Journal of

Marine Science
and Engineering

Article
Long-Term Durability of Marine Reinforced
Concrete Structures
Robert E Melchers
Centre for Infrastructure Performance and Reliability, The University of Newcastle,
Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia; [email protected]




Received: 9 March 2020; Accepted: 16 April 2020; Published: 18 April 2020


Abstract: The sustainability of reinforced concrete is critical, particularly for structures exposed to
marine environments. Chlorides are implicated in causing or accelerating reinforcement corrosion
and potentially earlier expensive repairs, yet there are many older reinforced concrete structures in
good condition for many decades despite very high chloride levels at the reinforcement. The reasons
for this are reviewed briefly, together with recent experimental work that better defines the role of
chlorides. One is initiation of reinforcement corrosion but only through localized pitting at air-voids
in concrete at the interface with the steel reinforcement. These tend to be small or negligible for high
quality well-compacted concretes. The other role for chlorides has been shown, in experimental
work, to accelerate the long-term loss of concrete alkali material. On the other hand, a review of
practical experience shows that what has been termed chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion often
is not that at all, but is the end-product of factors that impair the protective nature of the concrete.
As reviewed herein, these include poor compaction, physical damage to concrete cover, concrete
shrinkage, and alkali-aggregate reactions. The various observations presented are important for the
proper understanding, analysis, and design of durable reinforced concrete structures exposed to
chloride-rich environments.

Keywords: reinforcement; corrosion; marine; concrete; long-term; mechanisms

1. Introduction
Premature or early failure of reinforced concrete (RC) infrastructure located in marine environments
potentially has significant economic, environmental, and sustainability implications and thus should be
avoided, if possible. Despite decades of research, the precise mechanisms involved in the initiation and
development of reinforced corrosion in marine environments and the subsequent possible structural
damage remain elusive. This is unsatisfactory. It prevents sound design for long-term durability.
Under good conditions, concrete provides protection against reinforcement corrosion through
providing physical shielding such as an adequate amount of concrete cover, or through the inhibiting
effect of the usually high pH of the concrete surrounding the bars. There is now a considerable body
of data from actual RC structures to demonstrate excellent resistance to reinforcement corrosion in
a variety of marine and other environments, including in the immersion zone, the tidal zone, the
splash zone, or in a marine, salt-laden atmosphere [1–4]. For some of these cases it was possible to
perform very detailed investigations [3,5–7]. These demonstrated the very low or negligible degrees
of reinforcement corrosion or corrosion damage, despite chloride concentrations much exceeding
any conventionally accepted chloride threshold criterion [8,9]. In some cases, the investigations
ascertained the remaining pH of the concrete and invariably this was shown to be high, indicating
high reserves of concrete alkalinity and, therefore, protection effect. Clearly, if notice had been taken of
the chloride threshold, some structures would have been condemned unnecessarily many years ago,
with potentially high consequential and unnecessary costs.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290; doi:10.3390/jmse8040290 www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 2 of 12

The immediate question from the above is why there seems to be a mismatch between the current
criteria (and therefore the current thinking) about reinforcement corrosion and actual field observations
for high quality concrete structures, that is, those that are of high strength, low permeability, and
high remaining alkalinity but that also have very high chloride concentrations. This question is
reviewed below, using recent experimental observations, and some classical results that have been
forgotten or ignored, but which are crucial to providing new insight into the mechanisms involved
in chloride-related reinforcement corrosion. As will be seen, many of the conventionally desirable
practical considerations remain valid, but the reasons for these can now be seen in a different light,
reasons that are consistent with the long-term durability of well-made reinforced concrete structures.
One of the serious and perhaps puzzling observations that has been made recently is that in
some RC structures, at locations where (hairline) cracking had penetrated all the way through to the
reinforcement and after long exposure periods, highly localized and very serious corrosion loss has
been observed [5,6]. While crack width is usually observed to be a critical parameter, these observations
suggest that crack depth can be much more critical, as explained below. They also can be interpreted
as examples of a wider potential problem, namely structural damage that permits, in certain cases,
early corrosion initiation and potentially also progressive loss of alkalinity that then permits consequent
corrosion aided by the presence of chlorides. Importantly, this observation leads to the concept that
concretes and concrete cover to reinforcement impaired or damaged in some way are likely to lead to
reinforcement corrosion issues. Similarly, there are likely to be reinforcement corrosion issues with
poor quality, permeable concretes. As reviewed in the second part of the paper, many of these issues
involved are known in isolation as potential problems for RC structures, but have not been considered
in the context of creating conditions for subsequent chloride-related corrosion of reinforcement. Taken
together with the new insights about pitting corrosion-induced initiation and eventual loss of concrete
alkalis, these interpretations provide a more comprehensive view of what is conventionally thought of
as ‘chloride-induced’ corrosion.

