Running head: Industrial Hemp In Plastics And Construction: A Climate Defender?

THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC

IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
Paul E Benhaim

Author Note

Paul Benhaim is founder of The Hemp Plastic Company, shareholder, Chairman.

Mr Benhaim has been involved in Hemp Plastics since 1996, and the hemp

industry since 1993 as well as authoring 9 books on industrial hemp and other

papers including The Wellness Revolution – Hemp and Cannabinoids

Introduction (2016)
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
2
Table of Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 4

THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE ...................... 5

Flattening The Curve Of Climate Change ....................................................................... 5

Nothing New .............................................................................................................. 6

Hemp As A Carbon Sequestration Medium ................................................................... 6

The World Meets Hemp Plastic ..................................................................................... 8

Should We Transition To Hemp Plastic? ................................................................... 8

Hemp Plastic And Carbon Savings .............................................................................. 11

Hemp In Construction .................................................................................................. 13

Hemp In Agricultural Systems ..................................................................................... 15

Crop Yields .............................................................................................................. 15

Chemical Inputs ....................................................................................................... 16

Hemp and Water Use ............................................................................................... 17

Biodiversity .............................................................................................................. 17

Healing The Soil With Hemp ....................................................................................... 18

Soil Conservation As Carbon Sequestration ................................................................ 19

The Greenwashing Of Petroleum-Based Plastics ....................................................... 20

The Health Effects Of Pollution .................................................................................. 22

Plastic Pollution ....................................................................................................... 23

Oil Extraction And Pollution ................................................................................... 24

Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 25
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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Abstract

In recent years, the use of industrial hemp has been gaining momentum as a natural, renewable,

climate-friendly, and non-toxic alternative to fossil fuel-based products. With the rise in popularity of

hemp seeds, leaves, and flowers as foods, cosmetic ingredients, and herbal medicine, there is a

growing quantity of stems, seed husks, cannabis extraction fibre and other by-products being left

behind as “waste”. However, these “waste” fibres have many potential applications in (hemp) plastic

manufacturing and construction. A transition from petrochemicals and conventional building

materials to hemp (plastic) could significantly cut carbon emissions by locking up carbon in the end

products, alleviate pollution, and improve agricultural land and crop yields.

Keywords: hemp, plastic, bioplastic, hemp plastic, co2, carbon sequestration,

industrial hemp, benhaim

THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC

IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE

Flattening The Curve Of Climate Change

First, why care about greenhouse gas emissions, carbon included? It’s no secret that

climate change is a serious and worsening issue. In the 2019/2020 bushfire season, over 21%

of eastern Australia’s temperate broadleaf forests were burnt, compared to only 2% in a

typical year1. Over a billion animals lost their lives, almost 3000 homes were destroyed, and

400 extra deaths were indirectly related to the fires. Over in California, there were 41,051

wildfires from January to September 8, 2020, burning 4.7 million acres2. This is up from

35,386 fires and 4.2 million acres in 2019.

1
Will Steffen, 2020, The Science Behind The Climate Emergency, Renew Magazine, Issue 152.
2
https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-wildfires
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
6
Nothing New

This is no sudden event, with Australia suffering above-average temperatures and

below-average rainfall for several years beforehand. Temperatures have been steadily

creeping up globally, with this trend following the same pattern as the increase in greenhouse

gas emissions. Our current trajectory takes us to a 2.5 degrees Celsius warming of the global

climate by 2100, with the worst case scenario being an increase of almost 6 degrees. Key

systems at risk of hitting dangerous “tipping points” in the projected temperature increase

include the arctic sea ice, Amazon rainforest, Indian summer monsoon and the Gulf stream. If

these suffer significant damage, the climate may warm and become dysregulated even more

than it is affected by human activity alone. This tipping point, or a snowball effect will be

immensely more challenging for our species to recover from.

To “flatten the curve” of climate change, there must be no new fossil fuel

developments of any kind from 2020. By 2030, a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions

is required, with 100% renewable energy. By 2040, overall net zero emissions must be the

goal. While a growing number of nations, alongside private businesses in efforts such as the

RE100 Initiative3, have set goals similar to these timelines, adoption of these goals is still far

from universal. Interventions that reduce carbon emissions and other pollution, as well as

repair the damage already done, must be built into everyday life to make these goals more

achievable and sustainable.

