Himalaya College of Engineering

Department of
Architecture
Design

LANDSCAPE DESIGN AND

SITE PLANNING
Contents

1. Introduction
2. Basic Elements of
Design
3. Form Development
4. Principles of
Organization
Basic Elements of
Design
 Basic Elements of Design
• The basic elements of design are identified as ten distinct
entities. The first seven are primarily visual.

They are point, line, plane, form, motion, color, and

texture.
The last three-sound, fragrance, and touch-relate to our
nonvisual senses.

Point A simple dot is a place in space without dimension.

Line When a point is displaced or moved, the result is a

one-dimensional line.

Plane When a line is displaced, the result is a two

dimensional plane or surface, but still with no thickness.

The configuration on this surface is its shape.

Form When a plane is displaced, the result is a

threedimensional form. Form can be viewed as a solid
object or as a void surrounded by planes.
Motion

When a three-dimensional form is moved,

motion is perceived, bringing in the fourth
dimension, time, as a design element.

Motion here, however, should be considered

in relation to the observer. As we move
through space, objects appear to pass in
front of each other, get smaller or bigger,
pass out of and into view, change in detail,
and so on.

In the design of outdoor space it is these

perceptions of the moving observer that
have a greater significance than the
perceptions of moving objects as seen by the
stationary observer.
Color

All surfaces have some inherent color,

which is perception of different light
wavelengths.

Texture

The characteristic of surface resulting

from the existence of repetitive
points or lines makes patterns that are
visually relatively coarse or fine, or are
felt as tactile qualities of texture
described under touch.

Textures also result from edges of many

repeated forms or abrupt transitions
between color and reflections.
The remaining three elements relate to the
nonvisualsenses.

Sound-Auditory Perception

Having a profound effect on the way we

experience space, sounds can be loud or
soft, natural or artificial, pleasant or
noisy, and so on.

Fragrance-Olfactory

Perception In landscape design the scent

of flowers, leaves, or needles most often
stimulates our sense of smell, but a wide
range of pleasant and unpleasant olfactory
perceptions exist.
Touch-Tactile and Kinesthetic
Perception

Through skin contact we receive a variety

of sensations-hot and cold, smooth and
rough, sharp and blunt, soft and hard,
wet and dry, sticky, malleable, and so
on.

Kinesthetic feelings relate to movement

and are sensed through pressure on our
body and also through the balance
mechanisms in our ears.
Form Development
Line and Form
PROPERTIES OF LINES

The properties of lines determine how

people respond to the landscape, both
emotionally and physically.

STRAIGHT LINES

Straight lines are structural and forceful;

they create a formal character, are usually
associated with a symmetrical design, and
lead the eye directly to a focal point.
Diagonal lines are straight lines with an
intentional direction. Straight lines are most
often found in hardscape edges and
material.
CURVED LINES

Curved lines create an informal, natural,

relaxed character that is associated more
with nature and asymmetrical balance.
Curved lines move the eye at a slower
pace and add mystery to the space by
creating hidden views.
VERTICAL LINES

Vertical lines move the eye up, making a

space feel larger. An upward line can
emphasize a feature and has a feeling of
activity or movement. Vertical lines in the
landscape include tall, narrow plant
material, such as trees, or tall structures,
such as an arbor or a bird house on a pole.
HORTIZONTAL LINES

Horizontal lines move the eye along the

ground plane and can make a space feel
larger. Low lines are more subdued and
create a feeling of rest or repose.
Horizontal lines can spatially divide a
space or tie a space together. Low lines
are created by low garden walls,
walkways, and short hedges.
GEOMETRIC FORMS
GEOMETRIC FORMS

CIRCULAR FORM

Circles can be full circles, or they can be

divided into half circles, concentric circles
or circle segments and combined with lines
to create arcs and tangents.

Circles can also be stretched into ovals and

ellipses for more variety and interest. Circles
are a strong design form because the eye
is always drawn to the center, which can
be used to emphasize a focal point or
connect other forms.
GEOMETRIC FORMS

SQUARE / RECTANGULAR FORM

Squares are used for a variety of features,

including stepping stones, bricks, tiles, and
timber structures, because they are an easy
form to work with for construction.