2. Marine Corrosion Conditions

2.1. Effect of Chlorides

Inside concrete the conditions can be characterized typically as (mostly) wet [10], with any
pore-waters in an effectively stagnant state, possibly with chlorides present, possibly with air (oxygen,
carbon dioxide) present, and initially well buffered in pH through the high alkalinity of concrete.
Gaseous oxygen (O2 ) diffuses into good quality concretes less so than water and gaseous carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) even less so. However, oxygen in the form of dissolved oxygen in water has greater accessibility.
Corrosion of steel can occur under oxygenated conditions, consuming O2 and H2 O (oxidation
cathodic reaction) and also under certain anoxic conditions such as with imperfections and inclusions
(e.g., MnS inclusions) [11], consuming only H2 O and releasing gaseous H2 after disassociation of water
(hydrogen evolution cathodic reaction) [12]. Typically, the first applies early in the corrosion process
when there is some O2 available (as well as H2 O), while the second occurs under anoxic conditions at
the metal-corrosion product interface. However, external to the rusts, oxygen must be available [13,14]
since oxygen is still the ultimate electron acceptor. If there is no oxygen as the ultimate electron acceptor
under the conditions described above, corrosion will cease. Irrespective of which of these mechanisms
applies, inside the concrete the conditions are stagnant.
Immersion corrosion of steels in stagnant conditions is almost uncorrelated with the type and
the concentration of salts in the solution [15], including chloride solutions. The importance of the
stagnant conditions was demonstrated by Mercer and Lumbard [16] who also found almost no effect
on corrosion, irrespective of chloride concentration. They also showed that increasing the rotation of
the specimen, i.e., the water velocity at the corrosion interface, increased corrosion. However, field
tests show that this effect is lost as the rust layers build up [17].
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 3 of 12
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These observationsare
These observations are important
important because
because manymany electrochemical
electrochemical tests fortests for reinforcement
reinforcement corrosion
corrosion
have been conducted in test cells using stirred solutions (including artificial concreteconcrete
have been conducted in test cells using stirred solutions (including artificial pore
pore waters,
waters,
natural natural or artificial
or artificial seawater, seawater, or saltorwater)
or salt water) using or using samples
rotating rotating (electrodes).
samples (electrodes). This to
This is meant is
meant to speed up the reactions and to prevent the build up of corrosion products [18],
speed up the reactions and to prevent the build up of corrosion products [18], but such test results are but such test
results are not
not relevant torelevant
corrosion toinside
corrosion
actualinside actual concretes.
concretes.
The use of
The use ofstirred
stirredsolutions
solutions[19][19]
maymay explain
explain in part
in part the apparently
the apparently ratherrather odd often
odd result resultquoted
often
quoted in the concrete corrosion literature [20] that corrosion in concretes commences
in the concrete corrosion literature [20] that corrosion in concretes commences when the pH of the pore when the pH
of the pore water solution drops below about 11. To be sure, this may be true for pitting
water solution drops below about 11. To be sure, this may be true for pitting corrosion in chloride-rich corrosion in
chloride-rich
solutions, butsolutions, but not
not for general for general
corrosion, corrosion,ofirrespective
irrespective of chloride concentration
chloride concentration [21]. This
[21]. This distinction is
distinction is important, as discussed
important, as discussed further below. further below.

2.2.
2.2. Corrosion
Corrosion initiation
Initiation
Initiation
Initiation ofof reinforcement
reinforcementcorrosion corrosioninvariably
invariablyhas has been
been related
related to atocritical
a critical chloride
chloride content
content [9]
[9] and
and continues
continues to considered
to be so be so considered in many in many publications,
publications, e.g.,
e.g., [22,23]. [22,23].some
However, However, some recent
recent experimental
experimental results have thrown a new light
results have thrown a new light on these classical notions. on these classical notions.
Model
Model concrete
concrete specimens
specimens exposed
exposed for for up
up to to 12
12 years
years and
and examined
examined by by breaking
breaking oneone oror two
two
open (at approximately yearly intervals) have shown that even with
open (at approximately yearly intervals) have shown that even with seawater used as mixing water seawater used as mixing water
(and
(and therefore
therefore with
with very
very highhigh available
available chloride
chloride concentrations
concentrations at at the
the steel
steel bar
bar and
and elsewhere,
elsewhere, even
even
after
after allowing
allowing for for bound
bound chlorides
chlorides [24])
[24]) there
there is is an
an initial
initial degree
degree ofof corrosion
corrosion butbut that
that this
this then
then stops
stops
or
or much
much reduces
reduces [25].
[25]. Similar
Similar observations
observationshave havebeen beenmade
madeelsewhere
elsewhere [26,27]
[26,27] for
for aa number
number of of RC
RC
beams, close to full size rather than the laboratory samples used in the 12-year
beams, close to full size rather than the laboratory samples used in the 12-year study. It also was found study. It also was
found
that forthat for specimens
specimens of high (as
of high strength strength
assessed (as by assessed
rebound byhammer)
reboundand hammer)
thus of and thus of low
low permeability,
permeability, corrosion did not progress very much with time.
corrosion did not progress very much with time. However, for the more permeable concretes However, for the more permeable
corrosion
concretes corrosion was more severe, although in the experiments it was
was more severe, although in the experiments it was not enough to fracture the specimens even after not enough to fracture the
specimens
12 years. Ineven after the
essence, 12 years. In essence,
observations showed the observations showed shown
corrosion behaviour corrosion behaviour
in Figure 1 at shown
aroundin ti .
Figure 1 at around t i . It should be noted that the time period 0—t i was
It should be noted that the time period 0—ti was close to zero since these, as noted, the specimens close to zero since these, as
noted, the specimens
were doped with chlorides were doped
from thewith chlorides
beginning from
(i.e., theseawater).
with beginning (i.e., with seawater).

