Chapter 1 Key Terms

Applied behavior analysis is the science in which tactics derived from the principles of
behavior are applied systematically to improve socially significant behavior and
experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for behavior change.

Behaviorism is the philosophy of the science of behavior, basic research is the province of the
experimental analysis of behavior (EAB), and developing a technology for improving behavior is
the concern of applied behavior analysis (ABA).

Science is predicated on the assumption of determinism. All scientists presume that the universe
is a lawful and orderly place in which all phenomena occur as the result of other events.

empiricism—the practice of objective observation and measurement of the phenomena of

interest.

A functional relation exists when a well-controlled experiment demonstrates that a specific

change in one event (the dependent variable) is reliably produced by specific manipulations of
another event (the independent variable), and that the change in the dependent variable was
unlikely to be the result of other extraneous factors (confounding variables).

experiment is a controlled comparison of some measure of the phenomenon of interest (the

dependent variable) under two or more different conditions in which only one factor at a time
(the independent variable) differs from one condition to another.

functional analysis has two meanings in contemporary behavior analysis literature. In its original
and most fundamental usage, functional analysis denotes demonstrations of functional relations
between environmental variables and behavior.

The attitude of philosophic doubt requires the scientist to continually question the truthfulness of
what is regarded as fact.

experimental analysis of behavior and outlined the methodology for its practice. Simply put,
Skinner recorded the rate at which a single subject (he initially used rats and later, pigeons)
emitted a given behavior in a controlled and standardized experimental chamber.

explanatory fiction, a fictitious variable that often is simply another name for the observed
behavior that contributes nothing to an understanding of the variables responsible for developing
or maintaining the behavior.

Pragmatism, the philosophical position that “the truth value of a statement is a function of how
well the statement promotes effective action” (Moore, 2008, p. 400), continues to be a primary
criterion by which behavior analysts judge the value of their findings
Methodological behaviorists differ from the structuralists by using scientific manipulations to
search for functional relations between events. Uncomfortable with basing their science on
unobservable phenomena, some early behaviorists either denied the existence of “inner
variables” or considered them outside the realm of a scientific account. Such an orientation is
often referred to as methodological behaviorism.

By incorporating private events into an overall conceptual system of behavior, Skinner created a
radical behaviorism that includes and seeks to understand all human behavior.

hypothetical constructs, presumed but unobserved entities that could not be manipulated in an
experiment

mentalism
An approach to explaining behavior that assumes that a mental, or “inner,” dimension exists that
differs from a behavioral dimension and that phenomena in this dimension either directly cause
or at least mediate some forms of behavior, if not all.

parsimony
The practice of ruling out simple, logical explanations, experimentally or conceptually, before
considering more complex or abstract explanations.

science
A systematic approach to the understanding of natural phenomena (as evidenced by description,
prediction, and control) that relies on determinism as its fundamental assumption, empiricism as
its primary rule, experimentation as its basic strategy, replication as a requirement for
believability, parsimony as a value, and philosophic doubt as its guiding conscience.

Chapter 2 Key Terms

antecedent
An environmental condition or stimulus change existing or occurring prior to a behavior of
interest.

automatic reinforcement
Reinforcement that occurs independent of the social mediation of others (e.g., scratching an
insect bite relieves the itch).

aversive stimulus
In general, an unpleasant or noxious stimulus; more technically, a stimulus change or condition
that functions (a) to evoke a behavior that has terminated it in the past, (b) as a punisher when
presented following behavior, and/or (c) as a reinforcer when withdrawn following behavior.
behavior
That portion of an organism’s interaction with its environment that involves movement of some
part of the organism (Johnston & Pennypacker, 2009, p. 31). (See also operant behavior,
respondent behavior, response, and response class.)

behavior change tactic

A technologically consistent method for changing behavior derived from one or more principles
of behavior (e.g., response cost is derived from the principle of negative punishment); possesses
sufficient generality across subjects, settings, and/or behaviors to warrant its codification and
dissemination.