Hemp As A Carbon Sequestration Medium

Industrial hemp is an effective medium for carbon sequestration, because the carbon
is permanently incorporated into the fibres used for plastics, building materials and other
applications. In Germany, BMW is already using it to replace petrochemical plastics in car
manufacturing1. It is currently integrated with plastic materials produced from oil. As hemp is
constantly replanted after harvesting, it also meets the permanence criteria established by the
Kyoto Protocol.
3
https://www.there100.org/
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How does it all work? If hemp is used as an alternative to raw materials made from

fossil fuels, it would capture and store a significant quantity of carbon dioxide. During

photosynthesis, plants like hemp take in carbon and use it to produce sugar and their

structural components. Therefore, a high biomass rate means more carbon is stored in the

plant, including the stems and roots processed into building materials. Hemp’s rapid growth

rate of four to five months, height of up to five meters and root depth of up to three meters2

make it an efficient way to capture carbon.

How much carbon dioxide is captured? One tonne of hemp stem contains 0.7 tonnes

of cellulose, which is 45% carbon; 0.22 tonnes of hemicellulose, which is 48% carbon; and

0.06 tonnes of lignin, which clocks in at 40% carbon4. This means 44.46% of the stem’s dry

weight is carbon taken from the atmosphere. Per tonne of hemp, 1.6 tonnes of carbon dioxide

are captured (once the oxygen atoms of carbon dioxide are taken out). If a yield average of

5.5 to 8 tonnes per hectare is assumed, then 9 to 13 tonnes of carbon dioxide can be absorbed

for every hectare of hemp harvested. The roots also capture carbon, but their absorption rate

is still unclear.

The production of fossil fuel-based plastics contributes to carbon dioxide emissions

too. The EPA states that around one ounce of carbon dioxide is emitted for each ounce of

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) manufactured5. As for the life-cycle production of

polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a 5:1 ratio for the generation of carbon emissions to its

production is estimated6. Therefore, anywhere between one to five tonnes of carbon dioxide

is emitted during the manufacturing of one tonne of this plastic. If you remove 1 tonne of

fossil fuel based plastic and replace it with hemp, which in itself sequesters approximately

4
European Industrial Hemp Association, 2020, Hemp, A Real Green Deal.
5
https://stanfordmag.org/contents/the-link-between-plastic-use-and-climate-change-nitty-gritty/
6
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ep.10078
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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1.65 tonnes7 of co2 you have essentially shifted up to 6.65 tonne from out of the atmosphere

by simply choosing 1 tonne of hemp.

Overall, hemp is a carbon negative raw material!

The World Meets Hemp Plastic

Should We Transition To Hemp Plastic?

Despite a relatively high level of hemp cultivation, compared to recent years, most

plastic is still made from fossil fuel based substances8. Humans have produced a lot of

plastics since they were originally commercialized - more than 1 ton per person alive9. In fact

the mass of these plastics represent almost as much as the mass of all humans alive today10.

Consumption of petroleum has harmful effects on the environment, due to the destructive

methods used in its extraction and the amount of waste created during the refinement process.

Petroleum is also a finite resource. Hemp plastic uses more of the cellulose-rich fibres of the

plant, and therefore has much less toxic effects on the environment. The continued use of

petroleum requires new wells to be drilled once older ones have been depleted, meaning that

natural environments must keep being damaged. In the case of hemp, where products cannot

be reused or recycled, soils may be cared for and fields can simply be replanted after harvest

to ensure a new supply.

Could hemp really replace fossil fuels in plastic manufacturing? Yes – plastic can be

any synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymer (carbon chain), where “organic” is defined

as being made of carbon-based molecules. Despite the capacity for plastics to be produced

7
Per tonne of a plastic blend with 25% hemp means 0.25 to 1.25 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions
are removed from the displacement of fossil fuel-based plastic. A further 0.4 tonnes is pulled from the
atmosphere through 250kg of hemp cultivation (see above), giving a total between 0.65 to 1.65 tonnes of
displaced carbon emissions.
8
http://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=ae6e9b56-1d34-4ed3-9851-2b3bf0b6eb4f

9
https://slides.ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution/#/3
10
https://slides.ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution/#/2
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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using almost any natural polymer, the vast majority of plastics are still made from

petrochemicals. The word “plastic” simply describes its flexibility, as these products can be

shaped or otherwise disfigured without breaking11. The polymers used to make plastics are

typically blended with other substances, such as fillers, stabilisers, colours, plasticisers and

fortifications. These affect the mechanical and synthetic properties of a plastic, as well as its

structure and cost.