Figure 1. Model for the progression of reinforcement corrosion in concretes of various qualities, with
Figure 1. Model for
low permeability the progression
concrete of reinforcement
showing little corrosion
progression of corrosion inafter
concretes
ti , andofuntil
various qualities,
tact at witha
which time
low permeability
serious concrete
loss of concrete showing
alkalis little progression
had occurred. The boldoftrend
corrosion after
applies forthigh
i, andquality,
until tactlow
at which time a
permeability
serious
concrete.loss
The of concrete
Tuutti model alkalis
[8] is thehad occurred. model
conventional The bold trend applies
that assumes ti defines forthehigh quality, low
commencement of
permeability concrete.
serious corrosion damageTheinitiated
Tuutti model [8] is thechloride
by an excessive conventional model that
concentration. © R.E.
assumes ti defines
Melchers 2020. the
commencement of serious corrosion damage initiated by an excessive chloride concentration. © R.E.
Physical 2020.
Melchers examination of the interior specimens by breaking them open showed, consistently, that
corrosion was most prevalent on the lower side of the (6 mm diameter) steel bar. This was the side
awayPhysical
from theexamination
(vertical) casting direction,
of the interior with the specimens
specimens having
by breaking beenopen
them cast while in the
showed, horizontal
consistently,
direction.
that There
corrosion was
was essentially
most no on
prevalent corrosion elsewhere
the lower side of (Figure 2a).diameter)
the (6 mm Only for longer exposures
steel bar. inside
This was the
permeable
side concretes
away from was corrosion
the (vertical) all direction,
casting around thewith
bar observed.
the specimens having been cast while in the
horizontal direction. There was essentially no corrosion elsewhere (Figure 2a). Only for longer
exposures inside permeable concretes was corrosion all around the bar observed.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 4 of 12
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(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2. 2.
(a)(a) Oneside
One sideofofa asteel
steelbar
bar(6(6mm
mmdiameter)
diameter)with
withno
no corrosion
corrosion evident
evident at
at the
the top
top but
but pitting
pitting is
is evident
evident alongalong the lower
the lower side,side, (b) cross-section
(b) cross-section of concrete
of concrete and 6and
mm6 diameter
mm diametersteel steel bar, with
bar, with the
the arrows
arrows indicating voids in the concrete and associated localized (pitting) corrosion. ©
indicating voids in the concrete and associated localized (pitting) corrosion. © R.E. Melchers 2020. R.E. Melchers
2020.
Detailed microscope examination of multiple cross-sections of the specimens at right angles to the
steel bar Detailed
direction, microscope examination
after sectioning, showed of multiple
localized cross-sections
corrosion ofof thethe specimens
steel bar with, at directly
right angles to
opposite,
the steel bar direction, after sectioning, showed localized corrosion
but not necessarily aligned, voids in the concrete (Figure 2b). These voids in the concrete and the of the steel bar with, directly
opposite, but not necessarily aligned, voids in the concrete (Figure 2b). These voids in the concrete
associated localized corrosion of the steel were always on the side of the steel bar closest to the shaking
and the associated localized corrosion of the steel were always on the side of the steel bar closest to
table, that is, under the bar when the concrete was cast. Observations of localized corrosion and voids
the shaking table, that is, under the bar when the concrete was cast. Observations of localized
under horizontal reinforcing bars have been made also for concrete beams in practice [28], providing
corrosion and voids under horizontal reinforcing bars have been made also for concrete beams in
direct consistency between these experimental results and practice. This contrasts with the usual
practice [28], providing direct consistency between these experimental results and practice. This
assumption in most theoretical papers that corrosion occurs all around the bars, e.g., [29,30].
contrasts with the usual assumption in most theoretical papers that corrosion occurs all around the
In brief,
bars, the corrosion mechanism involved [25] is pitting corrosion. Only this is thermodynamically
e.g., [29,30].
possibleInunder brief,thethe effect of elevated
corrosion chloride concentrations
mechanism involved [25]and is elevated
pitting pH conditions
corrosion. [21].this
Only This iswill
produce the development of rusts (corrosion products) within and
thermodynamically possible under the effect of elevated chloride concentrations and elevated pH eventually outside the corrosion
pits. As corrosion
conditions [21]. This proceeds, oxygen will
will produce be consumedof
the development from within
rusts the voids.
(corrosion If thewithin
products) surrounding
and
concrete
eventuallyis impervious
outside the corrosion will As
corrosion pits. then stop owing
corrosion to depletion
proceeds, oxygen will of oxygen.
be consumed In other
fromcases,
withinthe
longer-term
the voids. corrosion will depend
If the surrounding on theisrate
concrete of inward
impervious diffusion
corrosion of then
will oxygen stop(andowingperhaps water) from
to depletion of
elsewhere,
oxygen. In usually
other the external
cases, environment.
the longer-term For high
corrosion will quality,
depend low-permeable
on the rate of inward concretes this will
diffusion of be
oxygen
very slow,(andcausingperhaps water)
the very from elsewhere,
considerable decline usually the external
in corrosion environment.
rate after For high
time ti , shown withquality,
the bold
low-permeable
trend in Figure 1.concretesFor poorthis will be
quality, very slow,
(higher causing the
permeability) very considerable
concretes the subsequent decline in of
rate corrosion
corrosion
rate after time t , shown
will be higher, as also shown in Figure 1.
i with the bold trend in Figure 1. For poor quality, (higher permeability)
concretes the subsequent
In concretes poorly compactedrate of corrosion
aroundwill thebe higher, as bars,
reinforcing also shown in Figure.
large voids 1.
are likely to occur at the
In concretes poorly compacted around the reinforcing
concrete-steel interface. This will permit the production of much rust owing to the higherbars, large voids are likely to occur at the
availability
concrete-steel interface. This will permit the production of much rust
of oxygen in the larger voids. The build up of rusts may fracture the concrete cover, causing cracking owing to the higher availability
of oxygen in the larger voids. The build up of rusts may fracture the concrete cover, causing cracking
and subsequently greater access of oxygen (and water). In turn, this may lead to significant corrosion
and subsequently greater access of oxygen (and water). In turn, this may lead to significant corrosion
damage. As noted, many researchers [e.g., 29,30] have assumed that corrosion occurs all around the
damage. As noted, many researchers [e.g., 29,30] have assumed that corrosion occurs all around the
bars—however, Figure 2 shows that corrosion is much more localized, at the bottom of horizontally
bars—however, Figure 2 shows that corrosion is much more localized, at the bottom of horizontally
oriented bars, consistent with observations in practice [28]. Corrosion all around bars would be
oriented bars, consistent with observations in practice [28]. Corrosion all around bars would be
possible only for very permeable concretes and vertically oriented bars. The implications of the
possible only for very permeable concretes and vertically oriented bars. The implications of the
preferential
preferential location
location of of
thethe
corrosion,
corrosion, thethe
consequential
consequential build
buildupup of corrosion
of corrosion products,
products,andandthe the
effect
oneffect
concrete crackingcracking
on concrete and spalling or delamination
and spalling of the cover
or delamination of thedoescovernotdoesyetnotappear to havetoreceived
yet appear have
research attention.
received research attention.
OneOne piece
pieceofofevidence
evidence to to support
support the theabove
abovecan canbebeseen
seen in in Figure
Figure 3. It3.shows
It shows the cross-section
the cross-section of
of aa thick
thick concrete
concreteslab slabused
usedatatoneonetime
timefor foraaharbour
harbourdeck deckfacility
facilityandand exposed
exposed since
since thethe 1930s
1930s to to
marine
marine (atmospheric)
(atmospheric)conditions.conditions. Importantly,
Importantly, it it showed
showedno noevidence
evidenceofofover-stress
over-stress duedueto to bending,
bending,
such
suchas as
transverse
transverse cracking
cracking along
along thethebase
base ofofthe
theslab.
slab.Some
Someofofthe therust
ruststaining
stainingseen seenisisthe
theresult
resultofofthe
thesegment
slab slab segmenthavinghaving been leftbeen left weather
in the in the weather
for a few forweeks
a fewpriorweeks prior to examination.
to examination. The
The important
important isobservation
observation the crack running is the crack
alongrunning
the top along
edge ofthe thetop edge
slab. of the through
It passes slab. It passes through
the bottoms thethe
of all
bottoms of all the bars, directly
bars, directly leading to cover delamination. leading to cover delamination.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 5 of 12
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Figure3.3.Cut
Figure Cut cross-section in 2009
cross-section in 2009ofofaa450
450mm
mmthick
thickdeck
deck slab
slab (cover
(cover 40 40
mm)mm) exposed
exposed since
since the the 1930s
1930s
ininthe Newcastle Harbour marine atmosphere, showing delamination crack passing through
the Newcastle Harbour marine atmosphere, showing delamination crack passing through the the bottom
ofbottom
the 16 of
mm thediameter bars. ©bars.
16 mm diameter R.E. ©
Melchers 2009. 2009.
R.E. Melchers