conditioned punisher
A previously neutral stimulus change that functions as a punisher because of prior pairing with
one or more other punishers. (Sometimes called secondary or learned punisher; compare to
unconditioned punisher.)

conditioned reflex
A learned stimulus–response functional relation consisting of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., sound
of refrigerator door opening) and the response it elicits (e.g., salivation); each person’s repertoire
of conditioned reflexes is the product of his or her history of interactions with the environment
(ontogeny). (See also respondent conditioning and unconditioned reflex.)

conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus change that functions as a reinforcer because of prior pairing with one or more other
reinforcers. (Sometimes called secondary or learned reinforcer.)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

The stimulus component of a conditioned reflex; a formerly neutral stimulus change that elicits
respondent behavior only after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) or another
CS.

consequence
A stimulus change that follows a behavior of interest. Some consequences, especially those that
are immediate and relevant to current motivational states, have significant influence on future
behavior; others have little effect. (See also punisher and reinforcer.)

Contingency
Refers to dependent and/or temporal relations between operant behavior and its controlling
variables. (See also contingent and three-term contingency.)

contingency-shaped behavior
Behavior acquired by direct experience with contingencies.

contingent
Describes reinforcement (or punishment) that is delivered only after the target behavior has
occurred.

deprivation
The state of an organism with respect to how much time has elapsed since it has consumed or
contacted a particular type of reinforcer; also refers to a procedure for increasing the
effectiveness of a reinforcer (e.g., withholding a person’s access to a reinforcer for a specified
period prior to a session). (See also motivating operation [MO]; contrast with satiation.)

discriminated operant
An operant that occurs more frequently under some antecedent conditions than under others.
(See also discriminative stimulus
[
S
D
]
and stimulus control.)

discriminative stimulus
(
S
D
)
A stimulus in the presence of which a given behavior has been reinforced and in the absence of
which that behavior has not been reinforced; as a result of this history, an
S
D
evokes operant behavior because its presence signals the availability of reinforcement (See also
differential reinforcement, stimulus control, stimulus delta
[
S
Δ
]
, and stimulus discrimination training.)

environment
The conglomerate of real circumstances in which the organism or referenced part of the
organism exists; behavior cannot occur in the absence of environment.

extinction
The discontinuing of a reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior (i.e., responses no
longer produce reinforcement); the primary effect is a decrease in the frequency of the behavior
until it reaches a prereinforced level or ultimately ceases to occur. (See also extinction burst and
spontaneous recovery; compare to respondent extinction.)
habituation
A decrease in responsiveness to repeated presentations of a stimulus; most often used to describe
a reduction of respondent behavior as a function of repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus
over a short span of time; some researchers suggest that the concept also applies to within-
session changes in operant behavior.

higher-order conditioning
Development of a conditioned reflex by pairing of a neutral stimulus (NS) with a conditioned
stimulus (CS). (Also called secondary conditioning.)

history of reinforcement
An inclusive term referring in general to all of a person’s learning experiences and more
specifically to past conditioning with respect to particular response classes or aspects of a
person’s repertoire. (See also ontogeny.)

joint control
A phenomenon in which two separate, but interrelated forms of a person’s own verbal behavior,
combine to acquire stimulus control of a response that would not have occurred in the absence of
either.

motivating operation (MO)

An environmental variable that (a) alters (increases or decreases) the reinforcing or punishing
effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event; and (b) alters (increases or decreases) the
current frequency of all behavior that has been reinforced or punished by that stimulus, object, or
event. (See also abative effect, abolishing operation [AO], behavior-altering effect, establishing
operation [EO], evocative effect, value-altering effect.)

negative punishment
A response behavior followed immediately by the removal of a stimulus (or a decrease in the
intensity of the stimulus) that results in similar responses occurring less often. (Contrast with
positive punishment.)

negative reinforcement
A contingency in which the occurrence of a response is followed immediately by the
termination, reduction, postponement, or avoidance of a stimulus, and which leads to an increase
in the future occurrence of similar responses.