The 90° theme, the easiest to develop in

conjunction with axial symmetry, is often
used as the structural basis for expressing a
sense of formality. The square form can
also be segmented and used repeatedly
to create a grid pattern. Unlike circles,
squares are stronger on the edges, which
can be lined up or overlapped to create
unique patterns and more complex forms.
NATURALISTIC FORMS
NATURALISTIC FORMS

MEANDERING LINES

Meandering lines often mimic the natural

course of rivers or streams and can be
described as smooth lines with deeply
curved undulations. Meandering lines work
well for pathways, plant bedlines, and dry
stream beds.

Meandering lines can add interest and

mystery to a garden by leading viewers
around corners to discover new views and
spaces.
NATURALISTIC FORMS

IRREGULAR POLYGONS

Polygons are many-sided forms with

straight edges.

Nature contains a multitude of straight-line

ordering systems. The angled edges of
polygons can make interesting shapes, but
they should be used cautiously because the
forms can become complex; simplicity is
best.
NATURALISTIC FORMS

ORGANIC EDGES

A simple line allowed to change its direction

in total random expression produces a
shape so irregular that none of the other
shapes (meander, loose ellipse, spiral, or
polygon) seem to apply.

Organic edges mimic the edges of natural

material, such as foliage, plant forms, and
rocks, and can be described as rough and
irregular. Organic lines can be found in rock
gardens and along dry creek beds or
purposely created on hardscape edges.
Principles of
Organization
Principles of Organization
Universal design principles guide
and enhance our creativity

Principles of Organization

• Unity
• Harmony
• Interest
• Simplicity
• Emphasis-dominance
• Balance
• Scale and Proportion
• Sequence
Unity
• Unity is achieved by linking elements and
features to create a consistent character in
the composition.

• It is sometimes referred to as harmony—the

concept of everything fitting together.

• It is achieved by using dominance,

interconnection, unity of three and
simplicity to arrange colours, textures, and
form.

• Although hardscapes and plants can be unified

by the blending of similar characteristics,
some variety is also important to create interest.

• The simplest way to create unity is through the

use of a design theme or a design style.
Unity
It is “Tying the landscape together”

Repeat these to unify the landscape:

• Color
• Curvy lines
• Straight lines
• Construction materials
• Textures
• Use similar backgrounds and
foregrounds to establish
connections
• Same color/ different plant
• Focal points establish dominance
and unify group
Repetition Unity

• Repetition is created by the repeated use

of elements or features to create
patterns or a sequence in the landscape.
Repeating line, form, color, and texture
creates rhythm in the landscape.

• Repetition must be used with care—too

much repetition can create monotony,
and too little can create confusion.

• Simple repetition is the use of the same

object in a line or the grouping of a
geometric form, such as a square, in an
organized pattern.
Repetition Unity

• Repetition can be made more interesting

by using alternation, which is a minor
change in the sequence on a regular
basis—for example, using a square form
in a line with a circular form inserted
every fifth square.

• Inversion is another type of

alternation where selected elements are
changed so the characteristics are
opposite the original elements. An
example might be a row of vase-shaped
plants and pyramidal plants in an
ordered sequence.
Repetition Unity

• Gradation, which is the gradual change in

certain characteristics of a feature, is
another way to make repetition more
interesting.

• An example would be the use of a square

form that gradually becomes smaller
or larger.

• Repetition does not always create a

pattern; sometimes it is simply the
repeated use of the same color, texture, or
form throughout the landscape.
 Repetition Unity

Figure illustrates repetition of a square form in an entry

courtyard, lawn panels, a patio, and a water feature.
 Repetition
Strengthens Unity

Selected plant material should be repeated throughout landscape.

 Repetition
Strengthens Unity

Repetition of familiar forms, colors and textures in dissimilar

planting units
 Unity by
Interconnections

The interconnected parts allow the eye to move smoothly from

one element to another appreciating the whole picture
 Unity by Dominance
It is the property of a plant or object that attracts and holds
attention, making the object an important feature.

The ability of an object to capture attention usually depends on

contrast with adjacent objects.

A typical example for a garden would be a very brightly coloured

ceramic pot among green foliage.

Dominant features that capture attention are called focal points.

Focal points are used to draw attention to a particular location,

move the eye around the space, or guide circulation.