2.3. Corrosion in Concretes of Low Permeability

2.3. Corrosion in concretes of low permeability
The
Thecommencement
commencement of of corrosion afterttactact(Figure
corrosion after (Figure1)1) involves
involves a completely
a completely different
different mechanism
mechanism
totothat earlier. This was uncovered recently using laboratory specimens
that earlier. This was uncovered recently using laboratory specimens similar to those mentioned similar to those mentioned
above [25,31,32]. The interpretation was that for longer term exposures
above [25,31,32]. The interpretation was that for longer term exposures the principal concrete the principal concrete
alkaline
alkalinematerial
material Ca(OH)
Ca(OH)22had hadundergone
undergone gradual
gradual dissolution,
dissolution, thatthat
this this
was was
aidedaided
by theby the presence
presence of
ofchlorides
chlorides[33],
[33],and
andsubsequently
subsequently that
that it had
it had leached
leached outoutof of
thethe concrete
concrete matrix.
matrix. TheThe
lossloss of this
of this
material
materialeffectively
effectivelyopened
openedthe theconcrete
concretematrix
matrixand andthis
thisallowed
allowedoxygen
oxygento toenter
enterinto
intothe
theconcrete,
concrete,and
and sufficient
when when sufficient
leaching leaching had occurred,
had occurred, includingincluding to the reinforcement.
to the reinforcement. The loss ofThe loss
local of localthen
alkalinity
alkalinity
allowed then allowedcorrosion.
reinforcement reinforcement corrosion. Thethat
The interpretation interpretation
should be placed that should
on thesebe observations
placed on these is that
observations is that the more permeable concretes have greater internal surface
the more permeable concretes have greater internal surface areas exposed for alkali dissolution, rather areas exposed for
alkali
than dissolution,
that rather
they directly than thatgreater
permitted they directly
diffusion permitted greater
of species throughdiffusion of species
the more through
permeable the
concrete.
more
The permeable step
rate-limiting concrete. The dissolution,
is alkali rate-limiting notstepalkali
is alkali dissolution,
diffusion not alkali
(and thus diffusion (and
permeability). thus be
It should
permeability).
clear It should
that for high quality,below
clear that for highconcretes
permeability quality, low permeability
the eventual loss concretes
of concrete thealkalinity
eventual isloss of
unlikely
concrete alkalinity is unlikely to be reached within the normal lifespan of many
to be reached within the normal lifespan of many practical structures, as exemplified for some actual practical structures,
as exemplified for some actual reinforced concrete structures [5,6,7].
reinforced concrete structures [5–7].

