1 2

11 1 + 12 2 + + 1 = 1;
21 1 + 22 2 + + 2 = 2;

1 1 + 2 2 + + =

( 1 2 )

( b)

11 12 1 1
21 22 2 2
= b=

1 2

3 + 2 = 2; + + = 2; 2 +4 + =0

=2

3 + 2(2 )=5 +3 4= 2 = 5 + 3 = 2;
2 + 4 + (2 )= +3 +2=0 = +3 = 2

4 =4

=1 =( 2 ) 3= 1 =2 =2
 ( ) = (1 1 2)

(1 1 2)

3 1 2 2
1 1 1 2
2 4 1 0

1 1 3 1
2 + =3 2
+ 2
= 2 2

( ) =0

= ( )
 12

3 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
12
1 1 1 2 3 1 2 2
2 4 1 0 2 4 1 0
12 ( 3)
13 ( 2)

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
12 (¡3) 13 (¡2)
3 1 2 2 0 2 5 8 0 2 5 8
2 4 1 0 2 4 1 0 0 2 1 4
2 2( 1 2)
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
2 (¡1 2)
0 2 5 8 0 1 2 12 4
0 2 1 4 0 2 1 4
21 ( 1)
23 ( 2)
1 1 1 2 1 0 1 12 2 1 0 1 12 2
21 (¡1) 23 (¡2)
0 1 2 12 4 0 1 2 12 4 0 1 2 12 4
0 2 1 4 0 2 1 4 0 0 6 12
6 3( 1 6)
1 0 1 12 2 1 0 1 12 2
3 (¡1 6)
0 1 2 12 4 0 1 2 12 4
0 0 6 12 0 0 1 2
2 12 32 ( 2 12 )
1 12 1
31 (1 2 )

1 0 1 12 2 1 0 1 12 2 1 0 0 1
32 (¡5 2) 31 (3 2)
0 1 2 12 4 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
=1 = 1 =2

12 12 ( 3) 13 ( 2)
(1 0 0)
1 (1 3) 3 12 ( 1) 13 ( 2)
1
2( 1 2) 21 ( 1) 23 ( 2) (0 1 0)
(0 0 1)
 1 2 3 4

1 + 3+32 4 = 2; 2 1 2 + 3 +2 4= 4; 4 1 3 2+3 3+8 4 =8

1+ 2+ 3+ 4 = 4; 2 1 +3 2 2 3 3 4 = 1; 1+5 3+6 4 = 1

1 1 1 3 2 12 (¡2) 1 1 1 3 2 21 (1) 1 0 0 1 2
13 (¡4) 23 (¡1)
2 1 1 2 4 0 1 1 4 0 0 1 1 4 0
4 3 3 8 8 0 1 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 4 = 2; 2 3 4 4 =0

3 4 3 =
4 = 1 2

1 = +2 2 = +4 3 = 4 =

( 1 2 3 4) =( +2 +4 ) = (2 0 0 0) + (0 1 1 0) + (1 4 0 1)

(2 0 0 0) (0 1 1 0) (1 4 0 1)

1 1 1 1 4 12 (¡2) 1 1 1 1 4
13 (¡1)
2 3 2 3 1 0 1 4 5 7
1 0 5 6 1 0 1 4 5 3
1 1 1 1 4 3 (¡1 10) 1 0 5 6 11
23 (1) 21 (¡1)
0 1 4 5 7 0 1 4 5 7
0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 1
 x=( 1 2 3 4)

0 1 +0 2 +0 3 +0 4 =1

0 0 0 0 10

2
+ = 5; 2 + +3 = 9; + =

1 0 1 5 12 (¡2) 1 0 1 5 1 0 1 5
13 (1) 23 (1)
2 3 9 0 1 1 0 1 1
2 2 2
1 0 +1 5 0 0 +2 4

+2
=0 = 2
=0 2
1 0 1 5 2 (1 ) 1 0 1 5 31 (¡1) 1 0 0 3
3 (1 ( +2)) 32 (¡1 )
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 3 1
2
0 0 +2 4 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
=0 2

1 0 1 5 23 (¡2) 1 0 1 5
3 (¡1 6)
= 0: 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 2 4 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 5 1 0 1 5
2 (¡1 2)
= 2: 0 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 =0
= 5 =( 1) 2 =
= 2

1
1 2 3 0 0
12
2 0 0 0
1

2 3 3 1
2 2 2 3
1
1

2 0
3
0

1
1

1
=( 1 ) =

1 =
1 = col

23 =0 12 =2
 =( )
=( )