Emphasis is created through contrast in size, colour, form, or

texture.
Unity by Dominance
Emphasis by isolation of plant material in a
container
Unity of Three
Features that are
grouped in threes,
or in other groups
of odd numbers,
such as in groups of
five or seven,
feel more balanced
to the eye and give a
stronger sense of
unity.
Simplicity:
Limiting Change
• Achieved by repetition of ideas or materials

• One of most common errors in landscapes is

trying to do “too much”

• Less can be more. Too much variety in plant

material becomes chaotic

• Reduce the number of themes

• Viewer should experience the landscape in

parts as well as a whole

• Too much simplicity= monotony

 Simplicity:
Limiting Change

Monotypic, simple planting = monotony

Simple but still monotonous

 Simplicity:
Limiting Change

Simple but not monotonous Variety without cluttered: mound, tower

Variety:
Absence of Monotony
• Variety allows for a
prominent element

• Engages viewer with what's

going on

• Important to have something

unexpected

• Variety adds spice and

interest….
 Variety:
Absence of Monotony

• Too much variety = visual confusion

• Variety and simplicity work in a delicate balance
 Variety:
Absence of Monotony

• Too little variety causes monotony

 Emphasis
Emphasis or dominance is the importance or
significance imparted to an element in the
landscape.
Limited use of emphasis provides resting places
for the eye and helps in orientation.

Careful use of variety allows emphasis to be placed where desired

Emphasis
Emphasis
Lines Affect Perception
Balance:
Symmetrical
• Symmetrical balance is achieved when the
same objects (mirror images) are placed on
either side of an axis.

• This type of balance is used in formal designs

and is one of the oldest and most desired
spatial organization concepts.

• This is because the mind naturally divides

space by assuming a central axis and then
seeks an even distribution of objects or
mass (visual weight).

• Many historic gardens are organized using this

concept.
Balance: Symmetrical

Symmetrical balance around an axis

Balance:
Symmetrical
• Formal, static classic
design

• The same thing on each

side of a central axis,
bilateral symmetry

• Distribution of visual
weight-equal
Balance: Symmetrical
Problems
• Symmetry can be boring

• Plant loss on one side

loses balance

• A symmetrical house may

not allow asymmetrical
landscape
Symmetrical: Effective
Symmetrical:
Effective
Balance: Asymmetrical
• Asymmetrical balance is achieved by equal
visual weight of nonequivalent forms, color,
or texture on either side of an axis.

• This type of balance is informal and is usually

achieved by masses of plants that appear to
be the same in visual weight rather than
total mass.

• The mass can be achieved by combinations of

plants, structures, and garden ornaments.
Balance: Asymmetrical
• To create balance, features with large sizes,
dense forms, bright colors, and coarse
textures appear heavier and should be used
sparingly, while small sizes, sparse forms,
gray or subdued colors, and fine texture
appear lighter and should be used in
greater amounts.
 Balance: Asymmetrical

Asymmetrical balance around an axis

Balance: Asymmetrical
• Casual

• Indicates movement

• Achieved by using similar ideas but

different things on either side

• Distribution of visual weight-equal

Asymmetrical: Problems

• Empty areas that can make

your eyes uneasy

• Bottom left side feels heavy

• Top right feels light Floating,

not grounded
Asymmetrical: Effective

• Eye feels a sense of unity

• No uneasiness

• Calmness

• Feel grounded and enclosed

Scale and Proportion
• How things relate to each other with respect to
size

• Large elements and small elements need an

intermediary to bring them together

• Large difference in size creates dissonance

• Very large material can be intimidating

• Generally don’t want very large in residential

design

• Make people feel welcome

• Bring things down to human scale

Proportion in Plants
• Proportion can be found in plant material
relative to people, the surrounding plants,
and the building. When all three are in
proportion, the composition feels balanced and
harmonious.

• A feeling of balance can also be achieved by

having equal proportions of open space and
planted space.

• Using markedly different plant sizes can help

to achieve dominance (emphasis) through
contrast with a large plant. Using plants that
are similar in size can help to achieve
rhythm through repetition of size.
Proportion in Hardscape
• Features are most functional for people when
they fit the human body.

• Benches, tables, pathways, arbors, and

gazebos work best when people can use
them easily and feel comfortable using
them.

• The hardscape should also be proportional

to the building—a deck or patio should be
large enough for entertaining but not so
large that it doesn't fit the scale of the
building.
Proportion in Voids
• Human scale is also important for
psychological comfort in voids or open spaces.