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus change that does not elicit respondent behavior. (Compare to conditioned stimulus
[CS] and unconditioned stimulus [US].)

ontogeny
The history of the development of an individual organism during its lifetime. (See also history of
reinforcement; compare to phylogeny.)

operant behavior
Behavior that is selected, maintained, and brought under stimulus control as a function of its
consequences; each person’s repertoire of operant behavior is a product of his history of
interactions with the environment (ontogeny).

operant conditioning
The basic process by which operant learning occurs; consequences (stimulus changes
immediately following responses) result in an increased (reinforcement) or decreased
(punishment) frequency of the same type of behavior under similar motivational and
environmental conditions in the future. (See also motivating operation, punishment,
reinforcement, response class, and stimulus control.)
phylogeny
The history of the natural evolution of a species. (Compare to ontogeny.)

positive punishment
A response followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus that decreases the future
frequency of the behavior. (Contrast with negative punishment.)

positive reinforcement
A response followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus change that results in similar
responses occurring more often. (Contrast with negative reinforcement.)

punisher
A stimulus change that decreases the future occurrence of behavior that immediately precedes it.
(See also aversive stimulus, conditioned punisher, and unconditioned punisher.)

punishment
A basic principle of behavior describing a response–consequence functional relation in which a
response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that decreases future occurrences of that
type of behavior.(See also negative punishment and positive punishment.)

reflex
A stimulus–response relation consisting of an antecedent stimulus and the respondent behavior it
elicits (e.g., bright light–pupil contraction). Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes protect
against harmful stimuli, help regulate the internal balance and economy of the organism, and
promote reproduction. (See also conditioned reflex, respondent behavior, respondent
conditioning, and unconditioned reflex.)

reinforcement
A basic principle of behavior describing a response–consequence functional relation in which a
response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that results in similar responses
occurring more often. (See also negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement.)

reinforcer
A stimulus change that increases the future frequency of behavior that immediately precedes it.
(See also positive reinforcer, conditioned reinforcer and unconditioned reinforcer.)

repertoire
All of the behaviors a person can do; or a set of behaviors relevant to a particular setting or task
(e.g., gardening, mathematical problem solving).

respondent behavior
The response component of a reflex; behavior that is elicited, or induced, by antecedent stimuli.
(See also reflex and respondent conditioning.)

respondent conditioning
A stimulus–stimulus pairing procedure in which a neutral stimulus (NS) is presented with an
unconditioned stimulus (US) until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that
elicits the conditioned response. (Also called classical or Pavlovian conditioning; see also
conditioned reflex and higher order conditioning.)

respondent extinction
The repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS) in the absence of the unconditioned
stimulus (US); the CS gradually loses its ability to elicit the conditioned response until the
conditioned reflex no longer appears in the individual’s repertoire.

response
A single instance or occurrence of a specific class or type of behavior. Technical definition: an
“action of an organism’s effector. An effector is an organ at the end of an efferent nerve fiber
that is specialized for altering its environment mechanically, chemically, or in terms of other
energy changes” (Michael, 2004, p. 8). (See also response class.)

response class
A group of responses of varying topography, all of which produce the same effect on the
environment.

rule-governed behavior
Behavior controlled by a rule (i.e., a verbal statement of an antecedent-behavior-consequence
contingency); enables human behavior (e.g., fastening a seat belt) to come under the indirect
control of temporally remote or improbable, but potentially significant consequences (e.g.,
avoiding injury in an auto accident). Often used in contrast to contingency-shaped behavior, a
term used to indicate behavior selected and maintained by controlled, temporally close
consequences.

selectionism
A theory that all forms of life naturally and continually evolve as a result of the interaction
between function and the survival value of that function. Operant selection by consequences is
the conceptual and empirical foundation of behavior analysis.

socially mediated contingency (reinforcement)

