AS Physics - Unit 1

Section 1.1 - Basic Physics

Systeme Internationale or ‘SI’ units

All quantities in physics have an unit which has been agreed on internationally. For example:

charge - coulomb, C force - newton, N energy - joule, J

In addition, there are about 6 fundamental quantities that can be used to define or derive any
other quantity. These are known as base quantities, and their units are therefore base SI
units. Here are 6 base quantities:

mass (kg) length (m) time (s) temperature (K) current (A) amount (mol)

Since all derived quantities, like ‘energy’ or ‘force’ are based upon base quantities, it must be
possible to express their units in terms of base quantity units ( kg , m , s , K , A or mol).

To change SI units into base SI units, you simply need to think of an equation containing base
quantities, e.g. changing the ‘newton, N’ into base SI units: In this section the square brackets
around a quantity are used to denote
Simple equation for ‘force’  ΣF = m x a “the units of” that quantity, e.g.
[m] denotes “the units of mass”.
Hence ‘the units of force’ , [F] = kg x ms-2

∴ If the SI unit for force is the newton, the equivalent unit in terms of base SI units is kgms-2

Example
Electrical current, I is defined by the equation, I = Q where Q = charge, t = time.
t
The SI unit for charge is the coulomb, C. Express this unit in terms of base SI units.

Re-arranging the equation to make ‘Q’ the subject:

Q=Ixt ∴ [Q] = [I] x [t] = A x s ∴ Answer = As (Amps seconds)

Quantity SI units BASE SI units You are NOT expected to

remember these BASE SI
Spring constant, k = F / x Nm-1 kg s-2 units, but you may be
expected to derive them as
Pressure ( = Force/Area) Pa or N/m2 kg m-1 s-2 shown in the example box
above.
Energy or Work done
J kg m2 s-2
( Work = Force x distance) Why not try to use the
Voltage (V=Energy/ equations given in the first
charge) V kg m2 A-1 s-3 column to see if you can
derive the BASE SI units
shown in the last column?

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 This information can be used to check equations for homogeneity. An equation is said to be
homogenous if both sides have identical base SI units.
( Note : This does not check whether any constants in an equation have the correct values).

Example

Show that the following equation is homogenous : E = Y A e2

2L

where , E = energy stored in a stretched wire (unit = joule = kg m2 s-2 )

Y = modulus of elasticity (Pascal = unit of pressure, P = F/A)
A = Area
e = extension
L = original length of wire

Answer
First, we must find the SI units for each expression in the equation :

LHS
[E] = kg m2s-2 (given)

RHS
[Y] = [ Pressure ] = [ F / A ] = [ m a / A ] = kg ms-2 / m2 = kg m-1s-2
[A] = m2
[e] = m
∴ [ e2 ] = m2
[L] = m
[2] = No units

∴ Y A e2 = kg s-2 . m2 . m2 = kg m2 s-2
2 L m . m

Since the units are identical on both sides of the equation, this equation is homogenous.

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 Scalars & Vectors

Scalar = A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude only.

Vector = A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.

Examples of scalars are: mass , distance , volume , density , time , speed , pressure

Examples of vectors are: displacement , velocity , acceleration , momentum , force , current

Displacement
Displacement is the vector equivalent of distance. However, displacement is measured in a
different way to distance – displacement is akin to the ‘distance as the crow flies’. See the
example below:

A cyclist travels from Bangor (North Wales) to Betws-y-Coed.

A device attached to the wheel measures the distance travelled as
the wheel turns. The reading by the end of the journey was 80km.

However, the displacement is shown by the dotted (red) line.

The displacement was 27km at a bearing of S 50˚ E.

Note : Since displacement is a vector it requires a direction too.

Speed & Velocity

Velocity is the vector equivalent of speed. However, we must be careful! Velocity is defined as
‘displacement per unit time’, and so displacement values must be used to calculate velocity,
whereas distance values are used to calculate speed.

Adding vectors
When adding vectors we must take their direction into consideration. If the vectors are ‘in
line’, then it is a simple calculation (as seen at GCSE level). See the example below.

Example
A woman is rowing against the flow in a slow moving river and wants to estimate how long
the journey will take. To do this she needs an idea of her speed relative to the river bank.
She knows her usual rowing speed is 3.2 m/s. The speed of the water in the river is
approximately 0.8 m/s in the opposite direction. Calculate her resultant velocity (relative
to the river bank).

Answer :
3.2m/s + 0.8m/s Resultant velocity, v = 3.2 – 0.8 = 2.4 m/s 

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 We can also add vectors that are not ‘in line’, i.e. are at an angle to each other. This can be
done by scale drawing, but a more accurate method is by using trigonometry. You will only be
expected to do calculations with vectors that are at 90˚ to each other.

Example 400N
Imagine a heavy block being pulled by two
people simultaneously. Person A pulls with a
force of 300N due East; person B pulls with
a force of 400N due North. What is the
resultant force on the block?
300N

400N
The forces are added by placing them “tip to tail”, RESULTANT
as shown, or alternatively by the parallelogram rule.

The resultant is then the line that joins the tail of one
to the tip of the other. θ 300N

The magnitude of the resultant, R can be found using pythagoras, where ,

R2 = 3002 + 4002 ∴ R = 3002 + 4002

∴ R = 500 N

The direction of the resultant is given by “Soh, Cah and Toa” :

tan θ = 400 / 300 ∴ θ = tan-1 ( 400 / 300 )

∴ θ = 53.1 °

Subtracting vectors
Sometimes it is necessary to calculate the ‘change’ in a certain quantity. A change in a quantity
is always the final value minus the initial value, and hence this requires vector subtraction.
For example, when calculating acceleration, we need to find the change in velocity.
u
If a particle is initially travelling to the right with a velocity, u, of 25 m/s,

but that some time later, has a final velocity, v, of 10m/s downwards,
v
we would calculate the change in velocity like this:

Δv This is: Δv = v - (+ u) = v - u
v

u
Δv This is: Δv = v + (- u) = v – u
v
Alternatively :
Either way the resultant is ‘v – u’
-u

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 Resolving vectors
When a vector is resolved it is split up into vectors that have the same effect as the original.
The two new vectors, called components, are chosen to be at 90˚ to each other so that the two
components can be treated independently.

Consider a force, F, acting at 30˚ to the horizontal: 30˚

F
This force vector can be resolved into two perpendicular
components:

Fx = F cos (30˚)
30˚ The components are found by simply
applying ‘Soh, Cah, Toa’ !
F Fy = F sin (30˚)

Fx = F cos (30˚)
30˚ Alternatively, we can set all the ‘tails’
together, and just remember that the
F component linked to the original by the
angle is always the ‘cos’ component.
Fy = F sin (30˚)

Example
WD

A box is placed on a (rough) slope. θ

25°
The weight of the box is 30N.
Calculate WP
(i) the component perpendicular to the slope, WP,
Weight = 30N
(ii) the downslope component of the weight, WD.

Firstly, we identify the angle, Ν, as 25˚. (Look at any right-angled triangle in the diagram).
We now see that the ‘WP’ component is linked to the original via the angle, and hence,

(i) WP = W cos (25˚) = 30 x cos (25˚) = 27.2 N

(ii) WD = W sin (25˚) = 30 x sin (25˚) = 12.7 N

Remember : The original vector always forms the hypotenuse of the

new triangle formed with the 2 components.

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 Moment (turning effect/torque)
Moment is defined as the product of force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and the pivot. Here’s the equation:

Moment = Force x distance M = F d

In many cases the forces will

naturally act in a direction
that’s perpendicular to the
pivot direction, e.g. a toy
mobile.

However, in some cases, you may need to use

some trigonometry to find the perpendicular Tension in the cable, T
distance before you attempt to take
moments, e.g. a trap door in the attic
Pivot (at the hinge)

There are two ways to do this:

1) Look along the line of action of the

tension force – put a dot at the point
along this line that is closest to the pivot.
d . Tension, T

The line joining this dot to the pivot

(hinge) is now the perpendicular distance, d, θ
and can be found by basic geometry.
( sin θ = d / a , ∴ d = a sin θ 1 a
hence, Moment = T x a sin θ .

T sin θ
2) Resolve the tension.
The horizontal component acts towards
the pivot, and hence creates no moment. θ
The vertical component is at 90˚ to the
direction of the pivot, and hence , moment,
M = T sin θ x a
a

Notice that the final equation used to calculate moment is identical in both cases!

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 The Conditions needed for equilibrium
There are two conditions
that must be satisfied if an 1. The resultant force (in any given line) is zero.
object can be said to be in 2. The net moment (about any pivot) is zero.
equilibrium:

The second condition is also known as the “Principle of moments”:

If an object is in equilibrium, then the resultant (or ‘net’) moment about

any pivot is zero.

This is in effect like stating that if an object is ‘balanced’ on a pivot, then the total
clockwise moment must equal the total anticlockwise moment. This idea is used to
calculate unknown distances or forces.

Example
By taking moments about a suitable pivot,
find the tension in both chains, A and B. The
horizontal bar’s length is 3.0m; assume its
weight is negligible.

Strategy
1. Choose a pivot (In this case we’ve chosen
the base of chain B, thus eliminating the
tension here, TB from the moments equation).

2. Find the perpendicular distance from each force to the chosen pivot.
1.75 + 0.60 = 2.35m
3. Take moments : M = M

Taking T A as the tension in chain A, TA x 3 = (40 x 2.35) + (30 x 1.75) + (25 x 0.85)
∴
↓ TA x 3 = 167.75 Nm
∴
↓ TA = 167.75 / 3 = 55.9 N

To find the tension in chain B, we could repeat the above with a pivot chosen at the base of chain A, however, we can now
apply the 1st condition of equilibrium ( no net force) :

TA + TB = 40 + 30 + 25

∴
↓ TB = 95 - TA = 95 - 55.9 = 39.1 N

Centre of gravity
This is the point at which all the weight of the object is considered to act, and makes
calculations like those seen above much easier. You should memorise the following 3
examples:

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 Centre of gravity and toppling angles
One example of the usefulness of the idea of a centre of gravity is when trying to evaluate
the stability of an object, i.e. its toppling angle.

A tilted object will topple over when its weight (acting from the centre of gravity) acts just
outside the corner of the object. This is explained in terms of moments.

Force, F

Normal reaction NR
(or contact force) NR

. C
.
W
C

A A
Normal reaction, R
W
Once a force is applied, the object starts tilting. If it is held in the position shown, and then
the force is removed, the object will fall back to its upright position. Why ?
Once tilted, the normal reaction then acts from the pivot (at A), and hence creates no
moment. The weight now creates an anticlockwise moment about point A, and hence the
object rotates back upright.

The toppling angle is shown (). At a slightly

higher value of the angle, α, the weight would
then act outside the corner, and start creating
a clockwise moment, which would cause the α
object to topple over.
W

h
Taking a closer look at a small triangle
inside the cone, we get this diagram: α

α b
α = tan-1 ( b / h )
W

Density
Density = Mass
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume:
Volume
So, if mass, m, is measured in kg, and volume, V, is measured in m3,
then density, ρ , is measured in kgm-3.

In general, solids have high density values

whereas gases have very low values:

Solid Liquid Gas

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 Section 1.2 - Kinematics
First, some basic definitions that you’ll need to learn :

Quantity Definition Symbol Unit Equation

The displacement of a particle is defined as
Displacement the (straight line) distance it travels in a given x m
direction.
Velocity Rate of change of displacement. v ms-1 v=x/t

Speed Distance travelled per unit time. v ms-1 v=x/t

Acceleration Rate of change of velocity. a ms-2 a = Δv/t

In addition, the words ‘mean’ and ‘instantaneous’ are applied to both speed and velocity.
Mean is obviously the average measured over a significant amount of time. If calculated over
a whole journey, then velocity = total displacement / total time.
‘Instantaneous’ is the speed or velocity at any one instant, and is calculated by taking a very
small time interval (or by taking a tangent to the curve on a displacement-time graph – see
later).

displacement, x (m)
Displacement-time graphs
6
The graph opposite shows how the
displacement of a particle travelling 0 C
in a straight line changes with time. B
This curve is a complete description of 4
the motion of the particle. 0 A
D
2
0
time, t (s)
O
1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0
There’s just one ‘rule’ that applies to this type of graph :

The gradient of the graph at any point gives a value for the velocity
at that point.
Hence, to calculate the instantaneous velocity at a point in time, we need to find the
gradient of the tangent to the graph at that point.

To calculate the average velocity between two points, we divide the change in displacement
between those two points by the time between them, e.g.