At this time there are various forms of hemp plastics12 - from 100% compostable bio

based polymers (when mixed with polylactic acid (PLA) or polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), or

similar renewal plant based substance) to those where hemp replaces 25% of a polyproylene

(PP) resin. Even the 25% hemp plastics are a stepping stone towards companies’ goals of

producing 100% plant based compostable packaging.

Hemp plastics should replace petrochemical-based

plastics for several reasons. These are its lack of toxicity,

chemical inertness, recyclability, fewer manufacturing hazards

and lower use of natural resources. Hemp plastics may also be

more durable than their fossil fuel-based counterparts. In

comparison to glass filled plastics, they do not create health

and safety risks to manufacturers, they sequester greenhouse

gases, they are typically lighter and can cause less wear and

tear to the screw and moulds. Their superior flexibility also

aids functionality.

11
https://www.e3s-conferences.org/articles/e3sconf/pdf/2018/26/e3sconf_icacer2018_03002.pdf
12
https://www.hempplastic.com/products/
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However, hemp has enormous shoes to fill. Plastics revenue expected to be $560bn by

2024 and the smaller bio-plastic market is expected to be $68.6bn by 202413.

Global plastics production reached 311 million tonnes in 2014, with packaging and

construction the two largest segments of the market14. If hemp bio resins replace just 25% of

this quantity, it means that 77.75 million tonnes (0.25% is 777,500 tonnes) of fossil fuel-

based plastic are not produced and do not contribute to pollution. As manufacturing processes

improve and the ratio of hemp bioresin rises, an even greater amount of petrochemicals can

be removed from annual production figures.

Only 30% of Europe’s 25.8 million tonnes of plastic waste was re-processed in 2014.

Variable properties of plastics and poor quality sorting criteria are two factors that affect the

rate of plastic recycling. Incineration of plastic waste for energy production is the preferred

method of keeping it from re-entering the environment in Europe, but this contributes to

carbon emissions. Globally, approximately 40% of the world’s garbage is burnt, in order to

free up space in landfills. A substantial proportion of this is done at home in some countries,

with 22% of China’s particulate matter (PM10) emissions coming from domestic open waste

burning15. Burning plastic releases chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAHs) into the air, which also persist in ash waste residue. The transition to bio-sourced

hemp plastics, without toxic man-made pollutants, will assist in eliminating the need for

waste burning. Durability and recyclability can reduce the need for potentially harmful

disposal methods too.

13
https://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/plastics/plastics-world/ceresana-market-study-plastics-
world.html
14
https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/grantham-institute/public/publications/briefing-
papers/The-ocean-plastic-pollution-challenge-Grantham-BP-19_web.pdf
15
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es502250z
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Hemp Plastic And Carbon Savings

Carbon savings from the use of hemp plastic begin with oil extraction. Data from

2012 shows that plastics accounted for roughly 4% of global oil consumption16. Research

from Stanford University, covering 98% of the world’s oil production, found that emissions

equal to 1.7 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide were generated by the practice of oil

extraction17. This accounts for 5% of emissions from fuel combustion. It is most likely an

underestimation, however, as it does not fully capture leakage and venting of methane. As

four percent of 1.7 billion is 68 million tonnes, transitioning away from pure fossil fuel-based

plastic could significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the need for fossil

fuels, potentially in an amount equal to Israel’s entire estimated carbon dioxide emissions

from fossil fuels (67 million tonnes in 2017).

The figure of 68 million tonnes can be added onto the amount of carbon sequestered

by hemp. At a capture rate of 1.6 tonnes per tonne of hemp, replacing a “mere” 25% of fossil

fuel-based plastics with hemp removes 124.4 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere, for a total emission

elimination and sequestration of

almost 200 million tonnes.