A contingency in which an antecedent stimulus and/or the consequence for the behavior is
presented by another person.

stimulus
“An energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells” (Michael, 2004, p. 7).

stimulus class
A group of stimuli that share specified common elements along formal (e.g., size, color),
temporal (e.g., antecedent or consequent), and/or functional (e.g., discriminative stimulus)
dimensions.
stimulus control
A situation in which the frequency, latency, duration, or amplitude of a behavior is altered by the
presence or absence of an antecedent stimulus. (See also discrimination and discriminative
stimulus.)

stimulus–stimulus pairing
A procedure in which two stimuli are presented at the same time, usually repeatedly for a
number of trials, which often results in one stimulus acquiring the function of the other stimulus.

three-term contingency
The basic unit of analysis in the analysis of operant behavior; encompasses the temporal and
possibly dependent relations among an antecedent stimulus, behavior, and consequence.

unconditioned punisher
A stimulus change that decreases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it
irrespective of the organism’s learning history with the stimulus. Unconditioned punishers are
products of the evolutionary development of the species (phylogeny), meaning that all members
of a species are more or less susceptible to punishment by the presentation of unconditioned
punishers. (Also called primary or unlearned punishers; compare to conditioned punisher.)

unconditioned reinforcer
A stimulus change that increases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it
irrespective of the organism’s learning history with the stimulus. Unconditioned reinforcers are
the product of the evolutionary development of the species (phylogeny). (Also called primary or
unlearned reinforcer; compare to conditioned reinforcer.)
unconditioned stimulus (US)
The stimulus component of an unconditioned reflex; a stimulus change that elicits respondent
behavior without any prior learning.

Chapter 3 Key Terms

ABC recording, the observer records a descriptive, temporally sequenced account
of all behaviors of interest and the antecedent conditions and consequences for
those behaviors as those events occur in the client’s natural environment (Cooper,
1981).

anecdotal observation
A form of direct, continuous observation in which the observer records a descriptive, temporally
sequenced account of all behavior(s) of interest and the antecedent conditions and consequences
for those behaviors as those events occur in the client’s natural environment. (Also called ABC
recording.)

behavior checklist
An itemized list that provides descriptions of specific skills (usually in hierarchical order) and
the conditions under which each skill should be observed. Some checklists are designed to assess
one particular behavior or skill area. Others address multiple behaviors or skill areas. Most use a
Likert scale to rate responses.

behavioral assessment
A form of assessment that includes indirect and direct procedures such as interviews, checklists,
and tests to identify and define the specific target behavior. In addition to identifying behavior(s)
to change, comprehensive behavioral assessment can uncover functional relations between
variables; it provides context on the resources, assets, significant others, competing
contingencies, maintenance and generalization factors, and reinforcers (or punishers) that can be
combined to improve the efficiency of an intervention.

behavioral cusp
A behavior that has sudden and dramatic consequences that extend well beyond the idiosyncratic
change itself because it exposes the person to new environments, reinforcers, contingencies,
responses, and stimulus controls. (See also pivotal behavior.)

ecological assessment
An assessment protocol that acknowledges complex interrelationships between environment and
behavior. An ecological assessment is a method for obtaining data across multiple settings and
persons.

function-based definition
Designates responses as members of the targeted response class solely in terms of their common
effect on the environment.
habituation
A decrease in responsiveness to repeated presentations of a stimulus; most often used to describe
a reduction of respondent behavior as a function of repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus
over a short span of time; some researchers suggest that the concept also applies to within-
session changes in operant behavior.

normalization
As a philosophy and principle, the belief that people with disabilities should, to the maximum
extent possible, be physically and socially integrated into the mainstream of society regardless of
the degree or type of disability. As an approach to intervention, the use of progressively more
typical settings and procedures “to establish and/or maintain personal behaviors which are as
culturally normal as possible” (Wolfensberger, 1972, p. 28).

reactivity
Effects of an observation and measurement procedure on the behavior being measured.
Reactivity is most likely when measurement procedures are obtrusive, especially if the person
being observed is aware of the observer’s presence and purpose.

relevance of behavior rule

Holds that only behaviors likely to produce reinforcement in the person’s natural environment
should be targeted for change.
social validity
Refers to the extent to which target behaviors are appropriate, intervention procedures are
acceptable, and important and significant changes in target and collateral behaviors are produced.

target behavior
The response class selected for intervention; can be defined either functionally or
topographically.

topography-based definition
Defines instances of the targeted response class by the shape or form of the behavior.