3.3.Initiating
InitiatingMechanisms
mechanisms for for reinforcement
Reinforcement corrosion
Corrosion
The initiation of reinforcement corrosion was associated with the presence of voids in the
The initiation of reinforcement corrosion was associated with the presence of voids in the concrete
concrete at its interface with the steel reinforcement. These provide the local sources of water and
at its interface with the steel reinforcement. These provide the local sources of water and oxygen
oxygen necessary for corrosion to be possible. It also is necessary, in high pH environments such as
necessary for corrosion to be possible. It also is necessary, in high pH environments such as in
in concretes, to have a sufficiently high concentration of chloride ions, thereby permitting localized
concretes, to have a sufficiently high concentration of chloride ions, thereby permitting localized pitting
pitting corrosion [21].
corrosion [21].
If there are no voids in the concrete at the concrete-steel interface there would be negligible
If there are no voids
oxygen available in the the
to support concrete at theofconcrete-steel
initiation the corrosion interface
process.there
Thiswould be negligible
is consistent with oxygen
the
available
laboratory to observations
support the for initiation of the corrosion
the extremely process.
well-compacted This isthat
concretes consistent
showed with the laboratory
no voids [25]. It
observations for thewith
also is consistent extremely well-compacted
field observations [6] concretes
and with that showed
the claim no the
that voids [25]. It of
presence alsovoids
is consistent
is a
with
necessary condition for corrosion initiation [34], based on electrochemical experiments that for
field observations [6] and with the claim that the presence of voids is a necessary condition
corrosion
producedinitiation
very small [34], based
voids as on electrochemical
a result of localizedexperiments
dissolution ofthat produced
Ca(OH) very
2 at the small voids as
concrete-steel
a interface.
result of This
localized dissolution
immediately raisesofthe
Ca(OH)
question2 at the
that concrete-steel
if the voids, withinterface.
their oxygenThis immediately
and water, raises
are not
the question
present, whatthat
thenif could
the voids,
causewith their initiation?
corrosion oxygen and water, are not present, what then could cause
In ainitiation?
corrosion provocative article based on extensive practical experience and observations, and
interpreting field observations
In a provocative article basedbyonothers,
extensiveBorgard et al.
practical [35] proposed
experience that in many
and observations, andcases the
interpreting
initiation and subsequent development of reinforcement was a consequence
field observations by others, Borgard et al. [35] proposed that in many cases the initiation and of cracking, shrinkage,
and other damage
subsequent of the of
development concrete cover. Such
reinforcement wasdamage wouldof
a consequence expose part shrinkage,
cracking, or all of theandreinforcement
other damage
steel and with oxygen and water then available would allow corrosion to
of the concrete cover. Such damage would expose part or all of the reinforcement steel and with occur, irrespective of oxygen
the
presence
and water or otherwise
then availableof chlorides.
would allow These practicaltoobservations
corrosion appear mostly
occur, irrespective to have been
of the presence ignored of
or otherwise
or forgotten. They almost completely invert the idea of ‘chloride-induced’
chlorides. These practical observations appear mostly to have been ignored or forgotten. They corrosion. They also meanalmost
that to fully understand practical observations of corrosion in chloride-rich environments, it is
completely invert the idea of ‘chloride-induced’ corrosion. They also mean that to fully understand
necessary to understand the potential mechanisms that may be involved. These are now briefly
practical observations of corrosion in chloride-rich environments, it is necessary to understand the
reviewed.
potential mechanisms that may be involved. These are now briefly reviewed.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 6 of 12

3.1. Physical Damage to the Concrete cover

Corrosion and consequent failure of RC bridge decks in areas where calcium chloride or other
de-icing salts are applied has caused much concern for reinforcement corrosion, particularly in the
US [36]. However, already in the 1970s Stratfull and van Matre [37] showed there was little correlation
between the concentration of chlorides and corrosion damage of concrete bridge decks. Subsequent
investigations showed that corrosion was related directly to failure of the concrete cover at the very
top of the bridge decks and this was the case for many US bridges [38]. This type of damage permits
direct access of moisture (and also chlorides from the de-icing salts) with subsequent corrosion and
corrosion damage. Moreover, since chlorides are hygroscopic, they tend to retain moisture, thereby
increasing what in atmospheric corrosion is termed the ‘time of wetness’, a key factor in atmospheric
corrosion severity [8,12].
In Europe, the effect of de-icing salts appears to have been a lesser issue [39]. This may be because
of different (lower) rates of application of de-icing salts. However, an important aspect appears to
be differences in the quality of the riding surfaces. Those in Europe tend to be better overall, with
particularly the older US reinforced concrete bridges often lacking a bitumen wearing or riding course
that reduces impact but also provides a degree of moisture protection. A detailed German study [40]
showed that reinforcement corrosion was often attributable to damage of the concrete cover caused by
vehicle loading and impact, particularly from heavy goods vehicles. It concluded that reinforcement
corrosion was a consequence of prior damage to the concrete cover. It found no evidence of corrosion
initiated solely by chlorides in good quality concrete.