The average velocity between points A and C is vAC = Δx / t = 5.1 – 3.5 / 1.3 = 1.23 ms-1

The instantaneous velocity at point B is vB = gradient = (6 – 2) / 2.3 = 1.74 ms-1

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 For a situation where the velocity is changing ( i.e. a curve ), it is very difficult to judge just by
looking whether or not the acceleration/deceleration is constant.

An examination question may ask you to calculate the gradient several times in order for you to
make a judgment if the velocity is changing in regular increments, i.e. constant acceleration.

It may be useful to remember that if the acceleration is constant, then the curve on a
displacement-time graph would be parabolic, i.e., it will look like a graph of y = x2
(or y = -x2), as follows:

Velocity-time graphs

There are two ‘rules’ for this type of graph:

1) The gradient of the velocity–time graph represents the acceleration.

If the line is curved, then to find the instantaneous acceleration find the gradient of the
tangent to the line at that point.

2 ) The AREA under the velocity–time graph represents the displacement travelled.

The graph () shows an object accelerating

from rest.
In section OA, it accelerates up to a velocity of Velocity (m/s)
25 m/s. Since the gradient is constant, the 30
acceleration must be constant also (rule 1, A B
above). 20
The gradient in section AB is zero, hence the 10
acceleration is zero, i.e. constant velocity.
C Time (s)
From B to C the object has constant O 12
5 10
deceleration (constant negative gradient).

The displacement in any section (or the whole journey) can be found by applying rule 2:
Area under section OA = 62.5m
Area under section AB = 125m Total = 212.5m
Area under section OA = 25m

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 Uniformly accelerated motion – kinematic equations
This whole section relies upon the fact that we can assume the acceleration is constant. So,
for example, when considering the motion of an object we must assume air-resistance is
negligible. This approximation applies for many practical cases.

Think about a particle moving along a straight line with constant acceleration, a. Suppose that its initial
velocity, at time t = 0, is u. After a further time t, its velocity has increased to v. From the definition of
acceleration as (change in velocity) / (time taken), we have:

a = (v – u) or, re-arranging v = u + at -------------- 1

t

Since the change in velocity is UNIFORM, we can define the average velocity as, vav = v + u
2

The correct symbol for displacement is, “x”, and the equation for displacement is , x = vav t
( re-arrange velocity = displacement / time )

So, substituting for vav we get: x = v+u t -------------- 2

2

We can get a third equation by substituting for the “v” in this equation from eq. 1 like this:

x = v+u t = ( u + at +u) t = (2u + at ) t = ( 2 u t + at 2 )

2 2 2 2

x = u t + ½ a t2 -------------- 3

Finally , the fourth equation is obtained by substituting for “t” in eq. 2 ( from eq. 1 )

x = v+u t = v+u . v-u = ( v 2 - u2 )

2 2 a 2a

∴ 2 a x = v 2 - u2 ∴ v2 = u2 + 2 a x -------------- 4

Equations 2 & 3 can also be derived by using a velocity-time graph, as follows:

The displacement is calculated from a v-t graph by the area
between the line/curve and the t axis, therefore, using the
b
formula for the area of a trapezium, a
v
Area = (a + b) x width
2 width u
x = (v + u) x t ( = Equation 2 !!)
2 t

If we split the trapezium into a rectangle and a triangle

then the displacement is now given by the sum of the area
of these two sections:
v
x = ut + v–u xt triangle
2 u
rectangle
Area of rectangle Area of triangle
t
This equation then becomes equation 3 if we substitute for
“v – u” with “at” (equation 1).

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 Therefore, the four equations for the motion of the particle in uniformly accelerated motion are:

v = u + at x = v+u t x = u t + ½a t2 v 2 = u2 + 2 a x
2

Example
A car in a land speed record attempt can maintain an acceleration
of 7.2 m/s2. The car’s speed at the start of the run is 5 m/s.
If the target speed at the end of the run needs to be 340 m/s,
how much distance is needed to attain this speed?
We need to find ‘x’ but are not given ‘t’, therefore, we need to choose an equation that
does not contain ‘t’. Hence, we must use v2 = u2 + 2 a x

Re-arranging  x = v 2 - u2 = 3402 - 52 = 8026 m

2a (2 x 7.2)

Two dimensional motion

In most cases, the situation given is for an object moving in a gravitational field, where it is
assumed that the air resistance is negligible, or where there is no air, e.g. the Moon’s surface.
In such situations there is a resultant force, and hence acceleration, in the vertical direction
only, although the object’s velocity may have both vertical and horizontal components. The
kinematic equations can be applied to the vertical component, but the horizontal component
has no acceleration, and hence we can only apply v = x / t .

Example
A snowball is launched at a velocity
of 11.8 ms-1 as shown in the diagram
. Calculate,
(a) the time it takes to hit it’s target,
(b) the maximum height of the wall,
if it is 7m from the man (1/2 way).

Strategy – a good setup !

Taking up as positive,
xx = 14m xy = (a) Using, v = x /t, t = xx = 14 = 1.55 s
ux = 9.04 ms-1 uy = 7.58 ms-1 ux 9.04
t= vy =
ay = - 9.81 ms-2 (b) Now that we also have the time in the ‘y’
t = direction, we have the necessary minimum
of 3 quantities in order to calculate the others.
We must remember that the time to reach the wall will be half of the time calculated in
part (a), since we assume there’s no air-resistance, hence, t = 0.775 s :

xy = uyt + ½ ayt2 = (7.58 x 0.775) + (0.5 x – 9.81 x 0.7752) = 5.875 - 2.946

∴
↓ xy = 2.93 m (above the height at which it is launched !)

Note that in the data book, the symbol for displacement is ‘x’ not ‘s’ !!

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 Note that some quantities given are not immediately obvious. Here’s an example.

A rock is thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff at a speed of 8 m/s. If it takes 4.2 s to hit
the sea below, how high is the cliff above sea level?

Strategy – a good setup ! At 1st glance, it seems that only xx can be calculated,
Choosing down as positive. however, we know the acceleration is ‘g’ = 9.81 ms-2.
xx = xy = Also, if the stone is launched horizontally, then the
ux = 8.0 ms-1 uy = initial vertical velocity must be zero, i.e. uy = 0.
t = 4.2 s vy = So, in fact, we already have 3 quantities out of the 5
ay = in the vertical direction, and hence we can calculate
t = 4.2 s any of the remaining quantities with one of the
relevant equations. ( BTW : xy = 86.5m)

Other similar quantities :

An object ‘dropped from rest’ : ux = 0 and/or uy = 0
For projectiles starting and ending at the same height,xy = 0
For an object thrown up, and at its greatest height, vy = 0

However, for an object ending up at rest on the ground vy ≠ 0 !!!!

This is because the kinematic equations only work if the acceleration is constant. The
acceleration changes as soon as a falling object makes contact with the ground, and hence we
can only apply the equations to the point just before it hits the ground.

Terminal velocity
All the work above on kinematic equations is done under the assumption that the
acceleration is constant. Strictly, this is only true where there is no air resistance. When we
take air resistance into account, the acceleration is non-uniform, and reduces to zero as the
object gains speed.

For an object moving vertically downwards,

there are usually just two forces, as shown.

At the beginning, the sky diver’s vertical speed is

zero (or very close to zero), and hence there’s no
air resistance.

There’s therefore a downward resultant force created by

the weight. This causes the skydiver to accelerate downwards.

As the skydiver’s speed increases, he/she pushes downwards on the air molecules with an
increasing force, since the air’s momentum is changing at a greater rate.

Hence the air molecules, by newton’s 3rd law, are creating an upward force on the skydiver
(air resistance) that increases with speed. RF or acceleration

Eventually, the air resistance becomes equal to the

weight, and terminal velocity is reached. A graph
of resultant force or acceleration would look like this 
time (s)

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 Section 1.3 - Dynamics

Newton’s 3 ‘Laws of Motion’

The first law states that if the resultant force on an object is zero then the
object will either remain stationary, or if it was already moving, then it will
continue to move with uniform motion.

Newton’s 2nd law states that the rate of change of momentum (= mass x velocity)
is directly proportional to the applied (resultant) force and occurs in the same
direction as the force :
F = change in ( mv ) = d (mv)
Change in ( t ) d (t)

The 3rd law states that if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts
an equal but opposite force on body A. (To every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction).

Newton’s 2nd Law can be simplified in the case where the mass is constant:

F = m d(v) = m(v-u) but v - u = acceleration

d(t) t t

∴
ΣF = m a F is measured in
m is measured in
NEWTONS , N.
kilograms , kg.
a is measured in m /s 2.

Note : ‘F’ in this equation is ALWAYS the RESULTANT force.

Since weight is a type of force, we can apply the force equation to calculate it:

F = m x a hence 
W = m g

where W = weight, m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity / gravitational field strength.

The value of ‘g’ is given in the data book as: g=9.81 ms-2 , which is the value close to the
Earth’s surface.
It’s important to remember the distinction between mass and weight.

Mass is a measure of how much Weight is a measure of how large

‘matter’ or material an object has. the force of gravity is on an object.
It’s measured in kg. It is measured in N.

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 Newton’s 3rd law

In order to accelerate at the start of a race a formula one car’s engine must create a large force.
This force is transmitted to the back wheels.

The wheel pushes backward The road pushes with an equal but
onto the road. opposite force onto the wheel.

The effect of the force of the road on the wheel is of course to accelerate the car forwards.
The effect of the wheel on the road is to accelerate the Earth backwards!

Although the two forces are always equal and always opposite, they never
‘cancel out’ since they always act on DIFFERENT OBJECTS.

Situations in real life can therefore get very complicated! Look at this relatively simple
situation where a block is being pulled along the surface of a table, assuming there’s no air­
resistance (!):
Normal reaction/Contact force

Friction Pulling force

(on block)

Friction
(on table) Contact force (on table)
Weight of block
Reaction to weight of block, i.e.
the block’s gravitational pull on the Earth !

Note : The (newton’s 3rd law) reaction to the pulling force, acting on the object that’s doing the pulling, has not been shown !

Some of the forces shown above are acting on the block, some on the Earth, and some on
the table. In order to calculate the effect on the motion of the block, we must consider only
those forces acting on the block itself.
Thus we draw a free body diagram, i.e. a diagram that shows only one object, and any
forces acting on it. Here’s the free body diagram for the block:

Normal reaction/Contact force

Friction Pulling force

(on block)

Weight of block

This makes the situation must simpler. It can be further simplified by grouping the left and
right forces together, the up and down forces together, and then considering the vertical and
horizontal motions separately.

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 Momentum
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. . . . p = m v

The units for momentum are kg ms-1

When interactions and collisions between 2 or more objects are studied it is seen that the total
momentum before the interaction/collision and after is the same (even if some energy is ‘lost’
from the system of colliding objects). This is known as the conservation of momentum:

The Principle of Conservation of Momentum

“The total momentum of a system of interacting bodies will remain constant if

there are no external forces acting”.

Momentum is a vector, and hence we must remember to state its direction, especially when
applying the conservation of momentum as shown by the following example.

Example
A ‘bumper’ car in a fairground of mass 95kg is travelling at a speed of 2.8 ms-1 when it
collides with another car (initially not moving) of mass 140kg. If the speed of the 1st car
after collision is 0.4ms-1 in the opposite direction, calculate the velocity of the 2nd car.

m 1u 1 + m 2u 2 = m1v1 + m2v2 Always a good way to start !!

(95x2.8) + 0 = (95 x -0.4) + (140 x v2)

Notice the negative sign before the
266 = - 38 + 140v2 “0.4” – the forwards direction of the 1st
∴
↓ 266 + 38 = 140 v2 car is taken as positive, hence the
∴
↓ v2 = 2.17 ms-1 backwards motion is negative.

Elastic and inelastic collisions

If you calculate the kinetic energy (Ek = 0.5mv2) in the example If you try to calculate the
above you will see that the Ek before is 372.4 J, but that after kinetic energy, remember that
the collision, the total Ek of both cars is 337.7 J. This is an ‘energy’ is a scalar, and hence
the direction of the car is
example of an inelastic collision, where some of the kinetic
irrelevant !
energy of the ‘system’ is lost to the surroundings.
In an elastic collision, no kinetic energy is lost.
Elastic collisions can only realistically occur when individual particles are interacting, e.g. an
alpha particle approaching another alpha particle – most everyday collisions incur a significant
kinetic energy loss, but remember that we can still apply the conservation of momentum!

Also remember that newton’s 2nd law refers to momentum: F = Rate of change of momentum

This means that if we plot a graph of momentum p

against time, then,
Δy
t
Force is equal to the gradient of the momentum-time graph.
Δx

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 16
 Section 1.4 - Energy concepts
Work done
If a body moves as a result of a force being applied to it, the force W = Fx
is said to be doing work on the body. The work done is given by 
where ‘x’ = distance moved in the direction of the force.