Chapter 4 Key Terms

artifact
An outcome or result that appears to exist because of the way it is measured but in fact does not
correspond to what actually occurred.

celeration
The change (acceleration or deceleration) in rate of responding over time; based on count per
unit of time (rate); expressed as a factor by which responding is accelerating or decelerating
(multiplying or dividing); displayed with a trend line on a Standard Celeration Chart. Celeration
is a generic term without specific reference to accelerating or decelerating rates of response. (See
also Standard Celeration Chart.)

count
A simple tally of the number of occurrences of a behavior. The observation period, or counting
time, should always be noted when reporting count measures.

discrete trial
Any operant whose response rate is controlled by a given opportunity to emit the response. Each
discrete response occurs when an opportunity to respond exists. Discrete trial, restricted operant,
and controlled operant are synonymous technical terms. (Contrast with free operant.)

duration
The total time that behavior occurs; measured by elapsed time from the onset of a response to its
end point.

event recording
Measurement procedure for obtaining a tally or count of the number of times a behavior occurs.

free operant
Any operant behavior that results in minimal displacement of the participant in time and space. A
free operant can be emitted at nearly any time; it is discrete, it requires minimal time for
completion, and it can produce a wide range of response rates. Examples in ABA include (a) the
number of words read during a 1-min counting period, (b) the number of hand slaps per 6
seconds, and (c) the number of letter strokes written in 3 minutes. (Contrast with discrete trial.)
frequency
How often a behavior occurs. Some behavior analysts use frequency to mean rate (a ratio of
responses per standard unit of time); others use frequency as a synonym for count.

interresponse time (IRT)

A measure of temporal locus, defined as the elapsed time between two successive responses.

Latency
is a measure of the elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and a subsequent response.3

magnitude
The force or intensity with which a response is emitted; provides important quantitative
parameters used in defining and verifying the occurrence of some response classes. Responses
meeting those criteria are measured and reported by one or more fundamental or derivative
measures such as frequency, duration, or latency. (Sometimes called amplitude.)

measurement
The process of applying quantitative labels to describe and differentiate objects and natural
events. Measurement in applied behavior analysis involves three steps: (a) identifying the
behavior to be measured, (b) defining the behavior in observable terms, and (c) selecting an
appropriate observation and data-recording method.

measurement by permanent product

A method of measuring behavior after it has occurred by recording the effects that the behavior
produced on the environment.

momentary time sampling

A measurement method in which the presence or absence of behaviors is recorded at precisely
specified time intervals. (Contrast with interval recording.)

partial-interval recording
A time sampling method for measuring behavior in which the observation period is divided into
a series of brief time intervals (typically from 5 to 10 seconds). The observer records whether the
target behavior occurred at any time during the interval. Partial-interval recording is not
concerned with how many times the behavior occurred during the interval or how long the
behavior was present, just that it occurred at some point during the interval; tends to overestimate
the proportion of the observation period that the behavior actually occurred.

percentage
A ratio (i.e., a proportion) formed by combining the same dimensional quantities, such as count
(
number
÷
number
)
or time
(
duration
÷
duration
;
latency
÷
latency
)
; expressed as a number of parts per 100; typically expressed as a ratio of the number of
responses of a certain type per total number of responses (or opportunities or intervals in which
such a response could have occurred). A percentage presents a proportional quantity per 100.