3.2. Concrete Shrinkage

Particularly for RC bridge decks, shrinkage of the concrete may cause cracking of the deck, and if
severe may extend down to the reinforcement and possibly further [41]. The severity of shrinkage has
been related to the increased use of high-performance concretes since these produce greater shrinkage
and have less capacity for slow creep. Plasticizers for workability and aerating additives to control
freeze-thaw activity also have been implicated [38]. Concrete cracking has been considered by some
highly experienced practitioners and forensic investigators to be by far the most serious problem for
concrete bridge deck deterioration and for subsequent reinforcement corrosion, irrespective of whether
chloride environments were involved or not [42].

3.3. Deep Cracking

Cracking of concrete slabs and beams usually is associated with cracking parallel to the alignment
of the reinforcement, caused by the build up of rusts. For these, the crack width usually is proscribed
to a maximum width, typically 0.3 mm, a value based on early work in the UK, using shorter-term
laboratory tests [43]. In view of practical experience showing that sometimes cracks self-heal and
others appear not to cause reinforcement corrosion in medium-term exposures, the validity of this
criterion has been questioned [42]. This suggests it is likely that such cracking somewhat facilitates
very localized chloride, oxygen, and moisture diffusion but whether this has the effect of initiating
corrosion, or support its continuation, depends very much on the local alkalinity conditions.
Longitudinal cracking is not the only type of cracking that occurs in reinforced concrete structures.
Transverse cracks resulting from flexural action can cause serious reinforcement corrosion particularly
in a marine condition if the cracks are deep enough to intersect with the reinforcing bars [5,6]. Figure 4
shows an example. Similar cases can be seen in other reports [5,6]. A preliminary analysis suggests that
such corrosion is likely caused by the development of low pH, highly soluble ferrous chlorides inside
the oxygen-poor conditions well inside the deep cracks. However, it is ultimately a consequential
effect arising from the prior deep cracking—and this is not ‘chloride induced’.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 7 of 12
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

Figure 4. Highly
Figure 4. Highlylocalized
localizedcorrosion
corrosion
of aofreinforcing
a reinforcing bar coincident
bar coincident with
with the the location
location of concrete
of hairline hairline
concrete crack through to the reinforcement from the outside of the concrete element—this
crack through to the reinforcement from the outside of the concrete element—this is a disassembled is a
disassembled
picture picture
with upper with upper
concrete removed. © R.E.
concrete removed. © R.E.
Melchers 2020.Melchers 2020.

3.4. Compaction
3.4. Compaction
Compaction ofofthe
Compaction concrete
the concrete as aascritical requirement
a critical for durability
requirement of reinforced
for durability concrete structures
of reinforced concrete
has long been recognized. Conventionally, it is considered
structures has long been recognized. Conventionally, it is considered highly desirable highly desirable to reduce permeability
to reduce
and thus the rate
permeability andofthus
inwardthediffusion of chlorides
rate of inward from the
diffusion of environment
chlorides from to the
thereinforcement
environmentbars [8].
to the
The relevance of chloride migration has been questioned for many
reinforcement bars [8]. The relevance of chloride migration has been questioned for many years [4]. years [4]. Moreover, there are
now a number
Moreover, thereof are
known,
nowwell-documented
a number of known, cases of very high chloride
well-documented concentrations
cases of very high at the steel
chloride
reinforcement without occurrence of corrosion [5–7]. More
concentrations at the steel reinforcement without occurrence of corrosion [5,6,7]. More recent recent research has provided a more
complete has
research picture of the conditions
provided a more completefor reinforcement
picture of corrosion initiationfor
the conditions andreinforcement
its eventual progression.
corrosion
As noted above,
initiation and itsit has shownprogression.
eventual that a sufficientlyAs noted high concentration
above, it has of chlorides
shown thatisarequired to initiate
sufficiently high
corrosion, but only as pitting corrosion at air-voids immediately adjacent
concentration of chlorides is required to initiate corrosion, but only as pitting corrosion at air-voids to the steel bars [25]. The role
of concrete permeability lies mainly in retarding the long-term
immediately adjacent to the steel bars [25]. The role of concrete permeability lies mainly in retarding dissolution and loss of concrete
alkalis
the [32]. Asdissolution
long-term shown in Figureand loss 1, there is alsoalkalis
of concrete a role for[32].concrete
As shown compaction
in Figurein1,controlling
there is also the rate
a role
of ingress of oxygen, most likely mainly as dissolved oxygen in
for concrete compaction in controlling the rate of ingress of oxygen, most likely mainly as dissolved water, for the period after t i when
on-goingin
oxygen corrosion
water, still
for progresses
the periodwithin aftera thomogeneous
i when on-going concrete matrix, still
corrosion until progresses
at some time, such as
within a
thomogeneous
act , the expansion concrete matrix, until at some time, such as tact, the expansion of rusts is sufficient toa
of rusts is sufficient to cause serious damage and subsequent corrosion occurs at
much higher
cause serious damage rate owing to the
and loss of effective
subsequent corrosion cover.occurs at a much higher rate owing to the loss of
effective Compaction
cover. also can affect the presence of voids, as shown in Figure 2, and the quality (i.e., the
degree of impermeability)
Compaction also can of the concrete
affect the presence coverofon the lower
voids, as shownsides inof Figure
bottom2,bars. and Ittheis well-recognized
quality (i.e., the
in practice
degree of that such cover (and
impermeability) alsoconcrete
of the that in narrow
cover on forms)the can lower be impaired
sides of by a poorbars.
bottom choice It of
is
maximum aggregate size in relation to the thickness of the cover
well-recognized in practice that such cover (and also that in narrow forms) can be impaired by a and also by the quality of compaction.
However,
poor choice theoflogic presented
maximum for this always
aggregate size inhas been intoterms
relation of chlorideofmigration
the thickness the cover to and
the steel
also barsby the[8].
It should
quality ofnow be clear that
compaction. it actually
However, the relates to the degree
logic presented of access
for this always of oxygen,
has beenand perhaps
in terms of water,
chloride to
the bars. This is marked schematically in Figure 1 between t and t
migration to the steel bars [8]. It should now be clear that it actually relates to the degree of access of
i act .
oxygen, In the
andearly dayswater,
perhaps of reinforced concrete
to the bars. This construction, compactioninofFigure
is marked schematically the concrete
1 between wastiachieved
and tact.
usingIn(vertical
the earlyaction)
days of hand-rodding
reinforced concreteof the still wet mix with
construction, a small diameter
compaction steel or
of the concrete wastimber
achieved bars
or rods, perhaps also with hand-tamping of the surface. This laborious
using (vertical action) hand-rodding of the still wet mix with a small diameter steel or timber bars or process was replaced during
the 1940s
rods, when
perhaps mechanical
also means to vibrate
with hand-tamping the concrete
of the surface. This formwork
laborious process becamewas available
replaced[44]. Pokerthe
during or
rod vibrators became available later. It has always been assumed
1940s when mechanical means to vibrate the concrete formwork became available [44]. Poker or rod that these systems were effective
in achieving
vibrators goodavailable
became compaction. later. Usually,
It has always this was been judged
assumed by the thatappearance
these systems of air bubbles
were effective at the
in
concrete surface,
achieving at which point
good compaction. compaction
Usually, this waswas judged
judged sufficiently,
by the appearance or by visual observation
of air bubbles at of the
the
size of voids
concrete revealed
surface, on concrete
at which surfaces onwas
point compaction stripping
judgedthe formwork.orHowever,
sufficiently, by visual recent preliminary
observation of the
investigations of the size of air-voids left immediately adjacent
size of voids revealed on concrete surfaces on stripping the formwork. However, recent preliminary to reinforcing bars have shown that,
investigations of the size of air-voids left immediately adjacent to reinforcing bars have shown that,
despite considerable scatter between repeat results, typically form-vibration produced smaller voids
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 8 of 12