= = = + =( )
= + 1 1

1 2 1 2 3 1 1
= = =
1 0 3 2 1 1 1
2£2 2£3

+ +

2 1
+ = = +
0 1

+ = +

+( + )=( + )+

0 0
0
0 0 0
023 =
0 0 0
+0 = =0 +
= ( )

2( + )=2 +2
1 2 0 2
= ; =
3 4 5 1

1 0 2 0
+ = 2( + )= ;
8 5 16 10
2 4 0 4 2 0
2 = 2 = 2 +2 =
6 8 10 2 16 10
 +0 = ; + = + ; 0 =0 ;
+( )=0 ; + )+ = + ( + ); 1 = ;
( + ) = + ; ( + )= + ; ( )=( )

=( )
=( ) =
=

= 1 1
=1

r1 r c1 c

( ) =r c 1 1

( )

col col
1 v col v 1
col

col col col col col col

( )v = ( v)
 2 2 2 3 2 2

1 2 1 1 1 1+2 1 3
= =
1 0 1 1
(1 1)

1 2 1 1 2 1 ( 1) + 2 ( 1) 3 3
= = ;
1 0 1 1
1 2 1 1 2 4 3 3
= = ;
1 0 1 1 ( 1) 1+0 1 1
1 2 1 1 2 4 3 3
= =
1 0 1 1 0 ( 1) ( 1) + 0 ( 1) 1 1

1 2 1 1 3 3
=
1 0 1 1 1 1

1 2 1 2 1 2 2+0 1 2
= = = ;
1 0 1 0 1+0 2+0 1 2
1 2 1 2 3 1+6 2+4 3+2 7 6 5
= = = ;
1 0 3 2 1 1+0 2+0 3+0 1 2 3
1 1 1 2 1+1 2 0 2 2
= = = ;
1 1 1 0 1+1 2 0 2 2
1 1 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 1 2 0 2
= = = ;
1 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 2 0 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1+1 0 0
= = =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1+1 0 0

1 =
=
0 =

1 0 0
1 0
2 = 3 = 0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1
( )
 1
1
=
=1
=0 = =1

0 =0 0 =0 ; = =
=

( )=( )

( + )= + ( + ) = +
=0 =0 =0

0 0
0
( ) = =1 = ;
( ) = =1 =
=
=
1 1

( ) ( ) = ;
=1 =1

( ) ( ) =
=1 =1
 2

0
=
+ ¡1
= ( )= + ¡1 + +
1 + 0

¡1
( )= + ¡1 + + 1 + 0

cos sin 0 1
= =
sin cos 0 0
2
= 2
2
=

2 cos2 + sin2 cos sin sin cos 1 0

= = =
sin cos cos sin sin + ( cos )2
2
0 1 2

2 2
0 1 + ( + )
= = =
0 0 ( + ) + 2

(2 1) =0 + =0 + =0 ( + )=1
(1 2) =0 (1 1) =0 (2 2)
=0

+ = ; + =
( )

= ; =
 =0

=0
= =0

= ;

1
=

=( ) 2 =

=0

1
= =

= 2 = 2

= =

¡1

( )¡1 =
¡1 ¡1
¡1 ¡1 ¡1
( ) =

= =( ) = ( )= =

¡1 ¡1
= ( )=
¡1 ¡1
( ) =
 =
=
=

= =
2 2

= = 0
=0
¡1 1
=

det

¡1 ¡1
=0 = 2 =
=0
=

= 0 0 = 0 = ( ) =
( ) = 2 = = 0
= 2

1 1
1 0
( ) =
=0 = = 1

=
=

2
( )

( ) = =
=1

( ) = =
=1
 =
= = = 0 =
= = =
=

( b)
( b)

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

1 = =
1 = =
( ) =
1 = =
0
1 = =
( ) ( ) = = =
0
1 =
( ) ( ) = = =
0

=3

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
21 = 1 0 0 3 (7) = 0 1 0 31 ( 2) = 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 7 0 0 1

21 3 (7) 31 ( 2) 3
 ¡1
( )¡1 = = ; ( ( ))¡1 = ( ); ( ( ))¡1 = ( )

( b)
x ( b)
x ( b)

x=b x= b
x= b x=b
¡1

( b)

1
1
1 1

0 1 2 0 4 1 0 2 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 2 1 0 0 3
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1

1 0
1
 ( b)
x=b
( b)

0 0 0 1

( b)
1
1

( b) 0 0 0 1
x
0 1 +0 2 + +0 =1
( b) ( b)
( b)
( b)
( b) 1
= 1
1 1

1 + 1( +1) +1 + + 1 = 1; + ( +1) +1 + + =

+1 +1
1
x x=( 1 )
+1 = +1 =
=
=

( b) ( b)