In manufacturing, net

savings in energy costs come from

the glass and matrix material’s

displacement by hemp. Some

synthetic polymer, such as

polypropylene, is still currently used as a matrix. Glass fibre manufacturing takes

16
https://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/How-Much-Crude-Oil-Does-Plastic-Production-Really-
Consume.html
17
https://news.stanford.edu/2018/08/30/measuring-crude-oils-carbon-footprint/
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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approximately five times the energy of that for hemp fibre production. Additionally,

polypropylene (PP), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and epoxy resin require more

than 10 to 20 times as much energy for the same weight, respectively, as hemp. Traditionally,

the most common mineral fibres used for fibre-reinforced plastics are asbestos and glass,

while flax and jute were the most common vegetable fibres used in automotive composites.

Despite natural fibre blends becoming more common in this application, manufacturers often

shy away from hemp because of reliability and price issues. However, the use of industrial

hemp in thermosets and thermoplastics has still grown from virtually non-existent in the

1990s to a growing niche in the 21st century.

As hemp is lightweight and potentially as durable as steel, it is earning its place in

vehicle construction. The first and most well-known car made from hemp structures was

made in the late 1930s by Henry Ford, who built a car made from hemp fibres that would also

run on hemp-derived biofuels. Much more recently, a limited number of custom-made cars

were made by Renew Sports Car, all built entirely from hemp. Hemp fibres are also already

used in vehicle interiors by several major European car brands. Use of bio-based raw

materials as opposed to synthetic products leads

to both a significant reduction in emissions and a higher energy efficiency. The lighter

biomaterials have the potential to deliver a reduction of 40,000 tonnes of carbon emissions,

with an additional 325 million kilometres’ worth of range collectively added to the same
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quantity of fuel. Hemp fibre parts can be 20-30% lighter than conventional counterparts,

which increases fuel efficiency. At the end of a product’s life cycle, hemp provides another

environmental advantage. In an unalloyed form, hemp will decompose and release the carbon

it has sequestered, and will do the same if it is incinerated after use in a composite with fossil

fuel-based plastics. In the case of waste-to-energy systems, incineration of hemp composites

offers more combustion value than burning up glass-reinforced counterparts.

Hemp In Construction

Since the 1990s, hemp lime composites have been used in France for construction,

with other countries following suit in more recent years. Hemp lime composites are often

referred to as hemp concrete, or simply “hempcrete”. They are building materials made by

mixing hemp hurds as aggregate together with lime or magnesium based binders.

Construction of walls, floors and roof insulation can incorporate hempcrete.

The European Union’s built environment creates approximately 40% of the territory’s

energy use, and 36% of its CO2 emissions. Roughly half of all extracted materials are used in

the construction sector, which is also responsible for just over one-third of the EU’s waste

generation. Incorporating hemp, a resource that grows above the ground and can be replanted

every several months, may therefore reduce the need for mining. In developed countries,

maintaining the indoor climate is responsible for a significant slice of energy consumption

too. In-building energy consumption accounts for approximately 40% of the whole energy

demand in many regions. Of this, space heating and cooling requires almost 60% of the total

energy consumed.

When hemp is used in construction to produce concrete, its carbon sequestration

benefits grow. One chemical analysis of Lime Hemp Concrete (LHC)18 found a carbon

18
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320058537_Assessment_of_Carbon_Sequestration_of_He
mp_Concrete/link/59cbb45b45851556e982eec5/download
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dioxide sequestration rate of 161.31 grams per 7cm3, or 470.3kg per m3. Another study found

a sequestration rate of 251.67kg per m3, and the full life cycle assessment showed a net

emission of -35.5kg per m3, making the LHC-timber frame tested a carbon-negative structure.

In contrast, conventional cement is responsible for 8% of the world’s carbon emissions,

including 99 million tonnes emitted in India’s production of the material in 2014. Per ton of

reinforced concrete, 198 kilograms of carbon dioxide is emitted during production. Making

one ton of steel results in an average of 1.46 tons of carbon dioxide.19 Hempcrete is also

resistant to mould and bacteria; non-flammable; and regulates humidity and temperature. For

example, when a three-storey building was constructed at Bath University using hempcrete,

all heating, cooling, and humidity control could be switched off year-round. Constructing

new buildings with hempcrete could therefore provide tremendous emissions savings, and

speed the transition to renewable energy via lower generation capacity needs.