planned activity check (PLACHECK)

A variation of momentary time sampling in which the observer records whether each person in a
group is engaged in the target behavior at specific points in time; provides a measure of “group
behavior.”

rate
A fundamental measure of how often behavior occurs expressed as count per standard unit of
time (e.g., per minute, per hour, per day) and calculated by dividing the number of responses
recorded by the number of standard units of time in which observations were conducted. Some
behavior analysts use rate and frequency interchangeably; others use frequency to mean count.
(See frequency and count.)

repeatability
Refers to the fact that a behavior can occur repeatedly through time (i.e., behavior can be
counted); one of the three dimensional quantities of behavior from which all behavioral
measurements are derived. (See also celeration, count, frequency, rate, temporal extent, and
temporal locus.)

temporal extent
Refers to the fact that every instance of behavior occurs during some amount of time; one of the
three dimensional quantities of behavior from which all behavioral measurements are derived.
(See also repeatability and temporal locus.)

temporal locus
Refers to the fact that every instance of behavior occurs at a certain point in time with respect to
other events (i.e., when in time behavior occurs can be measured); often measured in terms of
response latency and interresponse time (IRT); one of the three dimensional quantities of
behavior from which all behavioral measurements are derived. (See also repeatability and
temporal extent.)

time sampling
A measurement of the presence or absence of behavior within specific time intervals. It is most
useful with continuous and high-rate behaviors. (See also momentary time sampling, partial-
interval recording, and whole-interval recording.)

trials-to-criterion
A special form of event recording; a measure of the number of responses or practice
opportunities needed for a person to achieve a pre-established level of accuracy or proficiency.

whole-interval recording
A time sampling method for measuring behavior in which the observation period is divided into
a series of brief time intervals (typically from 5 to 15 seconds). At the end of each interval, the
observer records whether the target behavior occurred throughout the entire interval; tends to
underestimate the overall percentage of the observation period in which the target behavior
actually occurred.
 Chapter 5 Key Terms
ACCURACY (OF MEASUREMENT)
The extent to which observed values, the data produced by measuring an event, match the true
state, or true values, of the event as it exists in nature. (See also observed value and true value.)

BELIEVABILITY
The extent to which the researcher convinces herself and others that the data are trustworthy and
deserve interpretation. Measures of interobserver agreement (IOA) are the most often used index
of believability in applied behavior analysis. (See also interobserver agreement [IOA].

CALIBRATION
The process of comparing the data produced by a measurement system to a known standard or
true value and, when sources of error are found, using that information to correct or improve the
measurement system.

CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT
Measurement conducted in a manner such that all instances of the response class(es) of interest
are detected during the observation period.

DIRECT MEASUREMENT
Occurs when the behavior that is measured is the same as the behavior that is the focus of the
investigation. (Contrast with indirect measurement.)

DISCONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT
Measurement conducted in a manner such that some instances of the response class(es) of
interest may not be detected.

EXACT COUNT-PER-INTERVAL IOA

The percentage of total intervals in which two observers recorded the same count; the most
stringent description of IOA for most data sets obtained by event recording.

INDIRECT MEASUREMENT
Occurs when the behavior that is measured is in some way different from the behavior of
interest; considered less valid than direct measurement because inferences about the relation
between the data obtained and the actual behavior of interest are required. (Contrast with direct
measurement.)

INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT (IOA)

The degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values after
measuring the same events.

INTERVAL-BY-INTERVAL IOA
An index of the agreement between observers for data obtained by interval recording or time
sampling measurement; calculated for a given session or measurement period by comparing the
two observers’ recordings of the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the behavior in each
observation interval and dividing the number of intervals of agreement by the total number of
intervals and multiplying by 100. (Also called the point-by-point or total interval IOA; compare
to scored-interval IOA and unscored-interval IOA.)

MEAN COUNT-PER-INTERVAL IOA

The average percentage of agreement between the counts reported by two observers in a
measurement period composed of a series of smaller counting times; a more conservative
measure of IOA than total count IOA.