Remember that: Work done is always equal to the energy transferred.

Hence the unit for work done is the joule, J.

If the force on an object, F, causes it to move in a direction other than its own, as shown below,
then we take only the component of the force that acts in the direction of movement:

F
F Direction of motion So, work done ,
θ W = F. cos θ . x = F x cos θ
F cos θ

Force – distance graphs (Also seen in next section)

If a graph is plotted of the applied force against distance, then the area under the graph
is equal to the work done by the force on the object. This is true whether the force is
constant or not.

Hooke’s law states that the force exerted on a material is directly proportional to the
extension. Thus, F = k x , where k = the spring constant (see next section for more details).

Therefore, a graph of force against extension for a material obeying Hooke’s law looks like
this: F

Hence, the energy stored in this material (in the form

of elastic potential energy, EPE) is :
x
ΔEPE = Work = area of triangle = ½ F x
since F = kx (Hookes’ law), ΔEPE = ½ kx2

Kinetic and potential energy

These equations are given in the data book in the examination:

Ek = ½ mv2 ΔEp = mgΔh Eelastic = ½ kx2

where Ek = kinetic energy, ΔEp = change in gravitational potential energy, and

Eelastic = elastic potential energy

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 17
 Work-energy theorem
From page 11, we have the kinematic equation, v2 = u2 + 2 ax .
If we substitute for ‘a’ from F = ma, the kinematic equation above becomes:

F x = ½ mv2 - ½ mu2

So, a force pushing an object horizontally does work on the object equal to “F x”, and
in the absence of friction etc, this work translates to a gain in kinetic energy. This relates
directly to the 4th line on the previous page (“Work = energy transferred”).

Conservation of energy
The work-energy theorem above assumes there are no dissipative/resistive forces involved,
i.e. that the work done on an object transfers perfectly to kinetic energy. In most real
situations here on earth, there’s always some friction, and usually air-resistance too. These
forces transfer some of the energy into wasted forms of energy like heat and sound.
Even if some energy is ‘lost’ from the system of objects we’re looking at, the total energy is
always conserved – this is the conservation of energy:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one form to

another.

Look at the example below :

Small card to
pass through Toy car
Light gate that the light gate
measures the speed
of the toy car
Board with rough surface

If we assume that no friction or air-resistance are acting on

the toy car, the gravitational potential energy, Ep , would
transfer perfectly into kinetic energy, Ek. The speed ΔEp = Ek gain
calculated would be the ‘theoretical maximum’.

However, when we also consider frictional forces,

we then write  ΔEp = Ek gain + W
where ‘W’ is the work done by the frictional forces ( W = F x).
The speed measured would be significantly less than the ‘theoretical maximum’ calculated
with no frictional forces.
www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 18
 Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. It is therefore also the rate of transferring
energy, and hence the equation for power is either or
P = W P = E
t t

Another useful expression is given by substituting for ‘W’ as ‘force x distance’ or ‘Fx’ :

P = Fx but since x / t = speed, this becomes P = Fv

t

P = F v applies to situation where an object has a force exerted on it that is trying to

accelerated it, but is being balanced by another force, e.g. friction, which means that the
resultant force is zero, and hence the object is moving at a constant speed.

Efficiency
Efficiency is a quantity used to describe how much useful energy a device or machine
produces as compared to the amount of input energy, and is usually expressed as a
percentage. Thus,

Efficiency (%) = Useful energy transfer x 100 (% )

Total input energy

Example rope 800N

A rock of mass 150kg is being pulled up a rough incline 2.0m
60 m
at a steady speed of 0.8 m/s by applying a steady force
of 800N to a rope attached to it, as shown . Calculate,

(a)the gravitational potential energy acquired by the rock at the top of the slope,
(b) the efficiency of this pulling system,
(c)the friction acting on the rock,
(d) the power developed by the person pulling the rope.

(a) ΔEp = mg Δh = 150 x 9.81 x 2 = 2943 J

(b) Total input energy = W = F x = 800 x 60 = 48 000 J
Efficiency = Useful out x100 = 2943 x100 = 6.1%
Total input 48 000

(c) Work done by friction, WFR = 48 000 – 2943 = 45 057 J

Hence, friction, FR = WFR / x = 45 057 / 60 = 751N

(d) P = F v = 800 x 0.8 = 640 W

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 19
 Section 1.5 - Solids under stress
3 types of solid
1) Crystalline : These solids have short and long-range order i.e. there is a
regular pattern of atoms (or sometimes molecules) over a distance of at
least 100 atomic diameters. Almost all metals are examples of polycrystalline
solids, as well as many minerals e.g. salt, where there are many small
crystals called grains. Each grain has a different orientation. This makes the
structure very strong. The line between each grain is known as the grain boundary.

2) Amorphous : The term amorphous (meaning ‘without shape or form’) is used to describe solid
substances in which there is little or no long-range order in the arrangement of the particles.
It can be likened to an instantaneous or ‘frozen’ picture of the internal structure of a liquid.
In practice there are few examples of solids with such totally random structures, however,
glass or brick are given as examples in which there may be ordered clusters of atoms (much
smaller than the ‘small’ crystals found in polycrystalline materials like metals).

3) Polymeric : Polymers consist of very long chains of

carbon atoms (commonly in excess of 1000 atoms ! )
bonded to hydrogen and other atoms. Polymers can
be natural (e.g. cellulose, protein, rubber, etc.) or
synthetic (e.g. polyethane [shown ] , polythene,
polystyrene, nylon, etc.).

The effect of external forces on solids

Many materials that are crystalline or amorphous will extend under tension in a linear way, at
least for a limited range of force. They are said to follow Hooke’s law :

Provided, the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension

of a body is proportional to the applied load.
F = kx

Where, F = force (N) ; k = spring constant (Nm-1) ; x = extension (m)

F (N)
This leads to force-extension graphs like this . 20 A B

Material ‘A’ would feel ‘stiffer’ than material ‘C’,

since with the same force, ‘A’ extends much less. 10
‘A’ would have a higher value for ‘k’ as seen in the C
equation representing Hooke’s law, above. x (m)
In fact ‘k’ is equal to the gradient of this graph. 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

Remember !!! The area under the graph is equal to the work done by the force on the object.
Hence, the energy stored in a material (in the form of elastic potential energy,
EPE) is :
ΔEPE = Work done = area of triangle = ½ F x
since F = kx (Hookes’ law), E = ½ kx2

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 20
 Stress & Strain
The problem with using the elastic constant is that its value is different for each specimen of a
material that has a different shape or size. A more useful quantity is the Young’s Modulus,
which is independent of the material’s length and width. This enables a fair comparison of the
stiffness of different materials. The Young’s Modulus is defined as follows:

Young’s Modulus, E = Stress σ

E =
Strain ε

stress, σ = Force / Area  σ = F/A units : Nm-2 or Pascal, Pa

strain, ε = extension / original length ε = l / Δl units : None !
Hence the unit for Young’s Modulus is Nm-2 (or Pascal, Pa) – the same as the unit for stress.

So, substituting these two definitions for stress and strain into the young’s modulus equation
(not given in data booklet):

F/A F l
E = or, if you prefer E =
Δl / l Δl A

Stress & Strain graphs for different materials

1) Crystalline

Analysis
OP - extension proportional to load,
i.e. follows Hooke’s law.
Point P – limit of proportionality.
Point E – elastic limit; up to this point
the material will return to
original shape and size after
force is removed.
Y1 - yield point; large extension occurs
with little or no extra stress as
planes of atoms start to slip past each other.
Y2 - material stretches so much in some materials, e.g. copper, that the stress is actually reduced
for a while.
EX - plastic region; material will not return to original size once it’s entered this region.
X - material breaks; signifies the UTS (ultimate tensile strength) for most materials.
X2 - Some very ductile metals like copper become narrower and extend rapidly just before breaking
( known as necking).

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 Explaining the behaviour of the material in different parts of the graph

Metals (and minerals like salt) have a regular atomic pattern. Any force exerted on a crystalline
material will therefore be transmitted equally to each bond because of the long range order.
So, for small extensions, the behaviour of the material as a whole is very similar to the
behaviour of a single bond, where, F α x, and hence the graph is straight from O to P.

Plastic behaviour occurs when a solid is extended beyond its elastic limit. The atoms in one
plane can slip over the atoms in the other plane, if the forces are great enough.

A more detailed look at the ‘slipping’ of planes brings in the idea of dislocations to explain the
relative ease with which a ductile material extends in the plastic region.

Sometimes, as molten metal cools down when it is smelted, mistakes happen as the metal ions
join the crystal. A frequent mistake — one every million atomic planes or so — is that half a
plane of atoms is missed out. This is known as an edge dislocation.

Edge dislocations are the key to plastic deformation.

The secret is in the bonds around the ion X.
These bonds are all under strain (they’re longer than usual),
so they are places of weakness.

Suppose the structure to the right is put under tension.

If the forces, F, are small, the horizontal bonds are stretched
reversibly (if the force is removed, they contract again) and the material behaves elastically.

If the forces become larger, the already strained

bonds below and to the right of X [shown in red]
are stretched even more and at some point, the
Yield Point of the material, they snap making
the dislocation migrate to the right.

If the same force that causes this movement

continues to be applied, the dislocation carries
on moving, through the snapping and reformation
of bonds, until it reaches the edge of the crystal.

In this way, the dislocation has moved from left

to right through the crystal. It appears as if
plane A and plane B have slipped over each other.
However, it has been achieved more easily since
only one (short) line of bonds, rather than a whole plane, has been broken at a time.

Metals can therefore be strengthened (by making plastic deformation less likely) by :
1) Having smaller ‘grains’ – this restricts the movement of dislocations.
2) Introducing foreign atoms. In effect this creates a point dislocation that inhibits the
movement of dislocations as described above.

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 2) Amorphous
Stress (M Pa)
Glass is categorised as an amorphous material,
and is very brittle. Cast Iron is also a brittle
material. Shown right is the stress-strain curve
for cast iron, and added in red, the curve for
glass.

Neither curve has a ‘plastic’ region

since both are for brittle materials.

Notice that although glass has a similar value

for its Young’s Modulus to that of cast iron
(similar gradient), i.e. similar stiffness, it has a
significantly lower value for its ultimate breaking
stress of about 70 M Pa, meaning it has less strength
than iron.

Analysis and explanation

Glasses have the stiffness and brittleness of crystal without their large-scale regularity of
structure or planes of weakness. They have an amorphous structure, with no regularity in the
way that their molecules are locked together in the solid.
The lack of crystalline structure makes dislocation slip impossible – there isn’t enough long or
short range order for dislocations to move. This means that stress which builds up on a surface
crack is not ‘relieved’ by the movement of dislocations, as would happen in a ductile material.
This means that the material will not have a plastic region. Hence, glass may be stiff, but it
certainly isn’t strong.

Cracks

Glasses are brittle because cracks can travel through

them easily. A relatively small stress can make a
microscopic crack on the surface grow uncontrollably
through the solid until it snaps in two.
This is used to shape sheets of glass, and for cutting tiles, as shown in the diagram above.

Firstly, a small crack is scored on the surface of the glass with a sharp instrument. Then a modest
stress is applied to the glass in such a way as to force the crack open. The result is (usually) a
clean fracture along the line of weakness defined by the original crack.

The initial crack does not have to be very deep, simply sharp. A short but narrow crack can result
in a large local increase in stress. So the material at the crack tip will reach its ultimate tensile
stress well before the rest of the material does. The crack will therefore be able to grow even
though the average stress on the sample is well below the material’s tensile strength. Of course,
once the crack has started to grow, the crack becomes sharper : the stress increase as the tip
becomes larger, etc. The crack tip propagates through the sample at roughly the speed of sound
until it reaches the other side!

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 3) Polymeric

Analysis and explanation

The main factor that dictates the behaviour

of a polymer is the cross-links. These are
strong (covalent) bonds that form between
adjacent / overlapping molecules, or even
between different parts of the same
molecule. If the molecules don’t have many
cross-links then they can slide over each
other quite easily i.e. the polymer is stretchy,
like rubber (latex). If you increase the number
of cross-links by adding impurities like sulphur to the latex, the polymer then becomes more
rigid. The ‘latex’ is then given a different name – ‘vulcanite’.
We need to take a closer look at a typical stress-strain
curve for rubber. You must be able to explain, on the
molecular level, why it has three distinct sections :

The curve can be related easily to party balloons :

first blow hard (OA), then much easier (AB), then harder
again (BC) – finally BANG (C).

Rubber molecules are long and thin, resembling rods with swivel joints
at periodic intervals (one molecule is shown ).