19
https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2014/sep/25/hemp-wood-fibre-construction-
climate-change
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Hemp In Agricultural Systems

Industrial hemp can even be cultivated on nutrient poor soils with very small amounts
of additional water and no fertilizers. Unlike most forestry projects, hemp can be
incorporated into existing agricultural land, and benefit the overall yields of other crops when
added into a rotation system. Its rapid growth rate of approximately four metres in 100 days,
plus low fertilizer needs and little to no requirement for pesticides or herbicides make hemp
an efficient, non-toxic addition to existing farms.

Crop Yields

Hemp can add value to other agricultural

commodities, including staple food crops, in a system

of crop rotation. For example, hemp can naturally

reduce the prevalence of pests such as weeds when

planted in a rotation with either organic or

conventionally grown crops. Some farmers in China

reportedly use hemp as a barrier to repel insect pests

from vegetable crops; in Canada, it is planted in

rotation with soybeans to reduce cyst nematodes, a parasitic pest20. In the Netherlands, hemp

is sometimes rotated with potatoes to reduce harmful nematodes. In other rotation

experiments, hemp has successfully prevented infestations of the weed Cyperus esculentus,

as well as increasing yields of winter wheat when alternated in the same field. Practices such

as these demonstrate some of the benefits of crop rotation, even showing that vegetable and

fibre crops can be alternated between, as opposed to only producing one single crop. Higher

crop yields aid the battle against climate change by reducing the need for land clearing. This

way, more carbon can be sequestered in the forests and other environments preserved as a

result.

20
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.600.293&rep=rep1&type=pdf
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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Many members of the European Industrial Hemp Association (EIHA) report that

hemp is an ideal crop for organic production and grows well near surface water. Even other

crops included in rotation systems benefit from hemp. For example, wheat yields have been

found to be 10 to 20 percent higher after the cultivation of hemp in the same field. The trial

from Rodale Institute mentioned above confirmed this, and then found similar results when

soybeans were planted afterwards.

Chemical Inputs

Other sustainability advantages of hemp in terms of agriculture are the relatively low

inputs required for its cultivation. Generally, herbicides are not used in hemp production. It is

seeded at very high densities when grown for fibres, and the plants’ rapid growth crowds out

most species of weeds that may infiltrate the fields. When hemp is grown at lower densities

for seed or flower harvesting, it does not perform as well in terms of controlling weeds.

It is common for industrial hemp to be grown profitably with little or no use of

pesticides. However, if industrial hemp was grown under intensive conditions, with irrigation

and conventional fertilizers, it is a fair assumption that the crop would develop pests and

diseases that require external treatment. Boosting crop genetic diversity and implementing

crop rotation are methods of avoiding this situation. The Author supports the use of

Regenerative Agriculture and not farming hemp as a monoculture crop.

The use of fertilizer in growing hemp ranges widely. At the upper estimates, its

fertilizer needs are equal to or less than high-yielding wheat or corn. The rapid growth of

these crops requires an external input of nitrogen. In Canada, anywhere between 55 to 80

pounds per acre of nitrogen, and 30 to 40 pounds per acre of phosphate, are used to grow

industrial hemp. Much higher rates of nitrogen fertilizer use have been reported in other

countries. However, hemp does not require significant fertilization, with very little response

of the plant to conventional nitrogen fertilization noted in Southern Europe (Italy). An

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internal survey of EIHA members found that half of all respondents use natural alternatives,

such as manure or slurry. It is therefore possible that education would reduce the use of

conventional fertilizers further.

Why is this important in the fight against climate change? Fossil fuels, namely natural

gas, are tied to conventional agriculture production through the use of inorganic fertilizers.

Conventional fertilizer production is responsible for roughly 1.2% of global energy use and

total emission of greenhouse gases. In the United States, 9% of industrial greenhouse gas

emissions in 2005 were the result of nitrogen fertilizer production. It was also responsible for

60% of total nitrous oxide emissions. Fertilizers can cause environmental damage when they

leach from soils, contributing to eutrophication. Soil erosion and eutrophication as a result of

agricultural runoff are leading causes of poor water quality in the USA.