1
 1 0 0 2
1 2 0 2 3
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 2
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

1 2 0 0 3 1 2 0 2 3
0 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 2
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
(3¡2 2 1) (3+2 ¡2 ¡2¡ )

=0 (1 ) 1

0 0 1 ~1( +1) ~1
0 0 ~2

0 0 ~ ~ ( +1) ~
~1( +1) ~ 12 ( ~2 ) 13 ( ~3 ) 1 ( ~ )
c = e1
0 0 1 ~1( +1) ~1
0 0 0

0 0 0
( 1) ( )
1

0 0 1 ~1( +1) ~1
0 0 0
RRE( )
0 0 0
~1( +1) ~1
1 RRE( ); ~1 1
1( ~1 )
 11 22

diag( 1 2 )
( )

( ) ( )

( + ) = + ; ( ) =
( ) =
( ) =

( )¡1 = ( ¡1
)

=( )

=0

=0

=0

=0

1 0 1 0 0
1 2 0 1
= = 2 1 = = 0 2 0
0 3 1 0
1 1 0 0 3
 1 0 0
1 0 1 2 1 0 1
= = = = 0 2 0
2 3 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 3

=2
=3

2 ( )
( )
( )
¡1
= =

1 2
( )

( ¡1 1 ¡1 1) =( )

= ¡1 1 = =
¡1
( ¡1 1) = = = ¡1 1 =

=
(1 0 0)( )=0
¡1 ¡1
(1 0 0) =
0

1 3 1 0
1 2 1
0 2 1 1
= 2 1 0 =
3 1 2 1
1 3 1
0 1 5 3
 12 (¡2) 1 2 1 1 0 0
13 (¡1)
( 3) 0 3 2 2 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
31 (¡2) 1 0 1 3 0 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
32 (3) 3 (¡1 2)
0 1 0 1 0 1 3 1 0 1
23 31 (¡1)
0 0 2 5 1 3 5 2 1 2 3 2

¡1
1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 0 = 1 0 1
1 3 1 5 2 1 2 3 2

1 3 1 0 1 0 0 0
13 (¡3)
24 0 1 5 3 0 0 0 1
( 4)
0 8 5 1 3 0 1 0
0 2 1 1 0 1 0 0
23 (8)
1 3 1 0 1 0 0 0
24 (¡2) 0 1 5 3 0 0 0 1
34 (1 5) 0 0 45 25 3 0 1 8
0 0 0 0 3 5 1 1 5 2 5

2
3 2
1 ( 1)

¡1
=

¡1

( )

xy col x y=x y
 ¡1 ¡1
( ) = = =( )¡1

¡1 ¡1 ¡1 ¡1
= =
¡1

x y=x y
x y col

x y=x y

x y=x y
( x) y = x y
x y=x y

= x=e y=e
col

( ) = = ( )

=
 col

( ) +
( )

+ = +

+( + )=( + )+

0 +0 = = 0 +

+ =0 = +
 ( + )= +

( + ) = +

( ) = ( )

1 =

3
3

( 1 ) 1

( 1 )+( 1 )=( 1 + 1 + )
( 1 )=( 1 )

(0 0 0)
( 1 ) ( 1 )
2 3
1
=1

( 1 2 ) v

2
 1 £ ( )

= = :

( + )( ) := ( ) + ( ) ( )( ) := ( )

= :

( + )0 = 0
+ 0
( )0 = 0

00 00
= : = =
+

( )= cosh + sinh

¡
( )= +

2
(1 0)

cosh

= = ( 0 1 2 ):

1
= ( )1=0 : ( )
= ( )1=0 : ( )
0 = ( )1=0 : ( ) 0
 1+
1

0 00 0

0 = 0 + 00 00
= 00 0

0 = 00 0

0 0

1 2 + 1 =0 = 1 + + 2 =0 =
2 + 1 = 2

2 = 0+ 2 0
= ( 1+ )+ 2
= 1 + ( + 2)
= 1+0
= 1 0
 0 =0
0 =0
( ) = ( )= ( )
=0 =0 =0
= ( 1)

0 = (0 + 0 )
= 0 + 0 +

( 0 )

0 = 0

0+0=0

+ ( )= ( +( )) +
= 0
=0

( ) ( )= ( )
+( ) =0 ( ) = ( )
¡1
=0 =0
¡1 ¡1
( )= 0 =0

¡1
( ) =0

=1 =0

+ ( 1) = 1 + ( 1)
= (1 + ( 1))
= 0
= 0

( 1) =
 = 0
1+ 2 1 2

0 0

0
1 + 2 1 2

0
0 =0
1+ 2 1 2 1 2 1
1+ 2

0 1 + 2 1 2
0
1 2 1 + 2 =1 1 + 2
= +0

+
 1 =
( 1)