• People feel more secure in smaller open areas,

such as patios and terraces.

• An important concept of spatial comfort is

enclosure.

• Most people feel at ease with some sort of

overhead condition that implies a ceiling.

• The enclosure does not have to be solid; in fact,

an implied enclosure, such as tree branches,
serves as a good psychological enclosure
that still allows light and views of the sky.
 Disproportionate or Proportionate

Scale and Proportion

 Disproportionate or Proportionate

Scale and Proportion

Scale and Proportion
 Scale and Proportion

Proportion in plants and hardscape

Sequence or Rhythm
Sequence (rhythm) can
be achieved through the
graduation in size and
type of plants used
Sequence or Rhythm
Sequence or Rhythm
Plants are Functional
• What is the function of that space?

• What plants can serve the needs of that

space?

• Each plant serves a purpose, or function?

Specimen plants as focal point
Accent plants draw attention
Corner Plants
Foundation Plants
Border Plants
Screen Plants
Shade Plants
Using color, texture,
form,
Color
Texture
Forms
Landscape Planes
Scale and proportion
Scale and proportion
Enclosure
Enclosure Degrees
Enclosure and Edges
Enframement and
focalization
Prospect and Refuge
Sequence and Incident
• Sequence-
a particular order in
which related things
follow each other

• Incident-
an event or occurrence

• Path form, space

and edge relationships
can be organised to
avoid monotony or for
dramatic or symbolic
effects.
Contrast and Similarity
DESIGN
 Design
• It is the search for forms that satisfy a
program.

• It deals with particular solutions, while the

program is concerned with general
characteristics and desired outcomes.

• It begins in the programming, and programs

are modified as design progresses.

• A site deals with three elements:

• the pattern of activity
• the pattern of circulation
• the pattern of sensible form that supports them.
Design
• The pattern of activity

Symbolized in the activity diagram, is the

arrangement of the behavior settings, their
character, linkage, density and grain, following
the requirements of the program.

• The pattern of circulation

It is the layout of the movement channels and

their relations to the activity locations.

• The pattern of sensible form that supports

them
It centers in human experience of the place: what
we see, hear smell and feel, and what that means
to us.
Design Principles
The Reality Principle
1. Who will use it?
2. How will they use it?
3. How do you want them to use
it?
4. Accessible for maintenance?
5. Functional and maintainable
over time?
Design Principles
Functional
1. Allows for easy movement
2. Accessible for maintenance,
recreational, leisure
3. Functional and
maintainable over entire life
Design Principles
Easy to maintain
Reduces need for

• Fertilizers
• Pesticides
• Equipment (movers)
• Water
• Extra labor/expenses
Design Principles
Environmentally Sound
“ right plant right place” decreases
Disease
Insect stress
Water needs
Plants in stress = more maintenance
Stressed plants require more
Labor
Fertilizers
Pesticides
Ultimately more money
Design Principles
Cost Effective
Cost should not dictate whether the
landscape is:

1. Functional
2. Maintainable
3. Environmentally sound

Low cost can meet all these needs

Design Principles
Visually Pleasing
Framework needed to create a visually
pleasing landscape includes:

Functionality,
Maintainability, right plant, right place
Consider the cost
Learn to understand
Enhance the positives-down play the negatives
Design Methods
• Designers develop a preference for a
particular way of structuring their process
of design and hold strong attitudes about
appropriate procedure.

• Some prefer to make decisions along the

way, moving deliberately from one step to
the next, while others engage in a free-
flowing inquiry in which nothing is frozen
until all aspects seems right.

• Ideally designers should be eclectics.

 Design Methods
Adaptation
• Great majority of environmental designs are
adaptations of solutions previously used.
Forms that a model to be emulated become
prototypes.

• Those that are very often used are stereotypes:

the cul- de-sac, the backyard, the tree lined
avenue, the playground, the side walk café etc.
 Design Methods
Modular Division
• When faced with complexity, one reasonable
response is to break the problem into parts.

• By solving each part separately and then

combining the results, we reach a solution to the
whole which responds to all its aspects.

• Traditional method of subdivision is to divide

the site into distinct areas, each small enough to
be fashioned without unreasonable effort.

• Preferably, these will be elements that can be

repeated elsewhere in the plan, and if so we call
them modules.
 Design Methods
Division by Aspect
• Consider the design by separate aspects, each of which
involves the entire site.

• Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of

objects in such a way that objects in the same group (called a
cluster) are more similar (in some sense) to each other than
to those in other groups (clusters).

• Pattern habits are recognized however its difficult to break,

putting activity aside, the designer tries various road
arrangements, testing general patterns.

• Then, designer works with sensible form of the place:

accentuating topography, trying out spatial prototypes,
playing with images of missing or character or view.
 Design Methods
Optimizing
• The designer begins making plans that optimize
some particular purpose- access, control, fit,
sense, cost, maintenance, or narrower
subdivisions of those- while satisfying other
criteria only in some customary or minimum way.

• Working out plan that would be safest for

children or the cheapest plan.
 Design Methods
Essential Function
• First, they abstract, the “essential” function of an
environment, then develop a form that will best satisfy this
general function, and finally adapt this ideal form to satisfy
the other functions and constraints.

• One criterion leads way to the solution.

• For example, if an area is to be an outdoor market, it is

decided that buying is the essential behavior and thus that,
above all, the environment must make that act inviting.

• The designer considers the character of settings that invite

the buyer, imagines an ideal form with that character, and
then tinkers with it in order to manage the delivery and
protection of goods, the arrival of customers, the cost,
maintenance, and the topography of the site.
DESIGN PROCESS
The Design Process

1. Base/ site plan

2. Starts with a base
3. Add the site analysis
4. Conceptual diagram
5. General use areas
6. Plant selection
7. Final design
8. Planting plan
9. A guide
The Design Process
The base plan should consist of:

Accurate house placement-legal document

Accurate lot and house dimensions
Existing hardscape
Any covenants?

How to begin?
Obtain plot/plan from: builder, or county or
city property records.
Determine the scale and decide a scale

Site Analysis
The Design Process

Base map.
The Design Process

Site Inventory &

Analysis
The Design Process
The concept plan adds creative ideas:

• Defines spaces-address functional

areas with general plant material

• Evolves from shapes developed in

the site analysis/base plan

• Refine and experiment with

different concepts or materials
The Design Process

Functional Diagram
The Design Process

Form Composition
Study
The Design Process

Preliminary
Plan
The Design Process

Master
Plan
The Design Process

Layout Plan
The Design Process

Grading Plan
The Design Process

Planting plan communicates

exactly what to use, where it
will go, how it should look:

• Drawn to scale
• Labels plants and other
components-key/legend
• Provides a material list
• Provides additional notes
The Design Process

Planting Plan
The Design Process

Construction Details
LIVERPOOL ONE
A green oasis created
in the heart of
Liverpool as part of
Liverpool One - the
urban renewal of the
city centre. The park, a
green roof, sits upon a
4 storey car park and
retail linking the World
Heritage waterfront to
the retail centre.
 Liverpool One
The park is the green heart of Liverpool One,
serving as a central focus in which people can mix
and gather, eat and drink, or simply orientate
themselves along key sightlines down to the river
or into other parts of the site or city.
As such a crucial node, therefore, it was critical to
get the feel of this space just right.

An understanding of the park’s history and

context is important in establishing its
significance.

Liverpool is blessed with many outstanding parks,

providing a necklace of green public space
encircling its suburbs. But within the city centre
itself, due to the sheer intensity of the maritime-led
expansion, few exist.
 Liverpool One

The point of entry and exit to the park rises up to park level to form a skylight, while
sustainable elements include the very fact that the development has a green roof in such
a city centre environment.
 Liverpool One

This mediates run-off, collects water and slows down the ultimate percolation into the
water system, allowing a certain filtration.
 Liverpool One

The close proximity of public transport- the bus station- is considered another sustainable
measure.
 Liverpool One

It also provides some ambient cooling to the space below, and creating a green park in
the centre of any city can reduce the heat island effect.
Liverpool One
Area prior to construction
Area prior to construction
Extracts from Pelli Clarke
Pelli concept analysis
showing some of the
various urban design
studies that informed the
emerging masterplan
The final park layout
integrating private,
grand, formal, informal,
terraced, flat, graded,
active and event spaces
in a single environment
Chavasse Park is the jewel in Liverpool One's Crown. It's a perfect oasis for a
frenetic city centre, and regularly hosts a spectacular array of events