despite considerable scatter between repeat results, typically form-vibration produced smaller voids
below horizontal bars than did hand tamping or poker vibration, and that these methods were both less
efficient for deformed bars and for prestressing cables. There was some effect related to the amount of
physical effort that was applied. The size of air-voids appeared to depend on concrete mix workability,
with stiffer mixes producing greater air-voids, as might be expected. Therefore, it is of interest that
concretes made in the 1930s and 1940s, when adding water over the theoretical water-cement ratio was
permitted for achieving good workability [45], tend to reveal concretes with rather few and only small
air-voids. Such concretes tend to show only nominal or no corrosion [5,6]. However, the preliminary
test results also showed that very wet mixes tend to produce somewhat bigger voids, likely the result of
greater concrete shrinkage. The effect of compaction on air-voids at the concrete-steel interface, and the
effect this has in corrosion, appears to have had little or no research attention. However, in view of the
discontinuous behaviour shown in Figure 1 at ta , it can now be considered to be of some importance.

3.5. Alkali-Aggregate Reactions

One damage mechanism that also has received only limited attention in regard to reinforcement
corrosion is deterioration of the protective capacity of concrete cover as a result of alkali-reactivity that
affects some aggregates. Typically, the aggregates expand and become softer, weaker, and thus more
permeable. For some aggregates this effect becomes noticeable within a few years of first exposure but
in others it may take several decades [46].
That alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) can have a significant influence on subsequent reinforcement
corrosion as evident in a review [1] of an earlier summary of some 300 cases of RC structures reported
in the literature, that had been cross-linked with data for types of aggregate used and with likely
chloride concentrations [47]. It noted that both ti and tact (Figure 1) were subject to considerable scatter
irrespective of chloride concentration. The re-appraisal of the data sources indicated that much of this
scatter was related to concrete made in regions or locations where there was a record of AAR. One
example is the RC housing near the Yucatan (MX) coastline that shows large areas of loss of concrete
cover but mostly only superficial reinforcement corrosion [48], most likely having occurred after loss
of cover occurred. Another is the damage caused by AAR to the concrete cover for the Barra bridge in
Porto (P) [49]. A further example relates to many RC structures built in Norway where sensitivity to
AAR appears to be high [50].
Although the possibility of AAR affecting concretes was long denied in the UK (and many other
countries [46,51]), subsequent analyses of some 200 bridges in the UK [52] showed that up to 50%
had some signs, or worse, of the effects of AAR, although in only a few cases was there significant
structural damage. Elsewhere, it has been noted that for RC structures with a relatively thin concrete
cover to the reinforcing bars the crack patterns caused by AAR (and the effect of surface shrinkage)
can emulate the type of cracking along the lines of the reinforcement, as usually associated with
chloride-induced corrosion [53]. However, almost certainly in these cases any reinforcement corrosion
in the local chloride-rich environments was consequential on the prior failure of the concrete cover. These
cases, therefore, should not be attributed to chloride-induced corrosion.