+ = +
+

0 0 0 =0 +0 +
1 2 + 1 2 1 2

1 = 1 + 1 2 = 2 + 2

1 + 2 = ( 1 + 1) + 2 + 2 =( 1 + 2) +( 1 + 2) +

1 + 2 1 + 2

11 1 + 12 2 + + 1 =0
21 1+ 22 2+ + 2 =0

1 1 + 2 2 + + =0

x=0 =( ) £ ( ) x=( 1 2 ) 1
 0 0 £1
1
col
0
v1 v2 v1 = 0 v2 = 0 (v1 + v2 ) = v1 + v2 = 0 + 0 = 0
v1 + v2
v ( v) = ( v) = 0 = 0 v

col

[ ]

+ = ( + ) = ( )

+ + 1 + 0
0 1
[ ]

:= :

( + )( ) = ( ) + ( ) ( )( ) = ( )

00
+ ( ) 0+ ( ) =0

0
= +
00 0 00
+ ( ) + ( ) =( + 00 ) + ( )( 0 + 0 ) + ( )( + )
00
=( + ( ) 0 + ( ) ) + ( 00 + ( ) 0 + ( ) )
=0
 = =0
= =
=
0
2
2
= u u = (0 0)
u=( ) u = u:

u =
2
=0 = u = ( ) =
=0 u = (0 )
2 2

u =
v=( ) u

1 0
0 1
2
(1 0) (0 1) =
2 2 2
0
 = 1 2

:= 1 1 + + : 1

0 0 =0 1 + +0

1 + 2 1 2 1 = 1 1 + + 2 = 1 1 + +
1 1

1 + 2 =( 1 + 1) 1 + +( + )

1 2
1 1 1 + + 1
1

1 := 1 1 + + : 1

:= 1 1 + + : 0 1 1

=
 2
(1 1) (2 1) ( )

+2
( )= (1 1) + (2 1)
3 3
2
(2 2) ( 1 1) =

(1 1 2) (2 1 3)

r = (1 1 2) + (2 1 3)

= +2 = =2 +3

5 + 3 =0

(1 1 2) (2 1 3) (3 0 5) 5 + 3 =
0
(3 0 5) = (1 1 2) + (2 1 3)

(0 3 1) = 2(1 1 2) 1(2 1 3) + 0(3 0 5)

= 1(1 1 2) 2(2 1 3) + 1(3 0 5)
= 3(1 1 2) + 0(2 1 3) 1(3 0 5)

Row( )
Col( ) col

1 1 1 3 2 1 0 0 1 2
2 1 1 2 4 0 1 1 4 0
4 3 3 8 8 0 0 0 0 0

(1 2 4)
 1

1 1 + + =0 1

1 = 2 = = =0
1
1 0

2
(1 1 2) (2 1 3)

(1 1 2) + (2 1 3) = (0 0 0)

+ =0 2 =0
= =0
3

(1 1 2) (2 1 3) (3 0 5)

(1 1 2) + (2 1 3) = (3 0 5)

1(1 1 2) + 1(2 1 3) + ( 1)(3 0 5) = (0 0 0)

0

= sin cos sin 2

sin + cos + sin 2 = 0

0
=0 =0 = 2 =0 =0

= 1

1 1 + + = 1 1 + +
= 1
 = 1

( 1 1) 1 + +( ) =0
=0

= 1

+ =0
= Re 0 = 0 = Im 0 = 0

= [ ]
2
= 1

2
01 + 1 + 2 + + =0 [ ]

0 1 2
0 =0 =0 1 =0
=0

1 +1
1 2 +1

+1 1

= +1 1 1 +1

1 1 + + +1 +1 =0

0 +1 =0
1
+1 = ( 1 1 + + ) 1
+1

+1 =0 1 1 + + =0 1
1 = = =0
= 1 2 +1 +1
1 1

+1 = 1 1 + +

1 1+ + +1 =0 1 2
+1 +1 1
 1 e 1
0 e1 e
1 e1 + + e =0
=0 e1 e
( 1 )= 1 e1 + + e
e1 e
= £ ( )

1 1
1 ( )
=( )
=
=1 =1

3 3
= ( ) +2 + =0
(1 0 1) (0 2 1)

( 2 ) = (1 0 1) + (0 2 1)
 5
( 1 2 3 4 5)

+ 2
1 + 3 5 = 0;
1+2 2+ 4+3 5 = 0;
2+ 3+ 4+2 5 = 0

1 1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1
RRE
1 2 0 1 3 0 1 1 1 2
0 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0