The cross-links are strong covalent bonds (in addition to the strong
covalent bonds in between each molecule) but as already mentioned,
are quite scarce in natural rubber (latex). Hence, there aren’t enough
cross-links to keep the molecules in a tangled, knotted mess.

Weaker bonds are formed in the tangled mess of molecules known as a van der Waals forces.
Every time one part of a molecule comes very close to another molecule (or a different part of
the same molecule) a van der Waals force can occur – think of it as a weak bond that acts only
over very short distances. Many of these are produced between the rubber molecules, that tend
to keep the molecules stuck together. This explains the section OA of the graph i.e. the initial
‘stiffness’ of the rubber material.

The strength of these van der Waal deceases very rapidly

with distance, and hence suddenly, at point A, the
molecules begin untangling from themselves and from
each other.This is why section AB of the graph is quite
‘flat’ i.e. there is a large extension of the rubber material without much extra effort. In this
way, quite modest stresses can achieve strains of up to 5.

Once the molecule has been straightened out (point B), stretching the rubber any further
requires that the strong covalent bonds in between each molecule are lengthened, as well as
lengthening or breaking the strong covalent cross-links. This is much more difficult than simply
unravelling the molecules, and so the graph becomes much steeper from this point on. The
rubber behaves much like any other covalently bonded solid in section B to C, i.e. it is stiff and
strong.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 24
 Hysteresis Tension / N
The curve for the extension of a material 3
is often different to the curve for the
contraction. This is especially true for a
polymeric material, again because of 2
those cross-links.
1
Looking at the force-extension graph ()
for a rubber band, the extension curve has 0
little extension at the start. This is because 0 10 20 30 40
all those cross-links between the molecules extension / mm
are making it difficult to stretch.

Once fully stretched, these cross-links have re-attached at new positions, and when the tension
is now slowly decreased, they again make it harder for the molecules to (initially) pass over
each other, i.e. rubber band doesn’t contract as easily as expected.

The net effect is that there’s work done internally, a bit like friction. This work done over one
extension-contraction cycle is released as heat, and its value is equal to the area between the
two curves.

This is an example of hysteresis, and is the reason an elastic band will become hot if it is
repeatedly stretched and released several times in quick succession.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 25
 Section 1.6 - Using radiation to investigate the stars

Stellar spectra
Stars don’t have a definite surface; the light
we see from a star comes from a layer of gas
several hundreds of km thick, known as the
photosphere.

When light is emitted by a hot object like a star,

we expect the light to have a wide range of
wavelengths similar to the spectrum of a black
body! A black body is defined like this:

A black body is a body (or surface) which absorbs all the electromagnetic radiation that
falls upon it. Nothing is a better emitter of radiation at any wavelength than a black
body at the same temperature.

Although stars are obviously not black, they are almost perfect ‘emitters’, and so when we look
at the light emitted by a star, we should get a
continuous spectrum as shown opposite (i.e.
all colours, all wavelengths).

However, some specific colours/wavelengths can be absorbed by the atoms in a star’s

atmosphere (and upper photosphere !), and
so what arrives at our telescopes is an
absorption spectrum, as shown .

When the intensity of each small section of this is studied carefully, it is found to follow Wien’s
law:

λmax = W
T

where, λmax = the peak wavelength (m)

W = Wien’s constant = 2.90x10-3 mK
T = the surface temperature of the star (K)

Notice how closely the

black body curve agrees
with the actual spectrum
for our sun .

The downward ‘dips’ are

the absorption lines.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 26
 The inverse square law of light and Stefan’s law
P
As you go further from a light source the amount of light
energy striking each square metre each second decreases.
This is because the light initially emitted is spread out
over a larger and larger ‘surface area’ as it travels away
from the source.

The ‘amount of light energy striking each metre square per second’

I = P
is known as the spectral intensity, I, sometimes known as
‘flux density’ or just ‘flux’. It is given by the equation opposite ,
where, I = intensity (Wm-2) , 4πx2
P = total power (luminosity) produced by the star (W),
x = distance from the source (m).
Note that 4πx2 is the surface area of an ‘imaginary’ sphere of radius ‘x’; units = m2.

It is found that the intensity of the light (that is, the power per metre square), at the surface of
a star, is directly proportional to the fourth power of the surface temperature. This is known as
Stefan’s law:

Dividing both sides by the area, A, the left side becomes “P/A”
and is the intensity again (I=P/A), except this time,
P = σA T4
A = surface area of the star = 4 π R2 , where R = radius of star.

σ = Stefan’s constant = 5.67x10-8 Wm-2K-4

T = surface temperature of the star (K)

So, Stefan’s law is the application of the intensity equation at a specific distance (the radius of
the star), where x = R.

Multiwavelength astronomy

We can learn different things about an object in space, e.g. a galaxy or nebula, by studying it
with different telescopes (sensitive to different wavelengths of the EM spectrum). Here’s an
example:

The visible light image (c) is the

familiar image seen of a galaxy
known as M81, and shows much
detail, e.g. the spiral arms can
be seen clearly.
(a) X-ray (b) UV (c) Visible (d) IR
Conversely, the UV image picks out hotter regions and it shows knots of young giant stars well
away from the galactic centre.

The x-ray image only displays very high temperature regions. The bright spot in the centre is
matter heated up as it spirals in towards the black hole at the galactic centre.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 27
 Section 1.7 - Particles and Nuclear Structure

Scientists have found that there are two groups of elementary particles : quarks and leptons.
They are splits into two groups based on which force (strong or weak) they interact with.
NOTE : Only 1st generation particles are dealt with here.
Quarks are relatively high mass particles, are either ‘up’ type or ‘down’ type, and have never
been directly seen on their own. These particles are affected by the strong force. (Protons and
neutrons are made of three quarks each).
Leptons are lightweight particles, and have two types – the ‘electron’ and the ‘electron
neutrino’. These are affected by the weak force.

Quarks (u, d) Leptons

Baryons – 3 quarks Mesons – Electron, e Electron

quark-antiquark pair neutrino,Κe

Hadrons
In addition, it has been found that for each particle, there exists an ‘antiparticle’. Antiparticles
have the same mass but the opposite charge to their counterpart.

‘The rules’ for quarks!

Quarks have only been detected in a group. By considering the charge on particles like protons
and neutrons, it is believed that quarks have the following charge values:

Quark up down anti-up anti-down

Charge / e +2/3 -1/3 -2/3 +1/3

When quarks form in a group of 3, they are known as Baryons.

There are only four possible ways to combine up and down quarks to form a group of 3:

uud proton p charge = +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = +1

udd neutron delta n charge = +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0

uuu plus plus Δ++ charge = +2/3 +2/3 +2/3 = +2

ddd delta minus Δ- charge = -1/3 -1/3 -1/3 = -1

There are also ‘excited’ versions of the uud and udd baryons (protons and neutrons) that are also
classed as ‘delta’ particles : the excited proton (uud) is Δ+ and the excited neutron (udd) is Δ0.

There are also anti-particles for these baryons, e.g. the anti-proton, p which is
made from the following anti-quarks : uud. (It doesn’t seem that there are any
Antiparticles are
baryons that have a mixture of particles and antiparticles). represented by a
small bar above
the symbol.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 28
 Quarks can also form in pairs. Mesons must be a quark and an antiquark. For 1st generation
particles, they are known as pi mesons, or pions. Again, there are only 4 combinations that can
exist :

ud pi plus π0 charge = +2/3 +1/3 = +1

ud pi minus π2 charge = -2/3 -1/3 = -1

uu pi zero charge = +2/3 -2/3 = 0

π0
dd pi zero π0 charge = -1/3 +1/3 = 0

‘The rules’ for leptons!

Since leptons can exist on their own, there are none of the rules seen for combining baryons.
However, each lepton is given a ‘lepton number’:

electron electron anti-electron electron anti

neutrino (positron) neutrino

symbol  e- ve e+ ve

lepton number  1 1 -1 -1
charge / e  -1 0 +1 0

Note : The anti-electron or ‘positron’ has its own symbol, e+ , i.e. no bar above the symbol
Any particles that are not leptons have a lepton number of zero!

Conservation laws
The following conservation laws apply to any decay reactions or collision-type interactions:
(1) Conservation of momentum : In any interaction between particles
in a system, the total momentum
must stay constant.
You have seen
these three several
(2) Conservation of mass-energy : In any interaction between particles times before in
in a system, mass-energy must neither Physics GCSE!
be created nor destroyed.
Cons. of charge is
used to calculate
(3) Conservation of charge : In any interaction between particles in a the current in
system, the total charge in the system must series and parallel
not change. circuits.

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 (4) Conservation of baryon number:

In any interaction between particles in a system, the total baryon number in the
system must not change.

Example
The following interaction has been observed:
2 +
π+ + 1H  p + p

Which conservation laws are being illustrated by this reaction?

Firstly, we can see that conservation of charge is being observed – there is a charge of 2+ on the left,
and since each proton has a charge of 1+, there is also a charge of 2+ on the right.

Secondly, the baryon number is being conserved. There are two baryons on the left ( the deuterium
nucleus contains one proton and one neutron), and obviously the two protons are the two baryons on
the right.
However, we can take this a step further, down to the level of quarks:
2 +
π+ + 1H  p + p
ud + (uud + udd)  uud + uud

So, there are 4 ‘up’ quarks on the left, and four on the right. There are 3 ‘down’ quarks and one
‘anti-down’ quark on the left, which means, overall, just 2 ‘down’ quarks. There are also 2 ‘down’
quarks on the right.
Note : If the weak force is involved (see next page), one up quark can change to one down
quark, or vice versa. (The baryon number is unchanged).

(5) Conservation of lepton number

In any interaction between particles in a system, the total lepton number in the
system must not change.

This is just what is observed when studying sub-nucleonic interactions – there is as yet
Example
no underlying understanding of why it works out this way !!
In a special laboratory in Canada neutrinos from the Sun are detected by looking for electrons
released in the interaction:
2
Ve + 1H  p + p + e-

Explain whether lepton number is conserved in this interaction.

The electron neutrino (left) and the electron (right) both have a lepton number of +1; all the other
particles are baryons, and so have a lepton number of zero. Hence, lepton number is conserved.

2
The following interaction is suggested: Ve + 1H  p + p + π-
Is this possible?
No ! Although charge is conserved (as before), the lepton number is no longer conserved, as the
pion on the right has a lepton number of zero (it’s a meson). Hence, this reaction would not be
possible.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 30
 Which forces are involved in interactions?
All the forces in the Universe and all particle interactions are the result of just 4 fundamental
forces. A key to identifying the differences between particles are the way they are affected by
different forces.

The force of gravity acts between any two masses, no matter how small, or how far apart they
are (!), however, it is only significant for large masses like planets and stars and hence is not
applicable to interactions between subatomic particles. The other 3 forces are summarized
below:

Experienced
Interaction Range by … Notes
Only experienced by quarks and particles
The strong composed of quarks. (i.e. hadrons). Doesn’t
Short range Quarks act on leptons. Associated with the re­
force
grouping of quarks.
Much stronger (and therefore more
likely/shorter lifetime) than the weak force.
The Charged
Infinite Governs interactions composed entirely of
electromagnetic particles charged particles and photons. Also
force
experienced by neutral hadrons because
they are composed of quarks.
Only significant in cases where the
electromagnetic and strong interactions do
not operate. Interaction governed by this
The weak Very short All are of low probability (in the case of
force range particles collisions), or of long lifetime (in the case
of decays). Governs any interactions that
include both hadrons and leptons e.g. ∩
decay. Neutrino usually involved.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 31
Which interaction (fundamental force)?

Is there a neutrino Suggests weak

Yes
involved? nuclear

No

Is there a change in Suggests weak

Yes
quark flavour? nuclear

No

Does it only involve

hadrons? (i.e. no Suggests strong
Yes
leptons or other particles, nuclear
e.g. γ)

No

Do all the particles

have charge? Suggests
Yes electromagnetic
(Include neutrons as they
include charged quarks.)

No

Look for other clues:

• Includes any photons – electromagnetic.
• Very short lifetime – strong nuclear.
• Long lifetime (i.e. more than a second) – weak nuclear.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 32
 UNIT 2
1.Conduction of electricity
Charge on an electron: The unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). It enables us measure the amount of electrical
charge an object has (e.g. an electron).

1 C Coulomb = charge on 6,240,000,000,000,000,000 (6.24 billion-billion) electrons.

Charge on each electron ‘e’ = -1.6 x 10-19C

‘Electric Current’ is the flow of electrons in an electric circuit. Flowing water is a good analogy of electricity.
When water flows through a pipe, or down a stream, there is a current.

Conventional Current: We say that the current flows from positive to negative (+  -).
This is due to conventions established a long time ago.