4. Discussion
It is clear from the above reviews and the interpretations from recent research that concrete
permeability plays a major role, not so much in preventing the ingress of chlorides, a topic that appears
to dominate all discussions about durability in marine environments, but rather for access of oxygen
for corrosion subsequent to ti (Figure 1) in the case of the more permeable concretes, and in the case of
highly impermeable concretes, for the rate of alkali dissolution that then, eventually, allows corrosion
to proceed. However, as shown by practical examples, the latter process can take decades to occur.
In both cases, chloride adds a dimension to the basic deterioration mechanisms but is not the prime
driver of reinforcement corrosion as assumed in conventional thinking.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 9 of 12

The central role of oxygen appears often overlooked, even in marine environments. Yet, its
importance is easily demonstrated. Steel piles driven into marine sands typically show essentially
no corrosion, even after many decades of exposure (except at the sand-water interface), despite the
high chloride presence. This favourable behaviour is attributed entirely to the inability of oxygen
to reach the soil-steel interface [54]. A similar scenario occurs for cast iron pipes (largely ferrous
iron) densely packed with clays or other soils not showing any corrosion even after long periods of
exposure [55]. This can be rationalized as showing that the interface between iron, soil, and water is
essentially deprived of oxygen. When some oxygen can reach the corroding metal the role of water
becomes very clear [56] and there is an effect similar to that at ti in Figure 1. In neither of these cases
are alkalis involved. The implication is that even for concretes, which already have extra protection
from alkalis, keeping oxygen out is an important criterion. Of course, without water corrosion would
not occur—but in practice this may be somewhat more difficult to achieve.
It follows from the above that a sound aim for avoiding reinforcement corrosion in marine
environments is to keep chlorides away—this will reduce the possibility of corrosion initiation at
voids at the interface and eventually possibly causing cracking of the concrete along reinforcement
bars. Lack of chlorides also will reduce the rate of loss of calcium hydroxide from the concrete matrix.
Further, at deep cracks, lack of chlorides will not permit formation of the aggressive localized corrosion
and the formation of the soluble rust ferrous chloride. When chlorides are inevitable as typical in
marine environments, the next best strategy is to achieve a highly impermeable concrete with a high
degree of alkalinity. The latter will be helpful in reducing the rate of chloride inward migration and
so extending the time 0—ti , in reducing the likelihood of corrosion initiation and in reducing the
rate of alkali dissolution, and so increasing the time tact . A high alkalinity and impermeability also
may reduce the proneness to very localized attack at deep, fine cracks, but this remains a matter for
further investigation.
Reduction in the size of air-voids also is likely to be beneficial. Their size governs the amount
of corrosion products generated and, therefore, the propensity to cracking and spalling as these
products build up in the period after ti . The important observation is that the corrosion products
form predominantly on the lower parts of (horizontal) reinforcing bars and, therefore, are particularly
influential in cracking and spalling along the lower surfaces of beams and slabs and for cracking and
spalling at the sides of beams. Relatively, for the same nominal cover, the tops of slabs are likely to
show cracking and spalling later since the actual distance between the built-up corrosion product and
the outside surface is the nominal cover plus the bar diameter (Figure 3) (and, of course, the top surface
may be less wet overall). In practice, however, compaction is likely to be less at the top and this may
foster earlier reinforcement corrosion. Again, these issues are primarily related to workmanship and
quality of construction. They are not the direct result of the presence of chlorides.
The notion that some progression of reinforcement corrosion might be permitted for practical
structures, as implied in the central part of Figure 1, after ti , is likely to be a second-best option, perhaps
to be contemplated only when low permeability of concrete cannot be achieved and air-voids are
large—in other words when the concrete quality is relatively poor. Producing such concretes should
not be considered acceptable and flies in the face of much practical advice over many decades [42]
that has been echoed many times: ‘dense, impervious, relatively non-absorbent concrete’, adequate
concrete cover, sufficiently high cement content, a low water/cement ratio, nonreactive aggregates, and
good compaction and curing [57].
Finally, not everything conventionally attributed to chloride-induced corrosion is primarily due
to chloride effects. As noted, many cases are due to failure of the concrete cover, resulting from AARs
or mechanical damage, and only after this has occurred does corrosion of the steel occur. Additionally,
surprising as it may seem, corrosion is not always worse in seawater compared to, say, rainwater or
other soft, fresh water [58].
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 290 10 of 12

5. Conclusions
(1) The interpretations presented show that the primary influences of chlorides are in (1) permitting
localized (pitting) corrosion to occur at wet air-voids in concrete despite their high concrete
alkalinity and thus pH, and (2) accelerating the dissolution of calcium hydroxide from the concrete,
by gradually reducing the concrete pH sufficient for general corrosion to be possible under the
normal thermodynamic conditions.
(2) Sufficient evidence now exists that reinforced concrete structures in marine environments can
survive a long time without reinforcement corrosion, despite high concentrations of chlorides in
the concrete. This requires concretes of low permeability that are well compacted around the
reinforcement bars so as to leave minimal air-voids.
(3) Concretes that are not well compacted around the steel bars and that are more permeable will
permit localized corrosion to commence by differential aeration at the wet, chloride-rich, air-voids
even when the concrete is still highly alkaline. Corrosion can then continue to occur, initially at
the voids, but eventually more generally as the concrete cracks, with the overall rate limited by the
rate of supply of oxygen. In a given environment, this, in turn, is a function of the permeability
and thickness of the concrete cover.
(4) In practice, the air-voids occur primarily along the lower parts of horizontal reinforcing bars in
vertically cast, concrete members. When corrosion occurs, the concretes may delaminate there,
with the fracture line typically passing through the original air-void spaces.
(5) Although the essential classical criteria for achieving a long durability of steel reinforced concrete
structures have not changed, the recent research results threw new light on the reasons involved.
They also indicate rational approaches to achieve long-term durability.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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