1
3 = 4 = 5 =

1 =2 + + 2 = 2

( 1 2 3 4 5) = (2 + + 2 )
= (2 1 1 0 0) + (1 1 0 1 0) + (1 2 0 0 1)

(2 1 1 0 0) (1 1 0 1 0) (1 2 0 0 1)

[ ]
2 3
1

= 1

1
= 1 1 + +
1

span( ) =

1 1 1 + + =0=0 1 + +0
=0
 1

= 1 1 + +

1 1

1
v=( 1 )

00
= : ( )=4 ( )

2 ¡2
( )= +

( )= sinh 2 + cosh 2
2 ¡2 2
sinh 2 cosh 2
( ) = (1 0) ( ) = (1 1)
2
= sinh 2 + cosh 2
2
(1 0)
sinh 2

Row( )
 =( ) =( )
=( )

Row( ) Row( )
= Row( ) = Row( )
Row( ) = Row( )

r1 r 1 r1 + + r =0
1 r1

1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + + =0

2 3 1
1 = 0 1 r2
2 = 0 = 0 r

( ) = (1 1 )
=1

1 = ( 1 2 )
=1 =1 =1

Row( )
Row( )
Row( ) Row( ) = 1
1 2 = 1
Row( ) Row( ) Row( ) =
¡1
Row( ( )) Row( ) = 1

RRE( )

RRE( ) =
0

0= ( )
=1
 r1 r2 r
r = 1 r1 + + ¡1 r ¡1
1 ¡1 1 ( 1) ( ¡1) ( ¡1 )
1

RRE( )

RRE ( ) =
0( ¡ )

r1 r2 r
RRE ( )
1 e
1
RRE ( ) =
0( ¡ )

RRE ( ) RRE ( )
r1 r2 r

v1 v

v1 v 1

4
v1 = (1 2 1 0) v2 = (2 1 0 3) v3 = (0 1 1 1)
v1 v2 v3

1 2 1 0 1 0 0 16
RRE
2 1 0 3 0 1 0 02
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 12

x=( 1 2 3 4) v1 v2 v3 8 1 +6 3 =
2+5 4

1 2 1 0
2 1 0 3
0 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
1 0 0 16
0 1 0 02
0 0 1 12
0 0 0 4 16 1+02 2 12 3

8 1 +6 3 = 2 +5 4
 1 0 e1
1 1
1
( 1)
RRE( ) ~ ( 1)
1
~ RRE( ~) RRE( ~)

RRE( ~) RRE( ~)
1 RRE( ~)

e e

RRE( )

0
r1 ( )
RRE( ~)
RRE( ~) =
0
r( )
0 0 1
1

e +1 RRE( )
1 RRE( ~)
RRE( ~) 1
2 1 RRE( ~)

Row( 1) = Row( ) = Row( 2)

r ( 1) 1 r ( 2)
2 1 1

r( 1) = =1 r ( 2) r (RRE( ~)) = =1 r (RRE( ~))

 1 RRE( ~)
=1 =0 = r( 1) =r( 2)
1 = 2

RRE( ) rank( ) RRE( )

( b) x = b
rank( b) = rank( )

RRE( ) =

RRE( ) = RRE( )
rank( ) = rank( )

rank( b) = rank( ) rank( b) = rank( )

x= b
x=b

x=b

b col
x=b 0 0 0 1 Row( b)
x=b
rank( ) =
rank( ) rank( )

( b)
 = 1 2

=( )

= 1 1 + +

=
=0

1
= ( 1 1 ¡1 ¡1 )

1 1 + +

1
( 1 1 ¡1 ¡1 )

1 1
 0 = 1 0 = 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ¡1

1 = 1 1 ¡1

= 1
= 1 + +1
= 1 1 ¡1 + +1
= 1 1 ¡1 +1

1 1

1 = 1 2 1 =

= 1 +1 =

+1 +1 1

dim
 = =

dim dim dim = dim =

= dim

=
dim = dim =

dim + 1 = dim +1

dim = dim =
 =
= 1 = 1 1
1 = 1

dim

= 1 = 1
=

4
= (0 1 2 3) (1 2 3 4) (2 3 4 5)

0 1 2 3
= 1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5

= Row( )

1 0 1 2
RRE( ) = 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0

+
 dim( + ) + dim( ) = dim + dim

1
1 1 1
1

dim( )= dim = + dim = +

= 1 1 1 +

+ + = ( + )+( + )
= dim + dim dim( )