MEAN DURATION-PER-OCCURRENCE IOA

An IOA index for duration per occurrence data; also a more conservative and usually more
meaningful assessment of IOA for total duration data calculated for a given session or
measurement period by computing the average percentage of agreement of the durations reported
by two observers for each occurrence of the target behavior.

MEASUREMENT BIAS
Nonrandom measurement error; a form of inaccurate measurement in which the data consistently
overestimate or underestimate the true value of an event.

NAIVE OBSERVER
An observer who is unaware of the study’s purpose and/or the experimental conditions in effect
during a given phase or observation period. Data obtained by a naive observer are less likely to
be influenced by observers’ expectations.

OBSERVED VALUE
A measure produced by an observation and measurement system. Observed values serve as the
data that the researcher and others will interpret to form conclusions about an investigation.
(Compare to true value.)

OBSERVER DRIFT
Any unintended change in the way an observer uses a measurement system over the course of an
investigation that results in measurement error; often entails a shift in the observer’s
interpretation of the original definitions of the target behavior subsequent to being trained. (See
also measurement bias and observer reactivity.)

OBSERVER REACTIVITY
Influence on the data reported by an observer that results from the observer’s awareness that
others are evaluating the data. (See also measurement bias and observer drift.)

RELIABILITY (OF MEASUREMENT)

Refers to the consistency of measurement, specifically, the extent to which repeated
measurement of the same event yields the same values.

SCORED-INTERVAL IOA
An interobserver agreement index based only on the intervals in which either observer recorded
the occurrence of the behavior; calculated by dividing the number of intervals in which the two
observers agreed that the behavior occurred by the number of intervals in which either or both
observers recorded the occurrence of the behavior and multiplying by 100. Scored-interval IOA
is recommended as a measure of agreement for behaviors that occur at low rates because it
ignores the intervals in which agreement by chance is highly likely. (Compare to interval-by-
interval IOA and unscored-interval IOA.)

TOTAL COUNT IOA

The simplest indicator of IOA for event recording data; based on comparing the total count
recorded by each observer per measurement period; calculated by dividing the smaller of the two
observers’ counts by the larger count and multiplying by 100.

TOTAL DURATION IOA

A relevant index of IOA for total duration measurement; computed by dividing the shorter of the
two durations reported by the observers by the longer duration and multiplying by 100.

TRIAL-BY-TRIAL IOA
An IOA index for discrete trial data based on comparing the observers’ counts (0 or 1) on a trial-
by-trial, or item-by-item, basis; yields a more conservative and meaningful index of IOA for
discrete trial data than does total count IOA.

TRUE VALUE
A measure accepted as a quantitative description of the true state of some dimensional quantity
of an event as it exists in nature. Obtaining true values requires “special or extraordinary
precautions to ensure that all possible sources of error have been avoided or removed” (Johnston
& Pennypacker, 1993a, p. 136). (Compare to observed value.)

UNSCORED-INTERVAL IOA
An interobserver agreement index based only on the intervals in which either observer recorded
the nonoccurrence of the behavior; calculated by dividing the number of intervals in which the
two observers agreed that the behavior did not occur by the number of intervals in which either
or both observers recorded the nonoccurrence of the behavior and multiplying by 100. Unscored-
interval IOA is recommended as a measure of agreement for behaviors that occur at high rates
because it ignores the intervals in which agreement by chance is highly likely. (Compare to
interval-by-interval IOA and scored-interval IOA.)

VALIDITY (OF MEASUREMENT)

The extent to which data obtained from measurement are directly relevant to the target behavior
of interest and to the reason(s) for measuring it.
 Chapter 6 Key Terms
BAR GRAPH
A simple and versatile graphic format for summarizing behavioral data; shares most of the line
graph’s features except that it does not have distinct data points representing successive response
measures through time. (Also called a histogram.)