Hemp and Water Use

Hemp also uses far less water than other fibers. Cotton is one of the most widely-

known comparative examples, which uses approximately 10,000 litres per kilogram while the

water use of hemp is 2,719 litres per kilogram21. This is partly because industrial hemp often

does not require irrigation. European research during a hot, dry growing season demonstrated

hemp’s resiliency in periods of low rainfall22. Some cultivars respond by developing earlier

and faster, while others take longer to grow but may have higher yields. Overall, it was

proven that hemp can be grown in dry conditions without continuous irrigation.

Biodiversity

Another environmental concern in agriculture is biodiversity depletion. One study,

assessing 23 crops along 26 biodiversity parameters, found that both oilseed and industrial

hemp beat most major crops in terms of preserving overall biodiversity. As hemp generally

21
http://essay.utwente.nl/68219/1/Averink,%20J.%200198501%20openbaar.pdf
22
https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/10/9/1361/htm
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requires little to no pesticides and herbicides, it can improve biodiversity by providing a safer

habitat for animals. The flowering period of hemp usually takes place from July to September

(Northern Hemisphere), when other common farm crops do not produce pollen. As a

dioecious, staminate and wind pollinated plant, hemp makes large amounts of pollen, thus

acting as a key food source for bees when other flowers are not blooming. Hemp also

supports a wide range of bee species. In northern Colorado plantations, research on the bee

populations in hemp fields found 23 different genera. The most common species was Apis

mellifera, representing 38% of bees, followed by Melissodes bimaculata at 25% and

Peponapis pruinosa at 16%.

Healing The Soil With Hemp

In addition, hemp’s carbon-catching benefits can be extended to the soil. As a fast-

growing crop with a high leaf turnover rate, hemp grown for its stalk will completely cover

the ground in three weeks after germination if grown in ideal conditions. Its dense leaves

quickly provide a natural source of soil cover, which helps to reduce water loss and soil

erosion. What’s more, fallen leaves increase the nutritional value of the soil. In the case of

cultivation for fibre, hemp stalks are an important source of soil nutrition during retting. This

is the decomposition of the stalk’s outer layer, allowing access to the fibres for

manufacturing.

The height and shading capacity of hemp leaves the soil in optimum condition by

effectively inhibiting weed growth. Early results from research at Rodale Institute in the

United States demonstrates that the use of hemp as a summer crop, and its earlier harvest

date, prevented weed growth all season long and allowed a wider window for the winter crop

to be established. This is another important advantage of growing hemp in crop rotation

systems. As it has no natural predator insects, hemp does not need insecticides. It is overall
THE ROLE OF HEMP PLASTIC IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
19
vulnerable to few serious pests, and is usually cultivated without, or with a minimal use of

chemical treatments such as herbicides.

What about land that has already been significantly degraded? Hemp has even

demonstrated significant efficiency in land reclamation. It is considered a quality pioneer

crop – the first plants reintroduced to damaged land – because of its phytoremediation

capacity. This is the ability to remove toxins such as heavy metals from the soil. Hemp is

highly cadmium-tolerant, and is resistant to long-term heavy metal exposure. Former mining

sites could be rehabilitated by hemp cultivation, with crops supporting production of long-

lasting plastic and construction items that will not be broken down again to release the heavy

metals back into the environment.

Soil Conservation As Carbon Sequestration

Soil conservation may play an essential role in carbon sequestration. Although it has

no beneficial effects in tropical rainforest ecosystems, research in regions such as the Yellow

River basin has found that it has its place in arid areas. Intensive soil erosion control,

regardless of the intended purpose, has led to a significant drop in carbon mobilisation and

release. Conservation practices that prevent soil erosion are a natural way to sequester

carbon.

With preventing the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a priority, it was

shown that around 9.7Tg23 of carbon was kept out of the air every year by soil conservation

practices such as regenerative agriculture24. This includes both reduced emissions and the

carbon fixated inside restored or protected plants and soils. At a significant scale, it can affect

the land to atmosphere carbon exchange within the environment affected. China’s average

carbon dioxide emissions caused by burning fossil fuels and cement production were 1.42

23
1Tg = 1012g of carbon or one million metric tonnes ref: EPA
24
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_agriculture
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tonnes per capita from 2000 to 2014. When applied to the Yellow River basin, the total

annual carbon emissions from these two sources were 198Tg of carbon. This means that the

carbon removed from the atmosphere accounted for 5% of these emissions, and 10.4% of

emissions were controlled by soil conservation.