+ = +
0 0
= 1 1 + + + 1 1+ +
0 0
= 1 1+ + + 1 1+ +
0 0

0 0 0 0
= + =( 1 + 1) 1 + +( + ) + 1 1 + + + 1 1 + +

= +
1 1 1

1 1 + + + 1 1 + + + 1 1 + + =0

1 1 + + + 1 1 + + = ( 1 1 + + )

1 1

( 1 1 + + )= 1 1 + +

1 1 + + + 1 1 + + =0
1 1 0

1 1 + + + 1 1 + + =0

1 1
0
 + dim( + ) dim = 10

dim( ) = dim( ) + dim( ) dim( + ) 6+6 10 = 2

2 dim( ) 6

= 0 + =
=

=
+
dim = dim + dim = +
dim = dim + dim = 0
1 1 1 1

= 1 + 2 + +

1 2

1 2

( 1 )+( 1 ) = ( 1 + 1 + );
( 1 ) = ( 1 )
 :

( 1 + 2) = ( 1) + ( 2) 1 2

( )= ( )

:
(0 ) = 0

(0 ) + (0 ) = (0 + 0 ) = (0 ) (0 ) = 0

( 1 + 2) = ( 1) + ( 2) 1 2

1 1 1

( 1 1 + + )= 1 ( 1) + + ( )

:
( )=

0: 0
 1 £ ( )
: col col (v) = v v col

: (v) = v v

1 £ ( ) £ ( )
£ ( )
=
= + : ( )=

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 = 1 + 1 2 = 2 + 2

1 1 + 2 2 = 1( 1+ 1) + 2( 2 + 2)
=( 1 1+ 2 2) + ( 1 1 + 2 2)

1 1 + 2 2 1 1 + 2 2

( 1 1 + 2 2) = 1 1 + 2 2 = 1 ( 1) + 2 ( 2)

=( ) £ ( )
trace( ) : = 11 + 22 + +
trace : £ ( )

[ ] : [ ] [ ]
0
( ) ( )
¡1
( + + 1 + 0) = + + 1

[ ] [ ] [ ]
¡1 [ ]
1
( ) :
1 0
: ( )
1
( ) :
1 1 0
: ( ) ( )

=
: ( )
 :
+
+ : ( + )( ) = ( ) + ( ) ;
: ( )( ) = ( )
0:
Hom( )
+
( + )( 1 1 + 2 2) = ( 1 1+ 2 2) + ( 1 1 + 2 2)
= 1 ( 1) + 2 ( 2) + 1 ( 1) + 2 ( 2)
= 1 ( ( 1 ) + ( 1 )) + 2 ( ( 2 ) + ( 2 ))
= 1 ( + )( 1 ) + 2 ( + )( 2 )

Hom( )
+ = + +
+( + )=( + )+ +
+0= 0
( )( ) = ( ( ))

( + )=( )+( ); ( + ) =( )+( ); ( ) = ( ); 1 =

: :
:

1 2 1 2

( )( 1 1 + 2 2) = ( ( 1 1 + 2 2 ))
= ( 1 ( 1 ) + 2 ( 2 ))
= 1 ( ( 1 )) + 2 ( ( 2 ))
= 1( )( 1 ) + 2 ( )( 2 )
 :
: = =

¡1

¡1

:
1 2 1 2 1 = ( 1) 2 = ( 2)

( 1) = ( 1) = 1 ( 2) = ( 2) = 2

( 1 1 + 2 2) = ( 1 ( 1 ) + 2 ( 2 ))
= ( ( 1 1 + 2 2 ))
= 1 1+ 2
= 1 ( 1) + 2 ( 2)

: :
¡1 ¡1 ¡1
: ( ) =

: dim = dim
dim = dim
:
dim = dim

1 1
= dim = dim
= dim = dim 1 1

: =
 = [ ]
( )1=0

2 3
= 1
( )1=0 0

= ( )1=0

1 ( 1) + + ( ) = (0)
1 1 0

1 1 + + =0

1 1 1 1 1 0
1 2 3 2 0
2 2 2 2
1 2 3 3 = 0

¡1 ¡1 ¡1
1 2 3 0

ker := ( )=0

Im := ( )

:
ker Im
ker = 0
( ) Im
ker Im
 ker Im
ker (0 ) = 0 0 ker
1 2 ker ( 1) = ( 2) = 0
( 1 + 2) = ( 1) + ( 2) = 0 + 0 = 0 1 + 2 ker
ker
Im (0 ) = 0 0 Im
1 2 Im 1 2 ( 1) = 1
( 2) = 2 1+ 2 = ( 1) + ( 2) = ( 1 + 2) Im
Im
ker =0 = (0 ) =0
ker = 0
ker = 0 1 = 2 ( 1 2) = 1 2 =0
1 2 =0

