will convert binary file into equivalent readable file.
Some Examples of the Binary files :

Executable
Files Database
files
Before opening the file we must understand the basic concept of file in C Programming
, Types of File. If we want to display some message on the console from the file then
we must open it in read mode.
Opening and Defining FILE in C Programming

Before storing data onto the secondary storage , firstly we must specify following
things – File name
Data
Structure
Perpose /
Mode
Very first task in File handling is to open
file File name : Specifies Name of the
File

File name consists of two fields

First field is name field and second field is of

extension field Extension field is optional
Both File name and extension are separated by period or dot.
Data Structure

Data structure of file is defined as FILE in the library of standard I/O

functions In short we have to declare the pointer variable of type FILE
Mode of FILE opening

In C Programming we can open file in different modes such as reading mode,writing

mode and appending mode depending on purpose of handling file.
Following are the different Opening modes of File :
Openin Previou
Purpose
g Mode s Data

Reading File will be opened just for reading purpose Retained

Writing File will be opened just for writing purpose Flushed

File will be opened for appending some

Appending Retained
thing in file

Different Steps to Open File

Step 1 : Declaring FILE pointer

Firstly we need pointer variable which can point to file. below is the syntax fordeclaring
the file pointer.
FILE *fp;

Step 2 : Opening file hello.txt

fp = fopen
("filename","mode");
Live Example : Opening the File and Defining the
File #include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;

fp = fopen("INPUT.txt","r") // Open file in Read

mode fclose(fp); // Close File after Reading

return(0);
}
If we want to open file in different mode then following syntax will be used –

Reading Mode fp = fopen("hello.txt","r");

Writing Mode fp = fopen("hello.txt","w");

Append Mode fp = fopen("hello.txt","a");
Opening the File : Yet Another Live
Example #include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
fp = fopen("INPUT.txt","r"); // Open file in Read mode

while(1)
{
ch = fgetc(fp); // Read a Character
if(ch == EOF ) // Check for End of
File break ;

printf("%c",ch);
}
fclose(fp); // Close File after Reading
}
File Opening Mode Chart

fopen Returns if FILE-

Mode Meaning
Exists Not Exists

r Reading – NULL

Create
w Writing Over write on Existing
New File

Create
a Append –
New File

Reading New data is written at the Create

r+
+ Writing beginning overwriting existing New File
data

Reading Create
w+ Over write on Existing
+ Writing New File
a+ Reading + New data is appended at the end of Create New
file
 Appending File
Explanation :
File can be opened in basic 3 modes : Reading Mode, Writing Mode, Appending Mode

If File is not present on the path specified then New File can be created using
Write and Append Mode.
Generally we used to open following types of file in C –

File Type Extension

C Source File .c

Text File .txt

Data File .dat

Writing on the file will overwrite previous content

EOF and feof function >> stdio.h >> File Handling in C

Syntax :
int feof(FILE *stream);

What it does?
Macro tests if end-of-file has been reached on a stream.
feof is a macro that tests the given stream for an end-of-file indicator.

Once the indicator is set, read operations on the file return the indicatoruntil rewind is
called, or the file is closed.
The end-of-file indicator is reset with each input operation.
Ways of Detecting End of File
A ] In Text File :
Special Character EOF denotes the end of File
As soon as Character is read,End of the File can be detected
EOF is defined in stdio.h
Equivalent value of EOF is -1
Printing Value of EOF :
void main()
{
printf("%d", EOF);
}
B ] In Binary File :

feof function is used to detect the end of

file It can be used in text file
feof Returns TRUE if end of file is
reached Syntax :
int feof(FILE *fp);
Ways of Writing feof Function :
Way 1 : In if statement :

if( feof(fptr) == 1 ) // as if(1) is

TRUE printf("End of File");
Way 2 : In While
Loop
while(!feof(fptr))
{
--- - --
--- - --
}

C - Command Line Arguments

main() function of a C program accepts arguments from command line or from
other shell scripts by following commands. They are,

argc
argv[]
where
,
argc – Number of arguments in the command line including
program name argv[] – This is carrying all the arguments
In real time application, it will happen to pass arguments to the main program itself.
These arguments are passed to the main () function while executing binary file from
command line.

For example, when we compile a program (test.c), we get executable file in the
name test. Now, we run the executable test along with 4 arguments in command
line like below.
./test this is a program

Where,

argc = 5
argv[0] = test
argv[1] = this
argv[2] = is
argv[3] = a
argv[4] = program
argv[5] = NULL

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR ARGC () AND ARGV() FUNCTIONS IN C:

#include
<stdio.h>
#include
<stdlib.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) // command line arguments

if(argc!=5)

printf("Arguments passed through command

line " \ "not equal to 5");
 return 1;

}
 printf("\n Program name : %s \n",
argv[0]); printf("1st arg : %s \n",
argv[1]); printf("2nd arg : %s \n",
argv[2]); printf("3rd arg : %s \n",
argv[3]); printf("4th arg : %s \n",
argv[4]); printf("5th arg : %s \n",
argv[5]);

return 0;

OUTPUT