CUMULATIVE RECORD
A type of graph on which the cumulative number of responses emitted is represented on the
vertical axis; the steeper the slope of the data path, the greater the response rate.

CUMULATIVE RECORDER
A device that automatically draws cumulative records (graphs) that show the rate of response in
real time; each time a response is emitted, a pen moves upward across paper that continuously
moves at a constant speed.

DATA
The results of measurement, usually in quantifiable form; in applied behavior analysis, it refers
to measures of some quantifiable dimension of a behavior. The word data is the plural form of
datum.

DATA PATH
The level and trend of behavior between successive data points; created by drawing a straight
line from the center of each data point in a given data set to the center of the next data point in
the same set.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE
The measured behavior in an experiment to determine if it changes as a result of
manipulations of the independent variable; in applied behavior analysis, it
represents some measure of a socially significant behavior. (See also target
behavior; compare to independent variable.)

EQUAL-INTERVAL SCALE
A scale in which equal distances on the axis represent equal absolute amounts of the variable
plotted on the axis (e.g., behavior change on an equal-interval vertical axis).

GRAPH
A visual format for displaying data; reveals relations among and between a series of
measurements and relevant variables.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
The variable that is systematically manipulated by the researcher in an experiment to see whether
changes in the independent variable produce reliable changes in the dependent variable. In
applied behavior analysis, it is usually an environmental event or condition antecedent or
consequent to the dependent variable. (Sometimes called the intervention or treatment variable;
compare to dependent variable.)

LEVEL
The value on the vertical axis around which a series of behavioral measures converge.

LINE GRAPH
Based on a Cartesian plane, a two-dimensional area formed by the intersection of two
perpendicular lines. Any point within the plane represents a specific relation between the two
dimensions described by the intersecting lines. It is the most common graphic format for
displaying data in applied behavior analysis.

LOCAL RESPONSE RATE

The average rate of response during a smaller period of time within a larger period for which an
overall response rate has been given. (See also overall response rate.)

OVERALL RESPONSE RATE

The rate of response over a given time period. (See also local response rate.)

PRECISION TEACHING
An instructional approach that involves (a) pinpointing the skills to be learned; (b) measuring the
initial frequency or rate per minute at which the student can perform those skills; (c) setting an
aim, or goal, for the child’s improvement; (d) using direct, daily measurement to monitor
progress made under an instructional program; (e) charting the results of those measurements on
a Standard Celeration Chart; and (f) changing the program if progress is not adequate.

RATIO SCALE
A scale in which equal distances on a graph’s axis correspond to equal ratios of change in the
variable plotted on the axis.

SCATTERPLOT
A two-dimensional graph that shows the relative distribution of individual measures in a data set
with respect to the variables depicted by the x- and y-axes. Data points on a scatterplot are not
connected.
SPLIT-MIDDLE LINE OF PROGRESS
A line drawn through a series of graphed data points that shows the overall trend in the data;
drawn through the intersections of the vertical and horizontal middles of each half of the charted
data and then adjusted up or down so that half of all the data points fall on or above and half fall
on or below the line.

STANDARD CELERATION CHART

A multiply–divide chart with six base-10
(or × 10, ÷ 10)
cycles on the vertical axis that can accommodate response rates as low as 1 per 24 hours
(0.000695 per minute) to as high as 1000 per minute. It enables the standardized charting of
celeration, a factor by which rate of behavior multiplies or divides per unit of time. (See also
semilogarithmic chart.)

TREND
The overall direction taken by a data path. It is described in terms of direction (increasing,
decreasing, or zero trend), degree (gradual or steep), and the extent of variability of data points
around the trend. Trend is used in predicting future measures of the behavior under unchanging
conditions.

VARIABILITY
The frequency and extent to which multiple measures of behavior yield different outcomes.

VISUAL ANALYSIS
A systematic approach for interpreting the results of behavioral research and treatment programs
that entails visual inspection of graphed data for level, trend, and variability within and between
experimental conditions.