Im = ( )
1 1 = 1 1 + +

= ( 1 1 + + )= 1 ( 1) + + ( ) ( )

( ) Im
ker ker
Im

Col( )
Row( )

e1 e r1 = e1 r =
e Im Im Row( ) v Row( )

v= 1 r1 + + r =( 1 e1 + + e ) Im

Im = Col( )

:
( ) := dim(ker )
( ) := dim(Im )

dim = rank( ) + nullity( )

 1 ker = nullity( ) 1
0 0 0 0
1 dim = + = 1
Im
Im
( 1) ( ) ( 10 ) ( 0) Im
0 0
1 ker ( 1) = = ( )=0 1
Im

1 ( 10 ) + + ( 0) = 0
0 0 0 0
( 1 1 + + )=0 1 1 + + ker
1 ker 1

0 0
1 1 + + = 1 1 + +
0 0
1 1

1 = = = 1 = = =0

rank = dim( ) = + = nullity( ) + rank( )

= dim
=0

Im =
= dim

= dim =0

=0 ker = 0
= dim Im Im =

:
 : =
= dim
0
0 0 0 0
= = ( )=( ) = =

: =
= 0

dim nullity dim ( ) dim

dim ( ) = dim

: ( )= ( )
ker ker nullity Im = ( )

dim ( ) = dim Im = dim nullity dim ;

dim ( ) = dim nullity dim nullity

=0 dim ( ) = dim

RRE( )
1

1
1

= dim col
= ( 1 )+( 1)
= ( )+( )
Row( ) =

x col x=0 x=0

RRE( ) =
 £ ( )
: (v) = v : (v) = v

1
1

=( )

( )=
=1

W V

1 ( )

1 ( )
e e

e1 e1 = (1 0 0) e

col col
 =
:
3 3
: ( ) = (0 )

i = (1 0 0) j = (0 1 0) k = (0 0 1)

(1 0 0) = (0 1 0) (0 1 0) = (0 0 1) (0 0 1) = (0 0 0)

0 0 0
E E = 1 0 0
0 1 0
2 2 3 3
(E E) = E E (E E) =0= E E

3 3
: ( ) = (0 )

f1 = (1 1 1) f 2 = (1 1 0) f 3 = (0 1 1)

E F F E F F

(1 1 1) = (0 1 1) (1 1 0) = (0 1 1) (0 1 1) = (0 0 1)

0 0 0
E F = 1 1 0
1 1 1

(1 0 0) = (0 1 0) = f1 + f2 + f3 (0 1 0) = (0 0 1) = f1 f2 (0 0 1) = (0 0 0)

1 1 0
F E = 1 1 0
1 0 0

(1 1 1) = (0 1 1) = f3 (1 1 0) = (0 1 1) = f3 (0 1 1) = (0 0 1) = f1 f2

0 0 1
F F = 0 0 1
1 1 0
 W 0V 0 £
V V
: :

W( + )V = (W V) + (W V)

: :

= V U = W V

= W U

1 1 1
=( ) =( )

( ) = 1 ;
=1

( ) = 1
=1

( )( ) = ( ( )) =
=1

= ( )
=1

=
=1 =1

=
=1 =1

= ( )
=1

W U =
 £ ( ) £ ( ) £ ( ) ( )=
( )

: : :

( ) ( )
( ): ( ) :

( )=( )
( )=( )
:

¡1 ¡1

2 2
: ( ) = (2 + 3 2 )

(1 0) = (2 3) (0 1) = (1 2)

2 1
E E =
3 2
2
= f1 = (1 2) f2 = ( 2 5) f1 f2

(f1 ) = (0 7) = 14f1 + 7f2

(f2 ) = (1 16) = 27f1 14f2
 14 27
F F =
7 14

F F = (F E ) (E E ) (E F )

E F

F E
f1 f2 e1 e2
f1 = e1 2e2 f2 = 2e1 + 5e2

1 2
E F =
2 5

(1 0) f1
(1 0) (1 2) e1 2e2

¡1
1 2 5 2
F E = =
2 5 2 1

e1 = 5f1 + 2f2 e2 = 2f1 + f2

(F E ) (E E ) (E F )
5 2 2 1 1 2
=
2 1 3 2 2 5
16 1 1 2
=
7 0 2 5
14 27
= =F F
7 14

0
0
:

W0 V0 = (W 0 W ) (W V ) (V V 0 )
 0
:

V0 V0 = (V 0 V ) (V V ) (V V 0 )

= V0 V0 = V V = V V0

¡1
=

£ ( )
¡1
=

= V V = W W
¡1
=

trace( ) =
trace( )
2
=

=
¡1 ¡1
=
 £ ( )
rowrank( ) ( )