Electron Flow: this occurs in the opposite direction. From – to +

Definition of ELECTRIC CURRENT: The rate of flow of charge

I = ∆Q
∆t
Units of electrical current – Ampere – A which is equivalent to Cs-1.

Current-time graphs. - If the current is constant as it is for a bulb in a DC circuit then

the current-time graph looks like the graph below.

The area under the graph gives you the total charge – Q.

This is because Q= It.

e.g. So if a current of 3A flows for a time of 30s

then the total charge which flowed in this time.

Q = It = 3 x 30 = 90 C

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 33
 Mechanism of conduction – Drift velocity
All metals have a lattice structure of atoms. Some of the outer electrons are only loosely bound and are not
required for bonding. On average about one electron in each atom is not required for bonding. This electron is
free to move around the lattice and is called the ‘FREE ELECTRON’.
If no current is flowing then these free electrons will move randomly throughout the structure
(1 x 106 ms-1). This is known as the ‘THERMAL VELOCITY’ of the free electrons. The magnitude of the thermal
velocity depends on the temperature of the metal.
When a potential difference (voltage) is applied
across the ends of a metal an electric field is produced
in the metal. The electric field exerts a force on the free
electrons, causing them to accelerate towards the
highest potential (voltage). However, before they get
very far they collide with an atom and lose some of their
kinetic energy. As a result they tend to ‘drift’ towards
the positive end, bouncing around from atom to atom on
the way. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The mean ‘DRIFT VELOCITY ‘is proportional to the
applied electric field. Hence the current we get is
proportional to the applied voltage. It also explains why
we have to supply energy to maintain the current. We
have to give the electrons kinetic energy to move them
along. This keeps being ‘lost’ every time they collide with the metal ions. It is given to the atoms, making them
jiggle around more furiously — i.e. it warms up the resistor. As a result, electrical energy is turned into internal
energy (thermal energy) of the ions.
For example, in a copper conductor of radius 1 mm, carrying 1 Amp, the electron drift velocity 0.0001ms -1.
This opposition to electron movement results in resistance and heat.

Derivation of I = nAve
We need to be able to calculate a
value for the drift velocity of the
electrons relating it to the current
flowing.

The wire has; Cross sectional area = A, Length = l, Number of free electrons per m3 = n
The electrons are moving through the wire with a drift velocity ‘v’ .If they travel the length l
in a time, t then we can write:
Volume of the length of wire = A l (Volume of a cylinder)

Number of free electrons (in cylinder) = nAl

Total charge on electrons in wire - Q = nAle

Distance moved by free electrons - l = vt so, Q = nAvte

Current I = Q
t

substitute I = nAvte the t’s cancel to give I = nAve

t
Units of: I – (A), n - (m-3) v - ms-1 e – 1.6x10-19C

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 34
 Using I = nAve

Worked example.
A wire of radius 2 mm, can carry a current of up to 20 A. Given that n = 4.8 x 10 29 m-3, what is
the maximum value for the drift velocity in this wire?

First you must calculate the cross sectional area ‘A’ = πr2 = π x (2x10-3)2
= 1.26 x10-5 m2

rearrange to give; v = _I_ = 20______________ = 2.07x10-5 ms-1

nAe 4.81x1029 x 1.26 x10-5 x 1.6x10-19

What effect does doubling the drift velocity have on the current?
If the drift velocity doubles then the current also doubles.

What can be said about the value of ‘n’ and ‘e’ for a certain metal/material?
These are constants and so do not change (for a specific material)

If the radius of a wire doubles what effect does this have on the current?
Since area is calculated using ‘A’ = πr2, then doubling the radius means the area increases by
a factor of 4 (quadruples). So the drift velocity decreases by a factor of 4.

Potential difference
Definition
The p.d. between two points is the
amount of electrical energy transferred to
other forms of energy when 1 Coulomb of
charge flows between the points.

Unit of p.d. is the Volt, V.

The p.d. between 2 points is 6V, what does this mean? 6J of electrical energy is transferred to
other forms of energy when 1 Coulomb of charge flows between the two points.
How much electrical energy is transferred to other forms of energy in each case?

1C 1C 2C

1V 6V 6V
Answers = 1J 6J 12J

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 35
The Volt

So 1 Volt is 1 Joule per coulomb of charge. In equation form:

Energy transferred W or ∆E = V Q
Remember
(not given V= W
in exam) Q

V = Volt (V) or JC-1 W= electrical energy (work done) (J) Q = charge passed (C)

We know that Q= It

So we can substitute this into the equation to give

Electrical energy transferred W = VIt

Resistance

The resistance of a conductor is the p.d. (V) placed across it divided by the resulting current
(I) through it.

Resistance = potential difference R=V

Current I

The units of resistance are : Ohms, Ω or VA-1

What causes electrical resistance?

Collisions between free electrons which are moving through a
metal conductor and positive ions of the metal lattice
(structure) give rise to electrical resistance. In the collision
energy is transferred from the electrons to the ions. This
increases the random vibrational energy of the ions leading
to an increase in the temperature of the metal.

In Summary
• Free electrons
• collide with atoms / ions of metal
• in the conductor / lattice

If the current is constant then so the drift velocity will be constant since I = nAve
So the drift velocity will remain steady under a given p.d.

Remember if the resistance increases the drift velocity of the electrons decreases.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 36
I-V, Voltage and Current Investigations

1. Resistor/wire at constant temperature.

The circuit below can be used to see how p.d. and current change for a wire at constant
temperature.

It is important to keep the current to a low value so any heating effect in the wire is kept to a
minimum. Take recordings of both voltage and current at regular intervals.

2. Filament lamp/bulb. The same experiment can be replicated for a filament lamp. Just
replace the wire with a filament lamp.

A graph is plotted of current and voltage.

Metal wire at constant temperature Filament of lamp

Directly proportional Curved line.

Initially the resistance is constant [or V/I
The Straight line shows that resistance is constant] as since the line is straight
constant throughout [or V/I constant] Then the temperature increases so resistance
because the temperature is constant increases.
throughout. Collisions between free electrons and ions in
metals increase the random vibration energy
of the ions, so the temperature of the metal
increases.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 37
 OHM’s LAW

Definition. The current flowing through a metal wire at constant

temperature is proportional to the p.d. across it.

I α V V = constant
I

So the filament bulb is a non-linear or NON-OHMIC device. The reason being that as the p.d.
increases the filament becomes much hotter and so the resistance will increase i.e. temperature
does not remain constant. So a metallic conductor is called a linear device or an OHMIC device.

Resistivity – ρ
The resistance of a wire depends upon 3 factors

• the length - l; double the length, the resistance doubles.

• the area - A; double the area, the resistance halves.
• the material that the wire is made of.

Resistivity is a property of the material. It is defined as

the resistance of a wire of the material of unit length.

Resistivity remains unchanged (constant) for a specific

material regardless of changing length or area. e.g. it is
constant for copper at a certain temp.

Resistivity is defined by the equation.

R=ρl or ρ = RA
A l

Units R- Ohms, (Ω), A - (m2), l – (m), ρ – (Ωm)

What effect does doubling the radius or diameter have on the resistance of the material
if the length and material remain constant?

Since area is calculated using ‘A’ = πr2, then doubling the radius means the area increases by
a factor of 4 (quadruples). So the resistance decreases by a factor of 4.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 38
 Resistivity – ρ
Values for resistivity for some common materials.
Material Resistivity at 20˚C (Ώm)
Copper 1.7 x 10-8
Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8
Constantan 4.9 x 10-7
Germanium 4.2 x 10-1
Silicon 2.6 x 103
Polythene 2.0 x 1011
Glass 10 x 1011

Very good conductors such as copper and aluminium have very small values of resistivity
whereas very good insulator such as polythene have a very high value. Semiconductors such as
germanium have values in between.

Worked example
Calculate the length of constantan wire radius 5.0 x 10-2cm needed to make a 3ohm resistor.
1st step: ρ = RA rearrange l =RA
l ρ Change from cm to m.

2nd step: Calculate the cross sectional area, A = πr2 = π x (5.0x10-4)2 = 7.85x10-7 m2

3rd step: l= 3 x 7.85x10-7

4.9x10-7 Answer = 4.81m

Investigation – Calculating Resistivity

Diagram of the apparatus.

1. Using a micrometer screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at 3 different places along the length
of the wire. Determine the average diameter of the wire. You must ensure that there are no kinks in the
wire. Use the formula (A= πr2) to calculate the cross sectional area.
2. The sliding contact is then touched at several points along the wire. At each point the distance from A to
the sliding contact is measured (l) by means of the ruler and the resistance R is measured by means of
the ohmmeter (resistance of the leads is subtracted). Repeat to measure the resistance as the length is
decreasing.
Plot a graph of your results (length on x-axis) (Resistance on y-axis)

Calculate the gradient of the graph = R/l

Resistivity, ρ = RA = gradient of graph x A

l

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 39
 Variation of resistance of a metal with temperature

The greater the temperature the greater the vibrational energy of the lattice /
metal ions producing a greater or rate of collisions between free electrons and
metal ions.

Investigation to determine the variation of resistance with temperature of a metal wire.

The ohmmeter is used to measure the resistance of the coil. The
thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the liquid
surrounding the coil. The leads can be very thick wires so that their
resistance is very small compared to the resistance of the copper
wire. Measure the resistance of the copper wire at 10˚C intervals
from 20˚C to 100˚C. The value of resistance can also be determined
as the liquid is cooled.

The resistance of metals varies almost linearly with the

temperature over a wide range of temperatures.

When the temperature of the metal increases the amplitude

of vibrations of the positive ions increases. This means that
the electrons collide more often, leading to a drop in drift
velocity which results in a decrease in the current for the
same p.d.

Since resistance = p.d./current, resistance will increase.

Superconductivity
When metals are cooled down to extremely low temperatures – approaching absolute zero 0
K (-273.15˚C) their resistance disappears. The temperature at which resistance disappears is
called the critical temperature – Tc.

Transition temperatures (critical temperature): The temperature at which a material,

when cooled, loses all its electrical resistance, and becomes super-conducting.

We cool down these metals to these low temperatures using liquid Nitrogen or Helium

In a superconducting circuit a p.d. is

needed to start the current flowing but
then no p.d. is needed to keep the current
flowing since there is no resistance.This
is the region AB of the graph.
Transition temperature = -190˚C

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Uses of Superconductivity

Many metals/materials exhibit superconductivity e.g. Zinc Tc = 0.87 K, Lead Tc = 7.19 K,

Mercury Tc = 4.15 K

High temperature superconductors.

Certain materials (high temperature superconductors) having transition
temperatures above the boiling point of nitrogen (–196 °C)
(clearly this is still very cold). They are developing more
and more high temperature superconductors e.g. YBa2Cu3O7 which has a
transition temperature of 92K or -181 ˚C.

The advantage of superconductivity is that there is no resistance so no heat loss which means
that large currents can be maintained from zero p.d. (no power dissipated)

Applicatons/uses:
Nuclear fusion / tokamaks, Large Hadron Collider CERN/
Particle accelerators, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
scanners, large motors or generators.

Electric generators made with superconducting wire are

far more efficient, and about half the size, than
conventional generators wound with copper wire.

Disadvantages: The limitations of superconductors include the technical difficulties of achieving

and reliably sustaining the extremely low temperatures required to achieve superconductivity.
The materials, of which they are made, are often brittle, are hard to manufacture and they
are difficult to make into wire.

Electrical Power

Power is defined as the energy transferred per second. We need an expression for the
amount of electrical energy transferred to other forms of energy in a certain time.

Power = Energy transferred P= W

Time t
Unit of power – Watt, W or Js-1

The p.d. (V) between 2 points is the work done in moving a charge of 1C between the 2
points so if a charge Q moves between the 2 points the work done or energy transferred is VQ

W = VQ which can be combined with the above equation to give

P = VQ
t

However, Q = It so we can substitute for Q in this equation giving,

P = VIt the t’s cancel to give P =VI

t

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 41
continued….

If the component is ohmic it can be useful to substitute for the voltage as V = I R which gives

P =VI so, P = IRI which becomes P = I 2R

Use this for any questions that ask you to calculate the energy or power dissipated as heat in a
resistor.
Or/
P=VI, and since I = V/R then we can write, P = VV which becomes P = V2
R R

You need to know how to derive the 2 equations above.

3. D.C. Circuits

Device Symbol Device Symbol

Cell /
Wire
Battery

Power
Bulb
Supply

Open Closed

switch switch

(Off) (On)

Diode Resistor

Variable
Motor
resistor

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 42
Current
Current is measured in Amperes, A
It is measured using an Ammeter in series.
To avoid the ammeter affecting the current it must be connected in series and have negligible
(almost no) resistance.

Current in series circuits: ammeters must be connected in series i.e. in the circuit.

The value of the current is the same at all points (I1 = I2 = I3) in the circuit since there is only
one path for the current to flow.

Current in parallel circuits: the ammeter in this parallel circuit is connected in series.

The value of the current in the two branches adds up to the total current flowing,
i.e. (I1 = I2 + I3) or (2.4 = 1.0 + 1.4).
The amount of electrons/charge leaving the battery and entering the battery at the positive
terminal are equal. This is due to the fact that you don’t destroy the electrons and so gives
rise to the conservation of charge.
The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the currents
leaving the junction. This is due to the conservation of charge.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 43
 Potential difference p.d.

Potential difference is measured in Volts, V.

It is measured using a Voltmeter connected in parallel. . . . .

Potential difference in series circuit: the voltmeters are connected across the component
e.g. bulb or battery.

The p.d. across both components/bulbs here adds up to the p.d. across the supply/battery i.e.
(V1 = V2 + V3) or (12 = 4 + 8). Since energy cannot be created nor destroyed the same reasoning
can be applied to potential difference which is defined in terms of work or energy.

The sum of the p.d’s across components in a series circuit is equal to

the p.d. across the supply. This is a consequence of the conservation
of energy.

Potential difference in parallel circuit: the p.d. across all components in parallel is the
same.

i.e. (V1 = V2 = V3)

The p.d.’s across components in a parallel circuit are equal.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 44
 Resistors in series and parallel.

Series. Since the resistors are connected in series, they must all have the same current
flowing through each one ‘I’ (conservation of charge). The sum of the pd.’s across the
individual resistors must be equal to the total p.d. across all resistors.

Total resistance, RT = R1 + R2 + R3 (Must Remember)

Parallel. In this case all of the resistors are in parallel and they must have the same potential
difference ‘V’ across them. By the conservation of charge the main current ‘I’ is equal to
the sum of the currents in each resistor. The total resistance of all components in parallel
must always be smaller than the smallest individual component resistance. Why? Adding more
components draws more current so a smaller resistance.

Total resistance,

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT R1 R2 R3 (Must Remember)

Influencing the flow rate on a tollway

e.g. A 5Ω, 3Ω and a 10Ω are connected in

parallel. Calculate the total resistance.

1 =1+1 +1
RT 5 3 10
1 =1+1 +1
RT 5 3 10
1 = 19 so RT = 30 = 1.58 Ω
A single resistor Three resistors RT 30 19
placed in parallel
Three resistors
in series

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 Potential Divider

It is often useful to be able to control the p.d. precisely. For example, a car radio may
need exactly 9.6V D.C. However, the only source available is the car’s own battery, V = 12 V.
The easiest way to control the voltage is by simply using two resistors in series. Each resistor
takes some fraction of the total voltage. If the first resistor is twice the size of the second, the
voltage across the first resistor will be twice that of the second resistor.

What is the total resistance, RT? 18Ω

What is the current in/out of the battery, IT? I = V/R = 12/18 = 0.67A

Use V=IR to calculate, V1 = 0.67 x 3.6 =2.4V What is the value on V2 =0.67 x 14.4 = 9.6V

Therefore, we can divide the voltage into any values we choose by changing the ratio of R 1 to
R2.

Adding any components in parallel to a resistor will alter the overall resistance.
The equation for a potential divider is:

V = R or VOUT = R
Vtotal Rtotal VIN Rtotal

Worked Example
The value of R1 is given as 225Ω.

You should be able to see that the p.d. across

R2 is 2.4V since the p.d. across both must add up
to 6V.
To calculate the value of R2 using the potential
divider equation. Considering R1 is easier.
V = R
Vtotal Rtotal

3.6 = 225  3.6 (225+R2) = 225 x 6

6 225+R2

225+R2 = 1350  225+R2 = 375  R2 = 375-225 = 150 Ω

3.6

There is an easier way using V= IR!!! I = V/R = 3.6/225 = 0.016A

Since this is a series circuit the current is the same and we know the p.d. across R2,
so R=V/I = 2.4/0.016 = 150 Ω

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 46
 Potential Divider with LDR and Thermistor.
Light dependent resistor, or LDR

The LDR is a component that has a resistance

that changes when light falls on it. As the
intensity of the light is increased so the
resistance of the LDR falls.

If the LDR is connected as part of a potential

divider as shown in the diagram then as the light
level is increased its resistance falls and the
proportion of the input voltage dropped across it
will also fall.

So in the light V2 is low and in the dark V2 is high.

Temperature sensors

A temperature-sensitive resistor is called a thermistor. There

are several different types:

The resistance of most common types of thermistor decreases as the temperature rises. As
the temperature rises, more charge carriers become available and the resistance falls.

How could you make a sensor circuit for use in

a fire alarm? You want a circuit which will
deliver a HIGH voltage when hot conditions are
detected. You need a voltage divider with the
ntc thermistor in the Rtop position:

You will be expected to calculate VOUT using the potential divider equation.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 47
Electro Motive Force - emf
The cell has to use up part of its energy to drive
the current through its own internal resistance
since some is converted into non-useful forms
e.g. heat. This resistance is called the internal
resistance (very low but typically around 0.01Ώ)
of the cell. This is called the lost volts.

Lost Volts = I r

A cell can be thought of as a source of e.m.f. with a resistor connected in series.

EMF Definition – The emf of a source is the energy converted from

some other form (e.g. chemical) to electrical potential energy per
coulomb of charge flowing through the source.

e.m.f of the source = Energy transferred by the supply

charge

e.m.f. = W/Q
units of e.m.f. – Volt, V

Emf is the total energy supplied to the circuit per unit charge, while p.d. is the electrical
energy per unit charge converted to other energies by the components.

By the conservation of energy

V = E – Ir
or E = V + Ir

or E = IR + Ir since V= IR

or E = I (R + r)

E is emf – Units(V) V is the terminal p.d. – Units (V) Ir is the lost volts – Units (V)

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 48
The greater the difference between the emf and the terminal p.d the greater the lost volts.
Investigation to determine the internal resistance
The following circuit is set up to determine the emf and internal resistance of a cell. The
following readings are recorded.

cell

A graph is plotted of the results. p.d. on the y-axis and current on the x-axis.

Using the equation:

V = E – Ir and comparing with y = mx + c,

y is V, I is x, m(gradient) is r (internal resistance) and c (intercept) is the emf.

So the intercept is 1.6V which is the emf.

Make a triangle as large as possible. Gradient of the graph is y/x = 1.2/3.6 = 0.33Ω, which
is the internal resistance (r).

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 49
 4. The nature of waves.
Progressive wave: A pattern of disturbances travelling through a medium and carrying energy
with it, involving the particles of the medium oscillating about their equilibrium position. It
does not involve the transfer matter.

There are two main groups of waves. These are transverse waves and progressive longitudinal
Transverse
The oscillations of the particles are at right angles to the direction of travel of
the wave. Diagram of transverse wave.

Examples of transverse waves: Light (all e-m waves, s-seismic waves)

Longitudinal waves
The oscillations of the particles are in line with (or parallel) to the
direction of travel of the wave.

Examples of longitudinal waves: sound waves and p-seismic waves.

Graphical representation of waves. Displacement is a vector quantity, and can be positive

or negative. A transverse wave may be represented by plotting displacement y on the y-axis
against distance x along the wave, on the x-axis. It can be seen from the diagram below that
the graph is a snapshot (basically, a picture or snapshot of the wave at a particular time) of
what is actually observed to be a transverse wave.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 50
Characteristics of waves.

Another way to represent both waves is to plot a graph of displacement y of any one
particle or part of the wave, against time t. This is shown in the diagram below.

Characteristics What is it? Units

The wavelength of a progressive wave is the minimum

1.Wavelength distance (measured along the direction of propagation)
between two points on the wave oscillating in phase. Metres, m
λ
If there are 10 waves in 5 metres then the wavelength is
0.5m
The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles of a wave
2. Frequency f that pass a given point in one second. Hertz, Hz
1 Hz is 1waves per second. If there are 40 waves in 10 or s-1
seconds then the frequency is 4 Hz.

Distance from the middle of the wave to the crest/top. The

3. Amplitude greater the amplitude the more energy the wave is Metres, m
carrying.

The distance travelled by the wave in 1 second.

4. Speed Or/ Metres per
Velocity of a wave is the distance that the wave profile second,
c moves per unit time. ms-1

Relationship between time period and

frequency.

T=1 f=1
f T

e.g. 10 waves in 50 seconds. Calculate

f and hence T.
f= 10/50 = 0.2 Hz so T=1/0.2 = 5s

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Phase
Phase is the term used to describe the relationship between the pattern of vibration of two
points on a wave. Phase difference is the difference in position of 2 points within a cycle of
oscillation. It is given as a fraction of the cycle or as an angle, where one whole cycle is 2π or
360°], together with a statement of which point is ahead in the cycle.

Points which are oscillating in phase will be multiples of 360˚or 2π radians e.g. A and E

Points which are oscillating in antiphase are 180° or π radians out of phase e.g. A and C

All points on wavefronts oscillate in phase, and that

wave propagation directions (rays) are at right angles
to wavefronts.

Wave equation

If a wave moves a distance, x, in a time, t,

Speed = distance/time

However if we consider the specific case when the distance moved by the wave is exactly
equal to one wavelength, λ , then the time elapsed must be equal to the period, T.

Speed = wavelength/Time period but we know that T=1/f

So we can substitute c=fλ

Where c – wave speed (ms-1) f – frequency (Hz) and λ – wavelength (m)

If we are talking about any region of e-m radiation then c = 3x108 ms-1 in a vacuum.

The speed of light is 3.0 x 108 ms-1. Calculate the frequency of red light when it has a
wavelength 6.5 x 10-7 m.
f = c/ λ 3.0x108/ 6.5x10-7 = 4.61x1014 Hz

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 52
 Polarisation
direction of
unpolarised electromagnetic wave wave energy

A polarised wave is a transverse wave in

which particle oscillations occur in only wave vibrations are
in more than one plane
one of the directions at right angles to the direction of
wave energy
direction of wave propagation. polarised electromagnetic wave

It is not possible to polarise longitudinal waves. The wave vibrations

are in one plane
Sun and domestic light bulbs emit unpolarised light,
that is the vibrations take place in many directions
at once, instead of in the single plane associated with plane-polarised radiation.

The Polaroid sheet acts as

a polariser, producing
plane polarised light
from light which was
originally unpolarised.

If you try to view plane-polarised light through a second sheet of Polaroid that is placed so that
its polarising direction is at right angles to the polarising direction of the first sheet, it will be
found that no light is transmitted. In this arrangement, the Polaroids are said to be crossed.
The second Polaroid sheet is acting as an analyser. If the two Polaroids have their polarising
directions parallel, then plane-polarised light from the first Polaroid can pass through the second.
So rotating the analyser through 180˚, we move from light (0˚) to dark (90˚), to light again (180˚)
A

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Wave properties
Reflection. As the waves strike a plane (flat) barrier they are reflected. This is very similar for a
beam of light reflecting on a plane mirror. If a curved (concave) barrier such as a satellite dish
is used, the waves can be made to converge (concentrate) at a point. The angle
of incidence and reflection will be equal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reflection on a satellite dish.

Refraction: Refraction is the change in direction of a wave at the boundary between two
materials. This is caused by a change in speed.

Water. This occurs when water waves

pass between deep and shallow
water. The waves move more slowly
in shallow water. The frequency of
the waves remain constant and so
the wavelength decreases. When the
waves move from shallow to deeper
water, their speed increase and
they change direction away from the
normal

Diffraction
Diffraction is defined as the spreading of a wave when it meets an obstacle
into regions where it would not be seen if it moved only in straight lines.

There is little diffraction when λ is much

smaller than the dimensions of the obstacle or
slit. If λ is equal to or greater than the width
of a slit, waves spread as roughly semicircular
wavefronts, but if λ is less than the slit width
the main beam spreads. The wavelength
remains unchanged.

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Principle of Superposition.

The principle of superposition states if the waves from two sources occupy
the same region then the total displacement at a point is the vector sum of
the displacements of the individual waves at that point.

Interference
There are two types of interference. Constructive and destructive.

The diagram below shows two waves arriving together. If they arrive at a point in phase, that
is if their crests arrive at exactly the same time, they will interfere constructively. If the two
incoming waves have the same frequency and equal amplitude A, the resultant wave produced
by constructive interference has an amplitude 2A. The frequency of the resultant wave is the
same as that as the incoming waves.

If the two waves are out of phase that is, if the peaks of one wave arrive at the same time as
the troughs from the other, they will interfere destructively. The resultant wave will have
smaller amplitude. This is shown in the diagram below, where the incoming waves have equal
amplitude, the resultant wave has zero amplitude.

Coherence
To observe interference then the two wave sources must be coherent and get a
meaningful resultant wave by using the principle of superposition.

Coherent: means that there is a constant phase

difference. (They must therefore have the same
frequency)

A laser is an example of a coherent light source. Examples of

incoherent light source are car headlights, normal light bulb.
Coherent sources are monochromatic with wavefronts continuous
across the width of the beam and, (when comparing more than
one source) with a constant phase relationship.

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Path difference and Young’s double slit experiment.
The path difference is a measure of the distance between two waves arriving at a point in
terms of their wavelength. If we consider the effect of superposition at a number of points in
space, we can build up an interference pattern - a pattern showing some areas where there
is constructive interference, and hence a large wave disturbance, and other areas where the
interference is destructive, and there is little or no wave disturbance.

If the path S1P is equal in length to the path S2P (in the centre), this means that the two
waves arrive at P in phase. So we get constructive interference.

If the path difference S2P- S1P = nλ

Then the waves arrive in Phase at P which means constructive interference.

If the path difference S2P- S1P = λ/2 or multiples of this.

Then the waves arrive at P in antiphase which destructive interference.

This two source interference can be demonstrated using sound waves, microwaves or using a
laser. The sources must have a zero or constant phase difference and have oscillations in
the same direction.

Young’s double slit experiment.

Two light sources at the double slits are

produced. Because these two light sources
originate from the same primary source,
they are coherent and create a sustained
and observable interference pattern as
seen in the photograph of the dark and
bright interference fringes. With a laser a
single slit is not required.

Bright fringes = constructive interference.

Dark fringes = destructive interference.

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 Young’s double slit experiment.

The double slit experiment can be used to determine the wavelength of light.

λ – Wavelength (m)
Δy- fringe separation (m)
a -distance between the centre of the slits (m)
D- distance from double slit to screen

Although Young’s original double-slit experiment was carried out with light, the conditions
for constructive and destructive interference apply for any two-source situation. The same
formula applies for all types of wave e.g. microwaves, provided that the fringes are detected
at a distance of many wavelengths from the two sources.

Worked example.
Calculate the wavelength of light that produces fringes of width 0.50 mm on a screen 60 cm
from two slits 0.75 mm apart.
λ = 0.75x10-3 x 0.50x10-3 = 6.25x10-7 m
0.60
Historical importance of Young’s double slit experiment (1801).
Newton believed that light was particle like in nature but this experiment demonstrated that
light had wave like properties.

The diffraction grating

A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel, identical, very closely
spaced slits. If monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of narrow bright fringes is
produced, as shown in the diagram below. It works on the same principle as the double slit experiment.

Because there are so many slits, the bright fringes (or bands) are extremely narrow, and usually much
further apart (large ‘y’ since slit separation, ‘d’ is very small).

d – slit width (m) n – order number λ – wavelength (m) θ- angle (˚)

Maximum value of θ < 90˚

For a diffraction grating a very small d makes beams (“orders”) much further apart than in
Young’s experiment, and that the large number of slits makes the bright beams much sharper.

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 The diffraction grating with white light

If white light is incident on a diffraction grating, each wavelength λ, making up the white light
is diffracted by a different amount. Red light, because it has the longest wavelength in the
spectrum, is diffracted through the largest angle. Violet light has the lowest wavelength, and
is diffracted the least.
Depending on the grating spacing, there may be some overlapping of different orders. For
example, the red component of the first-order image may overlap with the blue end of the
second-order spectrum.
R

V 2nd
order
R
V 1st order zero

White order
light
1st order
(white) 2nd
order

Stationary waves

A stationary wave is a pattern of disturbances in a medium, in which energy is not propagated.

The amplitude of particle oscillations is zero at equally-spaced nodes, rising to maxima at
antinodes, midway between the nodes.

Internodal distance (distance between nodes) = λ/2

Stationary waves are produced from the superposition of two progressive

waves of equal amplitude and frequency, travelling in opposite directions.

The amplitude of a progressive wave remains constant. The amplitude of a stationary wave
varies from zero at the nodes to a maximum at the antinodes. Between adjacent nodes, all
points of the standing wave vibrate in phase. That is, all particles of the string are at their
maximum displacement at the same instant, in a progressive wave, phase varies continuously
along the wave.

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Refraction of light - Snell’s law.
Reflection
When any type of wave encounters a barrier that it reflects from it always follows this simple
rule :
incident angle, i = reflected angle, r

Reflecting off a plane mirror :

i r

Snell’s law.
Experiments have shown us that there is a direct link between the incident and
refracted angles for any one particular material or medium. This relationship is known as:

sin i = a constant value

sin r

Snell’s Law: At the boundary between any two given materials, the ratio of the sine of the
angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.

All media through which light travels have what is called REFRACTIVE INDEX denoted by n.
Defined

n = speed of light in a vacuum (free space) = c

speed of light in the medium v

n - refractive index of medium c – speed of light 3x108 ms-1

e.g. for glass ng = speed of light in vacuum = c 3x108 = 1.5

speed of light in glass vg 2x108

When light passes between 2 mediums as shown below then we can use two equations.

n1v1 = n2v2 or n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

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 Refraction of light - Snell’s law.

Here are the refractive index of different mediums.

Medium Refractive Index
Vacuum 1.000
Air 1.003
Water 1.33
Glass 1.50
Diamond 2.42

Diamond has a high refractive index which explains why it sparkles.

How Snell’s law related to the wave model of light propagation.

n 1 < n2 v 1 > v2

Waves travel a distance BB’ in time –

So, distance BB’ = v1 x t

During this time the light travels a distance AA’ in medium 2

So distance AA’ = v2 x t

In triangle ABB’ sin θ1 = BB’/AB’ In traingle AA’B’ sin θ2 = AA’/ AB’

So, sin θ1 = BB’/AB’ = BB’ = v1 x t

sin θ2 AA’/ AB’ AA’ v2 x t

sin θ1 = v1
sin θ2 v2

we know that v1n1 = v2n2  v1 = n2  substitute sin θ1 = n2  n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

v2 n1 sin θ2 n1

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Total internal reflection

(1) (2) (3)

This phenomenon occurs when light moves from a more optically dense material (e.g. water)
to a less optically dense material (e.g. air) causing a change in speed.

1. The incident angle θ1 is less than the critical angle and so the light ray refracts/
bends away from the normal as it emerges from the water. θ2 is the angle of refraction.

2. The incident angle θ1 equal to the critical angle and so the light ray passes along the
surface of the boundary.

3. The incident angle is greater than the critical angle and so the light ray is
reflected back into the water. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
θ 1 = θ2

Using Snell’s law to determine the critical angle.

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

since θ2 = 90˚ and sin 90˚ = 1

then we can write: n1 sin θc = n2

Consider a glass-air boundary

n1 sin θc = n2
sin θc = n2/ n1
θc = sin-1 (n2/ n1)
θc = sin-1 (1/ 1.5)
θc = 41.8 ˚

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 Optical fibres

Optical fibres use total internal reflection to work. The refractive index of the cladding is
less than the core and so the rays of infra-red light are reflected back into the core as long as
the angle is greater than the critical angle.

Monomode (Single mode) Fibres. Fibres where the core diameter is so small that the only
path possible through the fibre, is along its axis i.e. parallel to axis.

Multimode fibres. These fibres results in the transmitted signal being subjected to very little
distortion, even after several hundred km of propagation. This preservation of the shape of
the signal means that very rapidly changing and ‘complicated’ waves that carry lots of data
can be sent along and accurately received. Monomode fibres are thus better suited to long
distance communication than multimode fibres (approx 50 times further). The infra-red light
in multimode fibres travels in zig-zag paths and some paths involve reflections.

The advantages of monomode optical fibres over multimode optical fibres.

• Paths at different angles to the axis are of different lengths so data doesn’t travels on
different paths which would arrive at different times so data is not muddled / smeared
out or overlapping.

Using angles close to critical angle minimises multimode dispersion by:

• cuts down range of path lengths
• less pulse broadening or less likelihood of overlapping or more rapid data sequence
possible

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 Photons

We have discussed and observed properties about the wave nature

of light. Light can also behave as a stream of particles. This can be
seen using a weak light source for studying the interference
pattern. The observed pattern is built up or emerges over a period
of time as a series of spots is gradually increased.
This behaviour suggests that the energy in a light wave is
not a continuous stream but rather is quantised into a little bundles of energy known as QUANTA or
PHOTONS.
Max Planck: Introduced the concept of quantisation energy in 1900. This means that energy of a
photon is a fixed amount/quantity.
Einstein: In 1905 Einstein recognised that this quantisation of energy was a fundamental property of
light. Einstein concluded from experimental work that the energy of a photon is proportional to the
frequency of the radiation.

Energy of a photon, E = hf or E = hc REMEMBER NOT GIVEN on DATA SHEET

λ

E- photon energy (J), h – Planck constant 6.63x10-34 Js, f- frequency (Hz),

c – speed of light in a vacuum (3.0x108 ms-1)

A photon is a discrete packets of energy

Worked example.
An LED emits red light of wavelength 620nm. (a) calculate the energy in J of each photon of
the emitted light. (b) The LED radiates a power of 0.5mW. How many photons are emitted each
second?
(a) E = hc/λ = 6.63x10-34 x 3.0x108 = 3.21x10-19 J
620x10-9

(b) 0.5mW is 0.5x10-3 W, which is equivalent to 0.5x10-3 Joules per second

By dividing the total energy per second by the energy of 1 photon (a) then we will
get the total number of photons = 0.5x10-3/ 3.21x10-19 = 1.56x1015 photons

The electronvolt.
The joule is a very large quantity of energy when used to describe the
energy of a single photon. We therefore require a much smaller quantity of energy.

Definition: One electronvolt (eV) is the energy of an electron accelerated by a potential

difference of 1 volt.

Converting between eV and J. 1 eV = 1.6x10-19 J

50eV x 1.6x10-19  8.0x10-18 J

900,000 eV  1.44x10-13 J
1.6x10-19

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 The electromagnetic spectrum.

A family of waves that travel at the same speed in a vacuum and have similar properties.

Increasing energy

Increasing wavelength

You need to remember the typical wavelength of different regions of the spectrum and then
be able to calculate the typical photon energy using E=hc/λ.
Region/Part of spectrum Typical Wavelength (m) Typical Photon energy (eV)
Gamma 10-12 106
X-ray 10-10 104
UV 10-7 or10-8 101
Visible 4x10-7  7x10-7 3.1  1.8
Infra red 10-5 10-1
Microwave 10-2 10-4
Radio 102 10-8

The photoelectric effect

Using a zinc plate with a gold leaf electroscope

• Clean a zinc plate with fine emery paper or steel wool.

• Attach the plate to the top disc on a gold leaf electroscope, so there is
good electrical contact.
• Charge the zinc plate and inner assembly of the electroscope
negatively, e.g. by rubbing the zinc plate with a polythene rod which has
been rubbed with a duster. The gold leaf should now be raised, because
the leaf and the back plate are both charged negatively and repel each
other.
• Place an ultraviolet lamp near the zinc plate. Switch it on. The leaf
should be seen to fall. Clearly the plate is losing charge.
• Repeat the procedure, but charging the zinc plate and inner assembly of
the electroscope positively, e.g. by rubbing the plate with a charged
perspex rod.
This time the ultraviolet does not affect the leaf. Charge is not lost.

Explanation: The ultraviolet causes electrons to be emitted from the zinc plate. If the plate
is charged positively, the electrons are attracted back again. If the plate is charged negatively
the emitted electrons are repelled and lost from the plate for ever.

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The photoelectric effect – Vaccum photocell

Photoelectric effect: when light or ultraviolet

radiation of short enough wavelength falls on a
surface, electrons are emitted from the surface.

The electrons in each different metal needs a

certain amount of energy to leave the surface, this
is known as the work function.
The work function - (Φ) of a surface is the minimum energy needed to remove an
electron from the surface. Unit: J or eV.
Any energy left over/remaining will be seen as the kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectron. This is known as Ek max.

The photons of light need to give enough energy for it to leave the metal surface.
Threshold frequency- (f0) this is the minimum frequency of a photon that will cause the
emission of an electron from a particular metal surface.

The experiment. http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Photoelectric_Effect

When e-m radiation of enough energy (high enough frequency) strikes the
cathode surface electrons are ejected. The photoelectrons (ejected electrons) travel across
to the anode and a current flows in the circuit. A current is recorded on the ammeter. The p.d.
is increased until the photoelectrons are being repelled from the anode. At a certain p.d. the
electrons will not have enough energy to reach the anode. The cathode and anode must be in
a vacuum otherwise the ejected electrons could collide with molecules in the air.

Steps:
1. Shine light on cathode.
2. Increase / adjust pd until micro-
ammeter shows zero current.
3. Read voltmeter.
4. Plot a graph of current (I) on the y-
axis and p.d. (V) on the x-axis.

The graph is shown below.

If the intensity of light is increased then it’s the

number of photons of light that increases. This
increases the amount of ejected electrons and so a
larger current flows since. The stopping voltage
remains the same since this depends upon the Ek max
of the ejected photoelectron.
Ek max = eVs

where Vs is the stopping voltage.

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Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

This equation is based on the conservation of energy.

Ek max = hf – Ф minimum energy (J) an electron

Ek max – the maximum
needs to leave the surface.
energy that a
photoelectron can have hf – is the energy (J )of
once it has used some of the photon.
the photon energy to
leave the metal
surface.

If the energy of the photon (threshold frequency – f0) is just enough to cause an electron to
be ejected then the photoelectron will have no E k so we can write:
hf0 = Ф
If the light is not of high enough frequency then it doesn’t matter how long the light is shone on
the surface i.e. photons cannot combine/join together to give the electron sufficient energy.
This is evidence for the particle nature of light.

The same as experiment as on the previous page except that a graph is plotted of E k max and
frequency for a certain metal (B). Ek max is calculated from the stopping voltage (V s).
Ek max = eVs.

Comparing with the equation for

a straight line graph.

Ek max = h f – Ф
y = mx+c

The intercept gives the work

function of the metal e.g.
Magnesium 5.9x10-19 J.

The gradient of the graph gives

you Planck’s constant.
(6.63x10-34 Js).

If a graph is plotted for a

different metal (A) with a lower
work function (e.g. 3x10-19 J)
then the line has the same
gradient since it is a constant.

Photocells are used in light sensors for cameras and burglar alarms.

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 Atomic energy levels
Niels Bohr in 1913 (Danish) developed the idea that energy in an atoms was quantised and
that the electrons existed in specific energy levels. The electrons can move between the
energy levels as long as they are given the correct/precise quantity of energy usually in the
form of a photon.

The energy levels of the atom can

be given in eV or in Joules.
The electron in a hydrogen atom will in
the ground state (n=1).
If the atom is excited then the electron
can be promoted to a higher energy
level e.g. n=2.

If an electron wants to move up an

energy level then it must absorb a
photon. If the electrons want to move
down an energy level then it must emit
a photon of energy. The photon energy
must be equal to the energy gap.

Ionisation energy.
The ionisation energy of an atom is the minimum energy needed to
remove an electron from the atom in its ground state. To ionise the atom the electron
must escape from the ground state (n=1) and leave the atom (n=∞).
The energy gap = 0 – (-13.6eV) = 13.6eV.
This energy must be changed to J and then the wavelength of light can be calculated.

13.6 x 1.6x10-19 = 2.176x10-18J  λ = hc/E = 6.63x10-34 x 3x108 = 9.14x10-8m (UV)

2.176x10-18

Absorption spectra.
The light emitted from a source like a star
or an incandescent bulb gives a continuous
spectrum. When this light passes a cloud of
gas (e.g. in space) then certain
wavelengths of light are absorbed as
electrons are promoted to higher energy
levels. These wavelengths will be missing
and so we get an absorption line spectrum.
The light is later re-emitted but in all
directions. We observe a continuous
spectrum crossed with dark lines
(Fraunhofer lines).

Emission spectrum. We observe this with a gas at low pressure which has been excited. Electrons
collide with the atoms in the gas and cause electrons to be promoted to higher energy levels. This
time we get bright lines but at specific wavelengths (colours) which is characteristic of the elements.

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Wave-particle duality
Electron diffraction: in 1927 when Davisson and Germer performed an experiment. They
accelerated a beam of electrons through a thin polycrystallite graphite film in an evacuated chamber
and used a fluorescent screen to see where the electrons came out on the other side.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfPeprQ7oGc

Experiment to demonstrate wave-particle duality. . . . . . . . . Diffraction pattern for electrons.

Electromagnetic waves can behave both as waves (diffraction, reflection, refraction) and particles
(photoelectric effect, emission and absorption spectrum). Particles (electrons, protons etc.) can also
exhibit wave like properties as shown in the experiment above. The double slit experiment can be
performed using electrons which gives a pattern of bright and dark fringes. Even if the electrons are
passed through one at a time then an interference pattern is observed!!!

Momentum of light. Since light waves have no mass, and since p = m.v , it seems logical to
assume that plight = 0 x v = 0 !! However, deBroglie derived the equation, which suggests that all
particles have wave-like properties, but also that all waves have particle-like properties.

λ = h or p = hf
p c

p – momentum (kgms-1) h – Planck’s constant λ – wavelength (m)

If light has momentum then it can exert a Force on surface and hence a pressure.
If the light is reflected or absorbed then there will be a change in the momentum
(Newton’s 2nd law) of light. The change in momentum is double if the photons are
reflected and hence a greater force (momentum is a vector quantity).
There will be an equal but opposite force on the surface (Newton’s 3rd law).

Calculating the radiation pressure when light falls on a surface.

Momentum of a photon
p=h
λ
Force on surface  F=Δp
t

Number of photons = Power of light

photon Energy

Pressure of 1 photon P = F/A (A is surface area)

Total pressure = number of photons x pressure of 1 photon

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Wave-particle duality

Wavelength of particles – the same equation can be used to determine the wavelength of
particles e.g. electrons, protons etc.

de Broglie equation λ=h

p

where p = m x v , momentum = mass x velocity

This was quite radical and even today it may seem like science fiction. However, de Broglie
was proven correct by the experiment shown on the previous page.

Worked example.
Neutrons can be used for analysing the atomic/crystal structure of various materials. Their
mass is 1.67x1027 kg. If their velocity 3000ms-1, determine their wavelength.

1st step, p =mv = 1.67x10-27 x 3000 = 5.01x10-24 kgms-1

2nd step λ = h/p = 6.63x10-34 x 5.01x10-24 = 1.32x10-10 m (wavelength similar to
distance between atoms)
____________________________________________________________________________________

Determination of h using LED’s

The Planck constant, h, can be determined by using a
light emitting diode (LED) and measuring the
minimum voltage, Vmin, at which light is just emitted
by the diode. The Planck constant can then be
determined from the equation 𝑉=ℎ𝑐/ eλ where c is
8 -1
the speed of light 3.00 × 10 ms and e is the
-19
electronic charge, 1.60 × 10 C.
A graph of Vmin against 1/𝜆 should be a straight line
with the gradient equal to hc/e.

The voltage should be varied until light

is just emitted by the LED. Record the
voltage it corresponds to Vmin.The LED

should be replaced and the procedure

repeated for LEDs with different
wavelengths of light. Plot a graph of Vmin
(x-axis) against 1/𝜆 (y-axis) and use

it to determine a value for h.

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 Lasers
LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
http://www.materials.ac.uk/elearning/matter/Electrons_in_Crystals/Lasers/index.html

Photon Absorption: an electron is excited to a higher Excited E2

energy level by absorbing the energy of an incoming photon. Electron state
The energy of the incoming photon must be equal to the excited to
difference between the two energy levels in order for it to higher energy
be absorbed. . . . . . . hf = Ephoton = E2-E1
Photon
absorbed Ground
state E1
Photon Emission: The decay of an electron from one energy
state to lower energy state results in the creation of a photon. Excited state
Electron drops to E2
Spontaneous Emission: A photon is created spontaneously. Lower energy
Consider the diagram showing an excited electron at energy
level E2 it can lose some of its energy by emitting a photon. The Photon emitted
emitted photon will have energy Ephoton = E2-E1 The frequency of
the emitted light is also determined by the difference in energy
levels because hf = Ephoton = E2-E1.

Stimulated Emission: This is the emission of a photon from an excited atom, triggered by a passing
photon of energy equal to the energy gap between the excited state and a state of lower energy
in the atom. The emitted photon has the same frequency, phase, direction of travel/propagation
and polarisation direction as the passing photon i.e. coherent.

Electron Excited state E2

stimulated to drop
Incoming photon and emitted photon
by photon
have same wavelength and exit in
phase and in the same direction
E1 i.e. coherent

Population Inversion: N2 > N1

A population inversion is a situation in which a higher energy state in an atomic system is more
heavily populated than a lower energy state (i.e. a less excited state or the ground state) of the
same system.
In order to get as much light out of a system as is possible we need more
electrons in an excited state so more will drop and emit photons.
However, there is one serious problem that arises when we produce a lot of
light – the very photons that we produce are the actual photons that can be
absorbed (they have the correct energy to produce both effects). If we
have photons being absorbed all the time then our laser beam isn’t getting
any stronger. Inverted population

We need to arrive at a situation where stimulated emission is more likely than absorption so that
the laser beam increases in intensity. This is done by pumping. Pumping is feeding energy into the
amplifying medium of a laser to produce a population inversion. Since stimulated emission occurs
if the electrons are in the upper level and absorption occurs when electrons are in the lower level we
need to get more electrons into the upper, excited level.

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 Lasers
Population inversion is not usually possible if we only have two energy levels (if pumping is carried out by
light). As we start to pump our system we have the following situation:
Excited state (N2 = 0)

Pumping light Ground state (N1 = 8)

Many electrons will be promoted to the higher energy and all seems fine. Unfortunately, if we succeed in
exciting half the electrons we are now in the following situation:
Excited state (N2 = 4)

Pumping light Ground state (N1 = 4)

In this situation the incoming flood of photons is just as likely to cause an electron to drop (stimulated emission)
as it is to cause an electron to rise (absorption). The best we can achieve here is N2 = N1 which is not quite good
enough.

The 3 Energy Level Laser System

1. Pumping. Electrons are promoted from the ground state (E1)
to E3 usually by using an external light source or by electron E3
collisions.
2. Electrons drop quickly (because E3 is chosen to have a short 2
lifetime of the order of nanoseconds) to the metastable (E2).
Calling E2 metastable means that it has a long lifetime and E2
electrons stay there for a long time (not that long really
around a millisecond but that’s a very long time for an 1
electron).
3
3. This is the transition that produces the laser photons so we
must have N2 > N1. Note that, although stimulated emission still
reduces our population inversion, the pumping is at a different
wavelength. We have to make sure that the pumping [1] E1
exceeds the stimulated emission [3] to maintain a population
inversion.

The 4 Energy Level Laser System E4

1. Pumping again.
2. Fast drop to the metastable state E3. 2
3.This is the laser light producing transition so this time
N3 > N2. However, because E1 is the ground state, E2 is E3
practically empty initially so obtaining population
inversion is far, far easier. 3
1
4. Another fast transition so E2 has a short lifetime. This
is because we want E2 to be empty so that we have a
population inversion (if N2 is small it’s easier for N3 to be E2
larger than N2).
4
So this is where a 4-level laser is better, in that E2 is
as depopulated as possible, which means less pumping E1
is required and the laser is more efficient.

www.bangor.ac.uk/ASrevision 71
 Laser Construction

Light from a laser differs from normal light in that it has these properties:
• Polarised
• Coherent
• Monochromatic (one wavelength)
• Parallel beam

The photons are reflected backwards and forwards stimulating more photons and eventually the
photons can escape through the partially reflective mirror. As more photons escape, more photons are
produced by stimulated emission so and equilibrium is achieved. The amplifying medium is the region
where the population inversion exists.

Under these conditions one photon has the potential to produce two photons and these can
produce 4 photons, then 8 photons etc. Like a chain reaction, this process will lead to an exponential
increase in output energy. Because only 1% of the light exits each time it reflects back and forth
between the mirrors, on average, the beam will pass through the amplifying medium a hundred times
before it exits.
High intensity pumping combined with the high intensity of the laser beam means that the
amplifying medium will get very hot. So, there will be large heat losses. To make this matter worse,
we need to cool the amplifying medium usually so that it, or its container, doesn’t melt.

Semiconductor Lasers.

Small, cheap, efficient. Approximately 70%

efficient. Pumping voltage = 3V. The basic
structure of a standard ‘edge emitting’
semiconductor laser is shown.
The population inversion inside the
semiconductor sandwich area is millions of
times higher than in gas lasers.
The exponential increase in light intensity (i.e.
1 photon becoming two, becoming four etc.)
occurs far more quickly because of the higher
population inversion.

Advantages: Some Uses:

Inside DVD and CD players
Cheaper Barcode readers
Smaller Telecommunications (via optical fibres)
More efficient Image scanning
Easy to mass produce Laser surgery

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