In some areas of the Yellow River basin, carefully chosen trees, shrubs and grasses

have been planted on former farmland. These are all adaptable to the local dry climate. As a

result, the soil erosion rate and sediment flux have been substantially relieved, and the

ecosystem has improved alongside this25. The rate of sediment flux into the ocean is only

10% of its level in the 1950s. These significant improvements in soil erosion and loss of

sediment have affected carbon cycling processes, which are linked with erosion and sediment

movement. Alongside over 10 years of restoring local vegetation, this once severely degraded

environment has been significantly repaired, even though more work is still needed to

completely reverse the damage.

The Greenwashing Of Petroleum-Based

Plastics

In recent years, biodegradable and

compostable plastics have gained popularity due

to their image as safe, non-polluting alternatives.

It is different compositions and manufacturing

methods that mainly categorise plastics into two

groups: biodegradable and non-biodegradable

plastics. Biodegradable plastics contain certain

additives which promote a relatively rapid

degradation compared to traditional plastics. They

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may still be made using petrochemicals, and don’t always break down into non-toxic

substances. Some of them still leave behind harmful residues, so they are often unsuitable for

composting, particularly in home systems where the compost will be spread onto gardens26.

Biodegradable plastics can be broken down into water, carbon dioxide and some

biochemicals with the use of microbes. When they are disposed of in landfills, they emit

harmful greenhouse gases when breaking down, making them more toxic than some other

conventional plastics. Biodegradable or biocompostable plastics that may include polylactic

acid (PLA), polybutyrate (PBAT), polyhydroxalkanoate (PHA) and polycaprolactone (PCL).

Australian biodegradability standards require “compostable” plastics to be 90%

broken down within 180 days when disposed of in compost. In 12 weeks, 90% of plastic

should be in particles under 2mm in size. There should also be no toxic effects on plants or

earthworms; hazardous components such as heavy metals shouldn’t be present above legal

levels; and plastic materials should contain at least 50% organic materials. The categories of

compostable plastics are distinct, and potentially confusing: some are labelled as home

compostable, others can only break down rapidly in industrial compost.

If compostable plastic enters landfill, it is just as harmful as conventional plastics and

can last years. In a 2019 study, biodegradable and oxo-degradable bags were still able to

carry a load of groceries after being buried for three years in a range of environments,

including soil and shallow seawater. The compostable bag was not usable, but hadn’t entirely

broken down either.27

Current compostable plastics can compromise the durability of recycled plastic if

mixed with recyclables. Even if correctly sorted into industrial composting, it may leave

microplastics behind by taking longer to degrade than other materials. Industrial facilities

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often aim to process materials in two or three months, which may be sufficient for some

waste but not enough time for the plastics.

Tea bags and coffee pods, which are already commonly disposed of in home compost,

are two suitable uses for compostable plastic. Situations where the seller has control of the

item’s entire life cycle, such as an events centre where the product is bought, consumed and

disposed of, are suitable candidates for compostable plastic too. However, the rapid growth of

hemp makes them an even more sustainable alternative for these single-use items. The more

we use and incorporate hemp into all forms of plastics, the faster we will improve our carbon

use on our planet.

The Health Effects Of Pollution

Pollution is a major cause of disease and mortality. In 2015, one in six deaths

worldwide were the result of illnesses triggered by pollution27. This was three times higher

than those caused by AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis combined, and 15 times more than those

from war and violence. Just under half of these deaths – 4.2 million – were from ambient air

pollution outdoors. Pollution was responsible for 43% of deaths from lung cancer, 51% of the

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) mortality, and 21% of cardiovascular disease

deaths.

Looking at its economic effects, pollution-related disease reduces gross domestic

product (GDP) in low- and middle-income countries by up to 2% every year. Approximately

1.7% of healthcare costs in high-income countries, and 7% in middle-income countries, can

be attributed to pollution. These health and financial costs are likely to be underestimated, as

additional associations between pollution and disease may be found in the future.