Col( ) = Row( ) colrank( ) =

rowrank( ) Row( ) = Col( ) rowrank( ) = colrank( )

( b) Col( b) = Col( )

c1 c2 c

( b) x=b x col

1 c1 + c =b x col
b Col( )
Col( b) = Col( )

1
1 1 e1
0 £1 0 =1
( + 1) ( b)
b col ( b)

colrank( b) = colrank( )
= rowrank( )
= rowrank( b)
( b)

colrank( b) = (colrank ) + 1 b Col( )

= (rowrank ) + 1
= rowrank( b)

b (0 0 0 1)
( b)
 =

= rowrank

Row( ) = Row( ) Row( )

rowrank( ) = dim Row( ) dim Row( ) = rowrank( )

= RRE( )
¡1
= RRE( )
~ ¡1 ~ RRE( )
RRE( )

= ~~
~ ~

=
=
£ £ £

rowrank = colrank
:

( 1 1 + 2 2 3) = 1( 1 3) + 2( 2 3) 1 2 3 1 2 ;

( 1 2 2 + 3 3) = 2( 1 2) + 3( 1 3) 1 2 3 2 3

x=( 1 ) y=( 1 )

(x y) = 1 1 + +

x y

£ ( ) x y (x y) = x y

=
x y = xy x y 1 1
1 1
x y col (x y) = x y col
1 1
( ( )) £ ( )
1
£ ( )
x=( 1 ) =( 1 )

= 1 1 + + = 1 1 + +
( )=x y

£ ( )

( )=
=1 =1

=
=1 =1

= ( )
=1 =1

=
=1 =1

:
( 1 2) = ( 2 1) 1 2

:
( ) 0 ( )=0 =0
( ) 0
 ( )

x=( 1 ) x=0
2 2
x x= 1 + + 0

col

= [ ]

= ( ) ( )d

=0 ( )=0 [ ] ( ( ))2 0

= ( )2 d 0

[ ] [ ]

:=

( )=

0 =0 =0
=
+ +
 =0 =0
2
0 +
= + +
= +2 + 2
2 2
= +2 + 2

= 0

2 2 2
=4 4 0

= 0 + 0 =0 + 0 =0

2
+ = + +
= +2 +
2 2
+2 +
2 2
+2 +
= ( + )2

( )=

( ) 0 ( )=0 =
( )= ( )
( ) ( )+ ( )

2 3

x y= cos
 x y

cos¡1

sin cos [ ]
cos cos
= cos

sin cos = sin cos d =0

¡

1
cos cos = [cos( + ) + cos( ) ]
2
=
1
cos cos = cos( + ) + cos( ) d
2 ¡
1 sin( + ) sin( )
= +
2 + ¡
= 0

= =0

2 1
cos = cos cos = (cos 2 + 1) d =
2 ¡

= =0
2
1 = 1 1 = d =2
¡

1
1
( )= 0 + ( cos + sin )
2 =1
 1
1
( ) sin d = 0 sin + ( cos sin + sin sin ) d
¡ ¡ 2 =1
1 1
1
= 0 sin d + cos sin d + sin sin d
¡ 2 =1 ¡ =1 ¡
1 1
= 0+ 0+
=1 =1
=

1
= ( ) sin d 1
¡

1
= ( ) cos d 0
¡

( )

( ) ( ) =

: col col

e1 e

=e e = (e ) (e ) = ( e ) ( e ) = e e

e e ( ) ( )
=
 = (e ) (e ) =

e e = (e ) (e )

= e e

2 2
( ( ) ( ))2 = ( ) = ( ) ( ) = = = ( )2

1 =
= =
0 =

1 1 1 1 + + =0
1

0= 0 = 1 1 + +
= 1 1 + +
=

1 = = =0
 £ ( ) = =
¡1
=

£ ( ) col
x y =x y
=
=

col
x y col x y=x y

£ ( ) = =
x1 x ( ) x x
= ( )

y1 y ( )
y y
x y x y = x
y col

( x) ( y) = ( x) ( y)
= (x )( y)
=x ( )y
=x y
=x y
=x y

x y=x y x y col e1 e
col
=e e = e e
e1 e

: x x
 2

2
(1 ) = 12 + 2
=0

(1 ) = (0 0)

( 1 ) ( 1 )=
=1

2
( 1 ) ( 1 )= =
=1 =1

( 1 )=0

1 2 = 2 1

1 1 + 2 2 3 = 1 1 3 + 2 2 3 1 2 3 1 2

1 2 = 2 1 1 2

0 =0 =0

1 12

:
¤
= = =
¤ ¤
=

2
=