The effects of chemical pollution on human health are “almost certainly

underestimated”, according to The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health. Over

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140,000 man-made chemicals have been synthesised since 1950, and roughly 5,000 of these

are produced in such high volumes that there is near-universal human exposure. However,

85% of air pollution comes from combustion, including burning fossil fuels for energy and

waste burning.

Plastic Pollution

Some of these chemical pollutants are released by the slow breakdown of

conventional plastics. Currently, microplastics are sadly ubiquitous in the environment. Water

samples taken in Europe yielded approximately 24,600 particles per litre, and even ice flow

samples in Greenland and Svalbard contained 1,760 microplastic particles per litre. These

have made their way into humans, with the average person consuming 50,000 particles of

plastic every year28.

The use of hemp plastics will reduce the toxic burden on the environment and

humanity. Fossil fuel-based plastics contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which

can significantly impact health and childhood development. Even low doses of EDCs may

increase risk of chronic disease and lead to permanently damaged organ function if children

are exposed to them in the womb. In a study of 2,517 children and adults in the United States,

bisphenol A (BPA) was found in 92.6% of their urine samples29. BPA is commonly found in

plastics and synthetic resins, but greater awareness of its effects has led to some phaseouts in

recent years. Another chemical used in these products, 4-tertiary-octylphenol (tOP), was

found in 57.4% of urine samples.

Toxins such as benzene and toluene, which are linked to multiple diseases in humans,

are not found in hemp products despite being prevalent in petrochemical-based plastic.

Benzene and toluene are two volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Benzene is a carcinogen

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plastics-everywhere/
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that also affects the respiratory, reproductive, nervous and circulatory systems30. Toluene is

toxic to the nervous and reproductive systems. On top of this, benzene has harmful effects on

the development of blood cells, which raises the risk of acute myelogenous leukaemia and

aplastic anaemia.

Oil Extraction And Pollution

Another way that the use of petroleum harms the global environment is the event of

oil spills. Although dispersing agents had been commonly used to assist in cleaning spills, the

level of petroleum compounds in water columns can be significantly worsened by their

presence. The natural motion of the ocean, along with chemical dispersants’ ability to reduce

the oil/water interfacial tension, allow oil to be broken down into very fine, more mobile

droplets. Surfactants in the water column have molecular properties of opposing solubility

tendencies, giving them the ability to interact with the cellular membranes of marine life31.

This can damage the permeability of their cells and their organelles – “miniature organs”

inside cells that carry out vital functions, such as energy production and protein synthesis.

Therefore, this may trigger a range of physiological problems, ranging from the cellular to

multi-system levels. Fish readily take up and metabolize petroleum hydrocarbons, and may

also pass on any unmetabolized substances, or potentially more dangerous intermediate

metabolites, onto predators including humans.

The extraction of fossil fuels itself is responsible for a range of toxic effects on the

environment. This is amplified by their consumable nature; as they and most of their end-

products cannot be recycled or reused, more must be mined or pumped out of the earth, and

more reserves must be sought once currently exploited deposits are no longer economically

viable. Environmental pollution with carbon-based compounds and heavy metals found in oil

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https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002449910009
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is a global issue, and a serious one due in part to their toxicity and accessibility. Alkanes,

benzene, methylbenzene, and a range of heavy metals commonly contaminate soils near oil

extraction sites. These damage the health of all life forms, including humans, with some

categorized as known carcinogens. Many cannot be easily removed from the soil, and they

will often leach into the groundwater systems that support lakes, vegetation, and drilled wells

for human consumption. Research in Romania found high concentrations of lead, cadmium,

copper, and chromium, as well as abnormally high zinc levels, in all soil samples near oil

extraction sites32. In many cases, they exceeded the limits specified in Romanian law.

Conclusion

The use of industrial hemp to at least partially displace petrochemicals in plastics, as

well as conventional building materials, could play a significant role in the fight against

climate change. The benefits of using hemp in plastics are found in all stages of production,

from its cultivation methods and displacement of petroleum to lack of toxic pollutants and

long-term carbon sequestration in permanent structures.

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de_oil_contaminated_soil?enrichId=rgreq-1845b56dea6421dc69cad94ec16b03b7-
XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI1ODIxODUyMjtBUzo0NzUwNTk0ODQ2NjM4MTFAMTQ5MDI3
NDQxNTk5MQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationCoverPdf