Chapter 2

Wildlife Watching
Peter Valentine and Alastair Birtles

Introduction
This chapter is concerned with wildlife tourism that is focused on watching free-
ranging animals in their natural habitats. It begins with a review of wildlife watching
and classifications used to describe the activities and attractions involved. A central
element is a global assessment of critical natural resources needed for wildlife
watching including their geographical distribution. The chapter also provides a
number of examples of different types of wildlife watching to assist the reader in
appreciating some of the more experiential dimensions of this form of tourism. Several
key aspects of sustainability are discussed using an example from marine wildlife
watching.
Humans often have extremely intense and deeply personal experiences through
wildlife watching and this may lead to outcomes that are extraordinary in their impacts
on people's lives. At least some, if not most, forms of wildlife-watching tourism seek
to provide just such an experience for their clients. There are many examples of
intense encounters with wildlife in the literature, and the following account is from a
famous scientist, co-author of the theory of evolution through natural selection. In this
description one can sense the depth of emotion and excitement generated by his first
encounter with a birdwing butterfly in the wild.
‘I found it to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most magnificent species,
and one of the most gorgeously-coloured butterflies in the world. … more than 7
inches across the wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange …. The beauty
and brilliancy of this insect are indescribable…. On taking it out of my net and
opening the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to
my head, and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension
of immediate death. I had a headache the rest of the day so great was the excitement
produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause.’ Alfred
Russel Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, Chapter xxiv p257-258 [1962 reprint of
revised 1869 edition].

Description and classification of wildlife watching

Although a dichotomous distinction is often made between free-ranging and captive
animals there is in fact a continuous spectrum of wildlife-watching experiences (see
Chapter 1). Other variations among different forms of wildlife watching may relate to
one or more of the following: primary objective, level of interpretation provided by
operator or site manager, type of transport or platform, seasonal or diurnal variations,
concentration or dispersion of the wildlife, managerial and social settings, degree of
wilderness, type of environment and price variations (Higginbottom et al. 2001).
Tourism experiences involving wildlife vary greatly in the emphasis or intensity of
encounters. In some cases the wildlife forms the basis and entirety of the tour package,
as in dedicated birdwatching or whale-watching trips. In some, while wildlife may
provide a focus and incentive, there are other attributes of significance within the trip.
For example, some wildlife safaris in east Africa include cultural elements. In much
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

landscape-based tourism the wildlife may be part of the backdrop and occupy an
incidental (but sometimes significant) element of the experience as, for example, free-
ranging kangaroos seen from a regional tour bus in Australia.
The type of wildlife, environmental variations and design or context of the wildlife
experience provide further planning and management divisions of wildlife watching.
The actual animals that form the basis of wildlife watching include butterflies in
Mexico and California (Monarch over-wintering sites), through migrating birds in
most continents – from hummingbirds and hawks to waders – to spectacular
aggregations (flamingos and cranes). The ‘big five’ mammals in east Africa (elephant,
rhinoceros, buffalo, lion and leopard) are well known, but numerous large and
appealing species throughout the world are also important for wildlife watching. Most
countries have actual or potential target species for wildlife watching. Aggregations of
mammals from whales to wildebeest attract significant interest from tour operators and
some of these are associated with life-cycle activities such as breeding and migrating.
A key element in the better-known species is predictability, which enables a tourism
venture to be developed, enhanced and offered to the visitor. Environmental
distinctions include broad categories of marine, terrestrial, coastal areas and specific
habitat types (e.g. wetlands, rivers, rainforests, savannah, mountains, deserts, coral
reefs, pelagic areas). Although it is true that some environments may be more species-
rich than others, there are wildlife watching opportunities in almost every type of
natural environment.
The design or context of the wildlife experience is quite varied (Higginbottom and
Buckley, 2003) and includes:
• Unguided encounters with wildlife in natural areas (e.g. National Parks) with
no direct involvement of commercial tourism operators. This is a common
form of wildlife watching in the USA, Canada, Australia and parts of Europe.
• Specialised wildlife tours (e.g. bird-watching tours, safari tours, whale-
watching tours).
• Managed locational attractions featuring a natural aggregation of wildlife (e.g.
penguin breeding colonies, fish aggregation areas, migratory pathways for
birds and mammals including waders and whales, overwintering insect
aggregations, glow-worms in caves).
• Nature-based tours that include wildlife (e.g. National Park tour with game
drive; regional protected area tour, day trip to specific habitat areas (e.g.
rainforest) with wildlife component).
• Research, conservation or education tours involving wildlife, offered by
organisations whose primary role is not tourism (e.g. university groups,
Earthwatch, conservation NGOs, some government and NGO alliances).
• Sightseeing tours that include some element of incidental wildlife-watching.
• Accommodation or other tourism facilities that feature surrounding wildlife
(e.g. resorts, farm-stays).

Valentine (1992) also provides a set of dimensions that apply to wildlife watching,
divided into broad categories of experience, style and location. Each of these
dimensions is useful for description, analysis and management of wildlife-watching
tourism. There remains a number of unknowns, including the precise role of individual
species in attracting tourists.

16
 Wildlife Watching

Importance of Wildlife Watching

The US Fish and Wildlife Service has been conducting national surveys of wildlife-
related activities and expenditures for many years and provides an excellent indicator
of the significance of wildlife for recreation within a single country. Most recently the
publication of the final results from the 2001 study of economic impacts of wildlife
watching based on a study of 15,000 wildlife watchers across the USA provides
further evidence of its importance in that country (Caudill, 2003). The study excluded
visits to captive wildlife sites and included data on activity close to home and further
afield. Expenditure levels were very large and indicate the generally high level of
technical equipment used. In one year wildlife watchers alone spent US$2.6 billion on
cameras and other photographic gear and spent US$507 million on binoculars and
spotting scopes. In 2001 more than 66 million adults participated in feeding,
observing, and photographing wildlife and spent US$38.4 billion, an increase over the
previous study five years earlier (Caudhill and Laughland, 1998). As Caudill (2003)
notes, rural areas attract thousands of wildlife watchers each year, generating millions
of dollars. Across the USA wildlife watching expenditures in 2001 generated US$95.8
billion in total industry output including US$6.1 billion state and federal taxes as well
as over 1 million jobs.
Measures of simple participation and estimates of expenditure may be
supplemented by studies that seek to understand the significance of wildlife to human
communities (Kellert, 1996). Such studies reveal that humans have favourite species
(those they might fight hard to protect) and less-favoured species. Not surprisingly
mammals and birds are more favoured than reptiles and insects although there are
regional variations. Outside North America information on the importance of wildlife
tourism is difficult to obtain, though a few scattered statistics are available (see
Chapter 1).
Although the available information is limited in terms of geographical coverage
and accuracy, the evidence points to wildlife watching being economically important
on a global scale (Higginbottom and Buckley, 2003). However, as Higginbottom et al.
(2001) point out, caution is required in drawing conclusions about the level of
demand. Overestimating demand can lead to undesirable outcomes flowing from
unhealthy competition between operators and inappropriate investment of scarce
resources. Underestimating demand can also lead to management problems, with
infrastructure and resources lagging behind requirements. Apart from the broad data
on participation, sustainable management practices require much more detailed
information on visitors, notably the kinds of experiences sought, levels of
specialisation and particular settings desired. These form the basis for visitor-
management programs, themselves essential components of managing tourism in
protected areas. McCool (1996) examines links between wildlife watching, protected
areas and sustainability. This field is of crucial importance to protected area managers
and IUCN has recently prepared best practice guidelines to ensure sustainable tourism
in protected areas (Eagles, McCool and Haynes, 2002).
Nevertheless, there are major gaps in our understanding of the nature of wildlife-
watching demand. Higginbottom et al. (2001) note that very little is known about:
• the levels of demand for watching particular species;
• the levels of demand for different types of wildlife encounters such as free-
range versus captive and remote versus easily accessible;
• the characteristics of tourists who seek wildlife encounters;

17
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

• the range of different types of wildlife tourism markets; and

• whether existing growth reflects an increasing interest in wildlife or the filling
of latent demand.
Moscardo and Saltzer provide a review of current knowledge about some of these
elements (see Chapter 9). They also point out that the most desirable features of
wildlife tourism included seeing rare and distinctive wildlife behaving naturally in
their natural environment. Box 2.1 provides an example that fits most of the listed
desirable features. It also serves as an example of a specialised form of wildlife
watching available to non-specialist visitors. The new tourism also brings positive
outcomes to local communities - a key feature of sustainability.

Box 2.1: An example of a wildlife watching experience in a National Park

Tiger watching in India
‘It is still dark when I walk from the forest rest house to the elephant loading
platform and join the mahout who will be my driver. He speaks no English, and
I no Hindi, but we greet each other, he with a welcoming smile and I with
excited grin. I am in Kanha National Park in the heart of India and Dr M.K.
Ranjitsinh, the Director of National Parks in Madhya Pradesh, has arranged for
me to learn more about the tiger management program. This early morning start
is to locate a suitable tiger for the daily tourist tiger-watching activity.
Elephants were previously used in the logging industry but are now a
cornerstone for park management, providing tiger monitoring duties and,
critically, transport for tourists to see wildlife, especially tigers. Kanha National
Park is India’s oldest and its 100 000 ha provide a home for up to 100 adult
tigers and the game on which they feed (mainly Chital). The tourism industry is
predominantly national but provides income and work for the former forest
workers and their elephants.
The elephant negotiates trails throughout the Sal forest (Shorea robusta)
leaving minimal impacts with its huge padded feet and from its back we have
an excellent view. Each tiger is known to staff by its distinctive face pattern and
pug mark and this morning it takes only an hour or so to find one at rest after a
kill. We approach cautiously and it seems to me that the closer we get to this
large male tiger, the smaller the elephant we are riding. There is mutual respect
between these two great animals here in their home ground. From long
experience the mahout knows that he must keep the elephant at least 5 metres
from the tiger. I consider 20 or 30 metres much more prudent and notice that all
the hairs on my body are on edge. Nothing I had read or seen before prepared
me for this amazing experience. The first thought was that the tiger is much,
much bigger than I had imagined. The beauty of the tiger’s huge head frames a
pair of wide-set almost glowing eyes that draw my attention. I sense
intelligence and power and only the relaxed attitude of the tiger calms my fear.
When the tiger rises and strolls a few metres through the undergrowth the
striped patterns cause it to vanish from view and I appreciate the stalking value
of these markings. I also further realize its size and again feel fear rising. I am
grateful to be aloft on the back of an elephant and hope that the mahout is very
experienced. I know then that the power of this encounter will be with me all
my life. Tigers are indeed fearsome and magnificent creatures and Blake’s
immortal lines come back to me whenever I recall this experience.

18
 Wildlife Watching

‘Tiger, tiger, burning bright

In the forests of the night…’

Later we returned to the village and loaded many more elephants with
tourists for their own very special experience.’ PV.

This encounter occurred in 1982 – unhappily poaching subsequently

decimated the tigers of Kanha due to the demand for dead tigers from Asian
medicine. Gradual recovery has occurred more recently and numbers are
reportedly above 100 once more (Wildlife Protection Society of India, web site
2003).

Where is the wildlife?

The world's highest levels of biodiversity occur in less-developed countries and these
offer some of the world's most well-known wildlife-watching destinations. Shackley
(1996) ranked the world's most ‘popular’ destinations for international wildlife
watching based on numbers of tour operators. These were Eastern Africa (particularly
safari-style viewing of large cats and ungulates), followed by Central and Southern
America (rainforest wildlife and the Galapagos National Park). In some of the
countries in these regions (e.g. Kenya, Costa Rica, Ecuador), wildlife is the major
motivation for tourism.
Although wildlife occurs across the world, there are several variables that may
influence the development of a wildlife-watching tourism industry. Global
biodiversity is far from uniformly spread across the planet. In general, tropical regions
have the greatest proportion of biodiversity and these coincide with the relatively less
developed countries. For most life on earth we do not have accurate counts of the
numbers of species, and many scientists acknowledge the limited prospect of
identifying all the species before some disappear in the face of the present extinction
spasm (Wilson, 1988). Even the estimates of numbers of species vary widely (from
about 5 million out to 100 million) but all are well above the current number of
described species (around 1.5 million). Only a much more limited number feature
prominently in wildlife tourism. For these groups, not surprisingly, we are better
informed. In particular, the global totals for amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
are reasonably accurate now (Table 2.1). Even the fish are reasonably well known
with the exception of those from the deepest parts of the ocean.

Table 2.1: Estimates of total numbers of species of various groupings of wildlife

Mammals >4000
Birds >9000
Reptiles >6300
Amphibians >4200
Sharks & Rays >800
Bony fish >18000
Adapted from Wilson, 1988

While the distribution of wildlife is uneven across the world, accurate numbers by
continental region are difficult to estimate and many countries in the tropical world
have no good estimates for even the best-known groups. Even at the continental level
there are little comprehensive data, although some generalisations may be made.
Africa (>2300 species), Asia (2700 species) and South America (>3000 species) have

19
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

very rich bird life and countries in Central America may be locally diverse and
prolific. Africa (1150 species) is exceptional for mammal diversity but Australia has
very high mammalian endemism (79%).
Clearly the type of wildlife of interest to tourists is a subset of the total figures and
there are several variables that might influence the popularity of a particular animal
class. As Higginbottom and Buckley note (2003) attractive wildlife resources for
tourism mostly fall into one of the following categories:
• large numbers of large animals
• single iconic species, usually of large body size (what may be termed
charismatic megafauna)
• areas of high diversity (species richness) where many different species may be
seen
Table 2.2 shows the broad patterns of wildlife-watching tourism destinations with
indications of the types of wildlife that are prominent at the locations and additional
comments related to sustainability issues at those destinations.

Table 2.2: Major international destinations for wildlife watching

Region Wildlife Comments
Eastern and Southern Africa Large mammal (and sometimes bird) watching as part Long experience of nature/ wildlife (safari)
(especially South Africa, of safari-game lodge experience. Principally in public tourism.
Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, protected areas; also private game reserves especially in
Ban on sport hunting and trophy trade in Kenya.
Namibia, Rwanda) South Africa.
Except for South Africa, most tourists are
Mammals with high diversity, high abundance, large international.
body size. Open plains and plateaus with large vistas
make it easy to find and observe wildlife. Penguins and Significant environmental and socio-political
whales in marine and coastal areas (southern), hippos threats.
and crocodiles in wetlands and rivers. Many reserves fenced (South Africa) and
wildlife professionally manipulated for
sustainable management.
North America (USA and Mainly large mammals and birds. Key species include Trend away from hunting to wildlife watching.
Canada) several species of bears (especially polar bears in Growth in birding. Strong domestic component
Churchill, Manitoba), large ungulates, arctic foxes, red to terrestrial wildlife-watching tourism. Major
wolf, coyote, bobcat, river otter, alligators, snakes, initiatives to link wildlife watching to
invertebrates. Centred on protected areas. Significant conservation. Migratory component significant
marine and coastal wildlife watching from cetaceans to (adds seasonality and concentration).
pelagic birds.
Central and South America Mainly forest fauna in areas of high biodiversity Central America generally better developed for
(especially Costa Rica, Belize) including Amazon basin. Some as part of general tourism than South America due to greater
nature-based experience. Key species include various political stability, closer to large market, strong
primates and birds. Increasing use of water-based protected area systems, multinational initiatives.
marine and freshwater systems. Significant environmental and socio-political
threats.
Southeast and South Asia Various forest fauna in areas of high biodiversity in SE Wildlife tourism generally small but new areas
(especially India) Asia, mostly as part of general nature-based experience. and species becoming available. Significant
Key species including orang-utans and Komodo dragon. environmental and socio-political threats.
More specialised wildlife watching in India. Mainly in Significant future potential in some countries.
protected areas. Some growth in marine wildlife
tourism.
Pacific Ocean, includes Primary focus on dive tourism with some focus on Marine tourism especially subject to growing
Micronesia and Hawaiian marine species (manta rays, sharks including whale pressures and need for close management. Many
Islands, New Zealand, Fiji, sharks, coral reef organisms, whales and dolphins) uncertainties needing research.
Galapagos
Australia and Papua New International visitor interest in icon species (koala, Well developed specialist infra-structure.
Guinea kangaroo) and some specialised focus on marine
environments including coral reef diving, whale
watching, whale sharks. Endemic birds also a focus.
Mainly in protected areas.
Partly based on Higginbottom and Buckley, 2003

In some countries much of the natural environment has been transformed into
farmland with a subsequent loss of species richness. Small reserves may provide
temporary refuges for species. In other countries the fauna are spread over very large
distances, making tour operations quite challenging and expensive. Some particularly

20
 Wildlife Watching

favoured areas with high faunal diversity within relatively small areas are hotspots for
wildlife tourism. For example, wildlife watching takes advantage of great
concentrations at predictable times of the year (ungulates and associated predators in
east Africa; forest birds in Costa Rica or Peru; migratory whale aggregations
throughout the world; coral reefs and tropical rainforests). Remote oceanic islands,
especially rich in sea birds and other wildlife, are increasingly visited by tourists. Part
of this attractiveness probably reflects the ease of sighting individuals. For example,
savannahs provide good opportunity for ungulate watching, especially if infrastructure
(vehicles, hides, etc) is developed. Rainforests may, by contrast, be very difficult
environments within which to see wildlife (unless guided by an expert). In some
situations wildlife may be most active at night and require very specialised watching
arrangements (for example Australian rainforest mammals are almost entirely
nocturnal). The previous experience of the wildlife tourist will be an important factor
in successful watching of new species. This has led to the development of very
specialised guides and guiding services in wildlife watching that ensure even the most
challenging animals may be seen.

What makes a great wildlife-watching tourism destination?

Table 2.2 provides a regional synopsis of wildlife watching elements, but for greater
detail most data are compiled at the national level. In the end comparisons made by
selected countries give at least a hint of the regional concentrations of wildlife. Given
the diversity of wildlife, environments and total area of different countries, are there
ways in which the key natural resources of wildlife-watching destinations can be
assessed and some estimate made of potential success and sustainability of wildlife
tourism for a given country? The data collated by the World Resources Institute on
global environmental parameters allow a useful comparative analysis to be
undertaken. Although there are similarities across the groups, the following analysis
first examines birdwatching and then mammal watching as examples of wildlife-
watching natural resource assessment. Similar analyses should be done at a finer scale
both within countries and within other animal groups (for example, reptiles, fish and
insects). Ryan (1998), for example, has reviewed crocodiles as target species for
tourists. In this analysis the critical socio-economic and political variables of particular
places are not considered, but these may well have an over-riding effect on visitor
choice of destination, especially in the context of increasing personal safety concerns.

The top global birding prospects

Birds are fascinating to many people and the prolific literature in this area attests to the
lure of birdwatching, partly at least, because birds are relatively easy to see and
identify and they are at times abundant and sometimes conspicuous. The key natural
resource variables proposed, and represented in Table 2.3, are as follows: the total
number of species, the mean number of species per unit area, the percentage endemic
species, threatened species and the percentage area protected. These variables relate to
prospects of encountering a wide range of wildlife, relatively unusual species (not
previously seen by tourists), rare species (threatened) and the likely sustainability of
the resource (through protected area designation). At this global scale of assessment
these figures are broad summaries of national condition and there is a need to be
cautious in using them. Even so, some useful categories of potential birdwatching
destinations emerge.

21
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

Table 2.3: Wildlife and protected area data for countries across the world
BIRDS MAMMALS
Region/Country %PA N C E %E T N C E %E T
AFRICA
Egypt 0.8 153 33 0 0.0% 11 98 21 7 7% 15
Oman 16.1 107 39 0 0.0% 5 56 20 2 4% 9
Iran NA 323 60 1 0.3% 14 140 26 6 4% 20
Botswana 18 386 101 1 0.3% 7 164 43 0 0% 5
Cameroon 4.4 690 193 8 1.2% 14 409 114 14 3% 32
Eritrea 4.3 319 141 0 0.0% 3 112 50 0 0% 6
Ethiopia 5 626 133 28 4.5% 20 255 54 31 12% 35
Ghana 4.6 529 186 0 0.0% 10 222 78 1 0% 13
Kenya 6 847 222 9 1.1% 24 359 94 23 6% 43
Madagascar 1.9 202 53 105 52.0% 28 141 37 93 66% 46
Mozambique 6 498 117 0 0.0% 14 179 42 2 1% 13
Namibia 12.9 469 109 3 0.6% 8 250 58 3 1% 11
Sudan 3.4 680 110 1 0.1% 9 267 43 11 4% 21
Nigeria 3.3 681 153 2 0.3% 9 274 62 4 1% 26
South Africa 5.4 596 122 8 1.3% 16 255 52 35 14% 33
Rwanda 13.8 513 373 0 0.0% 6 151 110 0 0% 9
Tanzania 14.6 827 184 24 2.9% 30 316 70 15 5% 33
Uganda 7.9 830 290 3 0.4% 10 338 118 6 2% 18
Zimbabwe 7.9 532 159 0 0.0% 9 270 81 0 0% 9
Congo DR NA 929 153 24 2.6% 26 450 74 28 6% 38
OCEANIA
Vanuatu 0 76 71 9 11.8% 6 11 10 2 18% 3
New Caledonia 6.2 107 87 22 20.6% 10 11 9 3 27% 5
Samoa 3.6 40 61 8 20.0% 6 3 5 0 0% 2
Solomons 0 163 115 43 26.4% 18 53 37 21 40% 20
Australia 7 649 72 350 53.9% 45 260 29 206 79% 58
New Zealand 23.4 150 51 74 49.3% 44 2 1 2 100% 3
Papua New Guinea 0 653 184 94 14.4% 31 222 63 65 29% 57
Kiribati 36.6 26 62 1 3.8% 4 X X 0 0% 0
Fiji 1.1 74 61 24 32.4% 9 4 3 1 25% 4
F.S. Micronesia 0 40 96 18 45.0% 6 6 14 3 50% 6
ASIA
Indonesia 10.1 1530 271 408 26.7% 104 457 81 222 49% 128
Malaysia 4.6 508 160 18 3.5% 34 300 95 36 12% 42
Thailand 13.8 616 168 2 0.3% 45 265 72 7 3% 34
Vietnam 3 535 168 10 1.9% 47 213 67 9 4% 38
Philippines 4.8 196 64 186 94.9% 86 158 51 102 65% 49
Brunei-Darussalam 21 359 430 0 0.0% 14 157 188 0 0% 9
Japan 6.8 250 75 21 8.4% 33 188 57 42 22% 29
China 6.2 1103 114 70 6.3% 90 400 41 83 21% 75
Mongolia 11.5 426 80 0 0.0% 14 133 25 0 0% 12
India 4.4 926 137 58 6.3% 73 316 47 44 14% 75
Bangladesh 0.7 295 122 0 0.0% 30 109 45 0 0% 18
Nepal 7.6 611 252 2 0.3% 27 181 75 2 1% 28
Pakistan 4.7 375 88 0 0.0% 25 151 36 4 3% 13
Afghanistan 0.3 235 59 0 0.0% 13 123 31 2 2% 11
Kazakhstan 2.7 396 62 0 0.0% 15 178 28 4 2% 15
EUROPE
France 13.5 269 72 1 0.4% 7 93 25 0 0% 13
Germany 26.9 239 73 0 0.0% 5 76 23 0 0% 8
United Kingdom 20.4 230 80 1 0.4% 2 50 17 0 0% 4
Spain 8.4 278 76 5 1.8% 10 82 22 4 5% 19
Turkey 1.3 302 72 0 0.0% 14 116 28 2 2% 15
Belarus 6.3 221 81 0 0.0% 4 74 27 0 0% 4
Russian Federation 3.1 628 54 13 2.1% 38 269 23 22 8% 31
N&S AMERICA
Canada 9.1 426 44 5 1.2% 5 193 20 7 4% 7
USA 13.1 650 68 67 10.3% 50 432 45 105 24% 35
Mexico 3.4 772 135 92 11.9% 36 491 86 140 29% 64
Belize 20.9 356 271 0 0.0% 1 125 95 0 0% 5
Jamaica 0.1 113 110 26 23.0% 7 24 23 2 8% 4
Panama 18.8 732 376 9 1.2% 10 218 112 16 7% 17
Costa Rica 14.2 600 350 6 1.0% 13 205 120 7 3% 14
Guatemala 16.8 458 208 1 0.2% 4 250 114 3 1% 8
Colombia 8.2 1700 356 67 3.9% 64 359 75 34 9% 35
Ecuador 42.6 1388 460 37 2.7% 53 302 100 25 8% 28
Argentina 1.8 897 140 19 2.1% 41 320 50 49 15% 27
Guyana 0.3 678 246 0 0.0% 3 193 70 1 1% 10
Chile 18.7 296 71 16 5.4% 18 91 22 16 18% 22
Venezuela 35.4 1340 302 40 3.0% 22 323 73 19 6% 24
Peru 2.7 1541 310 112 7.3% 64 460 93 49 11% 46
Brazil 4.4 1500 162 185 12.3% 103 417 45 119 29% 71

22
 Wildlife Watching

[compiled from WRI Earthtrends data collected by the World Resources Institute based on their 2003 digital database.
(http://earthtrends.wri.org/). %PA = percentage of country in protected areas; N = number of breeding species; C = number
of species per million hectares; E = number of endemic species; %E = percentage of species endemic; T = number of
species threatened; Countries organised by region from Africa, Oceania, Asia, Europe, North America, South America.]

Table 2.4 provides a summary of the top ten countries for each of the variables
identified in Table 2.3.

Table 2.4: Top scoring countries for the natural resource parameters in Table 3.
BIRDS MAMMALS
rank N C %E N C %E %PA
1 Colombia Ecuador Philippines Mexico Brunei-Darussalam New Zealand Ecuador

2 Peru Brunei-Darussalam Australia Peru Costa Rica Australia Kiribati

3 Indonesia Panama Madagascar Indonesia Uganda Madagascar Venezuela

4 Brazil Rwanda New Zealand Congo DR Cameroon Philippines Germany

5 Ecuador Colombia F.S. USA Guatemala F.S. New Zealand

Micronesia Micronesia
6 Venezuela Costa Rica Fiji Brazil Panama Indonesia Brunei-Darussalam

7 China Peru Indonesia Cameroon Rwanda Solomons Belize

8 Congo DR Venezuela Solomons China Ecuador Brazil United Kingdom

9 India Uganda Jamaica Colombia Belize Mexico Panama

10 Argentina Belize New Kenya Malaysia Papua New Chile

Caledonia Guinea
[Abbreviations as for Table 2.3.]

Combining the different elements of this assessment reveals clusters of very well-
(natural) resourced countries for birdwatching tourism. Indonesia is a prime example
of a very high scoring country. It has extraordinary diversity, very high concentrations,
high endemism and a good start to a habitat protection program. Brunei-Darussalam is
another potential high quality birdwatching destination with security built in with its
21% protected area. Ecuador is also a standout country for birdwatching investment.
Very high species richness and the world’s highest concentration, coupled with >40%
of the country protected, overshadow the lack of national endemics. Venezuela is also
first ranked and despite current political problems is well placed for the long run. In
Africa the longer term prospects are not so good but may be enhanced by increased
protection of habitat (including through private reserves managed in an integrated
way). Tanzania is best placed along with Rwanda and Namibia. Kenya and Uganda
have great resources but lack protection programs adequate to the task. Some other
countries stand out because of the distinctive nature of their birds. Australia and Papua
New Guinea have groups of endemic species so very different from birds elsewhere
that birders will come anyway. In both countries some areas are very rich locally and
already attract significant birdwatching tours (for a recent review of Australian
birdwatching tourism see Jones and Buckley, 2001). Box 2.2 gives an example of bird
watching tourism in Costa Rica and indicates the combination of wildlife resources
and local community involvement that is a hallmark for successful destinations.

23
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

Box 2.2: Birdwatching in Costa Rica

Birding in Monteverde Cloud Forest
‘The rough road climbs through cleared and degraded landscapes from the
foothills through the midslopes to finally reach the thin ribbon of cloud forest at
2000 metres ASL. Appropriately shrouded in cloud these forests are extremely
complex with each tree adorned with myriad epiphytes from many plant
families. Within the forest is a magnificent diversity of bird life that, to the
visitor, is spectacular. There are the ever-present motmots with distinctive calls
and great beauty when finally sighted, somewhat reminiscent of the bee-eaters
of Africa, Asia and Australia. Once embarked upon the forest-walking track the
birds are more challenging to see but very rewarding. Amongst those fruit-
eating species is the emerald toucanet whose green plumage blends well with
the foliage of the trees. The aptly named resplendent quetzal, national bird of
Guatemala and denizen of these Costa Rican cloud forests, is often elusive but
once seen is never forgotten. The male is a gorgeous mix of red and green with
glowing tones and magnificent tail.
Another forest species is the toucan – beautifully coloured with such an
improbable beak. As expected in such forests there are numerous song birds
many of which combine colourful plumage with extravagant songs. The golden
chlorophonia is one example.
For me the peak experience, however, is the variety and beauty of the
hummingbirds. These exquisite swift-flying jewels continuously zip and dart
through the forest and cluster in gaggles around flowering patches. In one place
we counted 7 of the 24 species known from this forest, each a living gem of
tiny proportions and brilliant colour. Those visitors from beyond the range of
hummingbirds find it hard to believe that these creatures are birds! I recall
seeing a glass showcase at the British Museum of Natural History with 50
species displayed and not being able to imagine what it would be like to see one
flying. Now, as I gasp at the beauty before my eyes, it is quite amazing and I
know that this experience will remain permanently vivid.
The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is privately owned and managed for
conservation outcomes and funded by entry fees. Its presence, and the tourists it
attracts for these peak wildlife-watching experiences, support a thriving
community of lodges, restaurants, souvenir factories and stores developed by
the local communities, as well as value-added facilities like butterfly gardens.’
Based on field notes of a study tour in 1992 (PV)

Birdwatching choices – some additional social and demographic

dimensions
Many birders focus on identifying the greatest number of species possible from a
given location (within local, regional or national boundaries). The increase in a
birder’s life list of species is an important element in the outcomes from birding
activities. In some circumstances competitive birdwatching occurs amongst birders
(sometimes on a lifetime/region basis, sometimes during a specified period).
Achievement in these activities may take considerable skills and technical support and
depending on the geographic scope may be expensive.
Jones and Buckley (2001) cite an example of measuring the appeal of a birding
destination with regard to the cost per added species. Thus they indicate that seeing a

24
 Wildlife Watching

new species in the USA may cost, on average, $75 whereas a visit to Costa Rica
(species rich country but relatively cheap to travel to and within) may be much more
cost-effective – about $8–10 per species (anecdotal data based on 300 new species).
The same authors suggest a trip to Australia may also be efficient for the international
birder with their estimate of $22–26 per species (based on a recent trip yielding 340
new species).
The highly dedicated specialist birders market, already well developed and
expanding, can involve considerable cash flow (see Vardaman, 1980, 1982; Valentine,
1984). Such birders called ‘twitchers’ in some parts of the world (Oddie, 1980,
Millington 1981) are frequently impatient with the presence of lesser-skilled
individuals and desire small group size with comparable experience base. Satisfaction
comes almost entirely from nature observations, or related activities. By contrast a
‘nature tour group’ would tolerate a wider variety of skills; would not focus simply on
birds and would be comfortable with a larger group and more variable individuals.
Satisfaction would come partly from social elements not directly related to nature
observation. A third example might be non-specialist tourists whose interest is in
‘seeing somewhere different from home’. These tourists may also have an interest in
nature and typically make up a high proportion of visitors to nature destinations
accessible by road (e.g. National Park front country). Satisfaction for this group comes
mainly from the superficial interaction with nature and the sense of discovery
associated with it. Such market segregation may be desirable to maximize satisfaction
but the advantages and disadvantages of particular styles for nature conservation are
uncertain.
The most recent account of birdwatching resulting from the US Fish and Wildlife
Service studies of watchable wildlife (La Rouche, 2003) concluded that there were 46
million birdwatchers in the USA. The average birder in this study was 49 years of age
with a higher than average income and education, female, married and white. In this
US study the environments used for birding and the types of birds watched were
explored. The most common setting was woods, followed by lakes and streamsides,
brush covered areas and fields (all above 60%). Ocean areas were less favoured
(27%). The kinds of birds watched to some extent reflect this environmental
preference. Waterfowl and songbirds were the most common groups followed by birds
of prey and waders. The people identified as birders in this survey all claimed that
they had an active interest in birds. The study attempted to refine a number of
categories of avidity using the number of birds that people stated they could identify
by sight or sound, the number of days spent birdwatching and whether they kept a life
list (a record of all birds sighted during the birder’s life). Interestingly the 2001 results
closely paralleled the results of the 1980 survey that asked the same questions (La
Rouche, 2003). Only 10% could identify more than 40 species and around 5% kept a
life list (usually a sign of a particularly ardent birder).
In the USA the American Birding Association (ABA) is a non-government society
with aims to inspire all people to enjoy and protect all birds. It publishes the journal
Birding and also American Birds within which may be found much evidence of the
nature of the very keen birder, including the idea of ‘big days’ in which a birder or a
team of birders seeks to set a record number of bird species sighted in a single day. A
big day may target personal records for the particular location, for the State or country
or for other parameters. It may be for given months also and may be a single or team
effort. For example the ABA lists its big day results on the Internet by state (Florida's

25
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

best is 179, Kansas is 225). International birding big days are also promoted and
recorded. The results accord somewhat with the outcomes of the analysis on ideal
birding potential earlier in this chapter. For Peru, for example, the highest big day was
331 species; for Costa Rica 308; for Australia 249; and for South Africa 247 (see the
ABA web site http://www.americanbirding.org/bigday/bigchampI.htm). The ABA
also compiles life lists covering specific regions (for South America for example the
top 30 life lists are all over 2000 species seen from that region, for Africa and Eurasia
the best are also over 2000 species and for Australasia nearly 1000 species). The best
world life list in 2002 reached 8195, a remarkable total but with many others almost as
high. There are many other organisations around the world that support recreational
bird watching including Birdlife South Africa, Birds Australia and the British Trust for
Ornithology. On the Internet, virtual groups like Eurobirdnet provide support and
coordination for birdwatching regionally (in this case most countries of Europe have
Eurobirdnet coordinators). Additional appreciation of the birding phenomenon can be
found in accounts by some of the more famous and articulate birders.
Increasing knowledge and participation in bird-watching has seen the development
of large numbers of dedicated birders globally. Their needs are increasingly met by
specialised tour operators who provide extremely high-level naturalist and local
knowledge. Some firms are regional or national but others are global, catering for the
demand for international birding experiences. Peregrine Bird Tours is an example of a
global firm (administratively based in Australia), operating for many years and taking
birders from many countries to the most highly diverse birding places on the planet.
As an example of the global reach and diversity, Peregrine Bird Tours operated tours
over the past two years to Northern India and Nepal, Peru, Namibia, Christmas Island,
Ecuador and Galapagos, Cameroon, Cape York Peninsula (Australia) and Burma. In
2004 they will go to Taiwan and Okinawa, Madagascar, Malawi, Australia East Coast
and Argentina.

The very best prospects for mammals

In assessing the natural resources for mammal-based tourism, the comparison between
countries utilised the same basic variables – species richness, concentration (species
per unit area), endemism and protected areas (see Tables 2.3 and 2.4). Initially the
most diverse countries for mammals are Mexico, Peru, Indonesia, the Congo and the
USA. In the top 15 are also the east African mammal giants of Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania along with India and Ecuador, all above 300 species. Some additions to the
first ranked countries occur due to density or concentration including Central
American, south-east Asian and African countries. The existence of high levels of
endemism draws attention to Australia, Madagascar and other island countries.
A significant additional factor for mammals relates to the kind of environment in
which the animals occur. Some of the highest species richness and concentrations
occur in tropical rainforests. These environments are notoriously difficult to view
wildlife within (species that are well concealed in dense foliage and/or nocturnal).
Savannahs are potentially more attractive for popular mammal watching and it is here
that the east African and south African countries prevail. Not only are these countries
rich in species (250 – 300 species) but they also have the very large and very
numerous ungulates and their associated predators occurring mostly in environments
that allow relatively easy watching from the backs of comfortable vehicles. It is this
combination that has allowed the dominance of mammal watching tourism to develop

26
 Wildlife Watching

in eastern and southern African countries. This current opportunity is not as well
matched with longer-term protection (with generally inadequate protected areas in
most of these countries). The exceptions (e.g. Tanzania) may have stronger long-term
prospects if the resource can be properly managed. Box 2.3 gives a typical example of
the widely available wildlife safari opportunities in east Africa.
A recent development in both south and east Africa is the provision of ‘walking
safaris’ in which visitors are accompanied by expert guides on walks that may range
from a half-day to many days within game reserves. This new form of wildlife
watching has a high-risk component when species such as lions, rhinos and buffalo are
present. Occasionally the armed guides are forced to shoot individual animals to
protect the tourists. This development also raises insurance issues for operators.

Box 2.3: Wildlife safari experience in east Africa

A Crater full of wildlife
‘Ngorongoro Crater World Heritage Area in Tanzania is a magnet for wildlife-watching
tourists. It provides a classic east African wildlife experience and offers elephants, lions, rhinos,
buffalo and giraffes as well as hippos and hordes of grazing ungulates. The physical geography
provides controllable access and accommodation is situated along the rim of the crater (in the
forested areas) with day trips descending 500 metres to the floor of the crater. This pattern helps
protect the wildlife from poaching with after-dark patrolling guards given orders to shoot on
sight. In the early morning numerous safari vehicles disperse over the extensive grasslands and
woodlands in the huge caldera – 20 km diameter. This is a place where most of the big five are
easily seen and where the herds of wildebeest and zebra are hard to avoid. Once the desire for
large mammals has been partially sated there are great opportunities for birding from the
crowned cranes to flamingos, many shrikes, hornbills, woodpeckers, larks, stonechats and
coucals, mousebirds and hoopoes, sunbirds and raptors.
Each safari vehicle, with open top and high sides, carries a group of passengers bristling
with cameras and binoculars. The larger animals are approached to enable close viewing
(sometimes not close enough for some passengers who may try to persuade the guide to go too
close, for better views or photographs). Everyone has a chance to see the animal and many take
photos. Little interpretation occurs on most vehicles. As the vehicles traverse the floor of the
crater they congregate from place to place, attracted to specific animals as they rest or feed, or
sometimes hunt. The larger or less common species create a flurry of attention for a while
before the vehicles move on to other opportunities. A dusty pan might hold a pride of lions
basking in the heat. A woodland edge protects two or three rhinos with enormous pointed horns
– amazing animals to see so close. Elephants may be wary but sometimes allow a vehicle near.
In this reserve vehicles are confined to tracks, unlike Masai Mara in Kenya where vehicles
traverse the grasslands at will.
At midday the vehicles gather in droves at wetlands where hippos bathe in public gaze. Out
come the specially packed lunches, each with its chicken leg atop a salad, much to the delight of
the black kites who swoop and grasp the morsel from the fingers of the unsuspecting tourist.
The drivers hide their chuckles.
The evenings at the Crater rim lodges may be cool and misty and zebra graze amongst the
lodges. Stories of encounters are traded and species lists compared. Owls hoot’
From a field note book in 1995 (PV)

An expansion to other wildlife: from birding to butterfly watching

An interesting recent development is the emergence of new taxa as subjects for
wildlife watching. For example during the past decade, there have emerged an
increasing number of people engaging in butterfly watching. The first field guides for
watching rather than collecting butterflies have appeared (Glassberg, 1993) and the
development of digital imaging and the internet has enabled a rapid growth of this

27
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

wildlife-watching interest. This development is likely to mature much more quickly

than was possible for birdwatching last century and is already taking advantage of the
experience from the birdwatching industry. Amongst other emerging specialisms are
marine organisms such as nudibranchs and leafy sea dragons.

Sustainability Issues - Lessons from marine wildlife watching

This section presents an overview of some of the key considerations for ecological
sustainability in wildlife watching using a marine example. Additional material on
ecological sustainability relating to terrestrial wildlife watching is given in Chapter 11.
There are very many marine wildlife watching opportunities globally and these
have been developed into a significant and growing industry in many countries. In a
recent review of Australian marine wildlife watching Birtles, Valentine and Curnock
(2001) identified over 70 target species ranging from penguins, turtles, sea dragons,
sharks and other fish to seals, dugongs, dolphins and several species of whales. Marine
wildlife watching may be divided into three distinct elements: shore-based
observations, boat-based observations and the very widely available in-water
activities. The latter includes swimming and diving that is focussed on marine wildlife
including some very specialised opportunities (diving with leafy sea dragons or
aggregating giant cuttlefish in South Australia, swimming with whale sharks in
tropical waters or with dolphins and whales across a wide latitudinal range). Subjects
of marine wildlife watching are frequently part of species and/or populations that are
recovering from gross over-exploitation. Numbers may therefore be low anyway and
animals are particularly vulnerable. Sometimes marine wildlife encounters occur at
critical life history stages with complications for management. For example during
migration (high energy requirements, greater vulnerability to predators, individuals
and groups more easily separated), breeding (courting, mating, birthing, suckling),
feeding, resting and socialising. One interesting additional element of marine wildlife
watching is that the industry may sometimes find itself competing with other resource
exploitation activities. For example commercial fishing may produce changes in the
size classes of target species that have an adverse effect on scuba diving resources.

The whale watching industry

Hoyt’s recent (2000) update of his original seminal work on the worldwide whale
watching industry and its economic value provides a comprehensive review of the
extraordinary scale and growth rate of this international wildlife phenomenon. His
surveys showed that the number of whale watchers (his definition included all
cetaceans) grew from 4 million in 1991 to 5.4 million in 1994 and 9 million in 1998
with the growth rate being most rapid (13.6%) in the mid to late 1990’s. Three
countries (USA, Canada and Spain – the latter mainly because of the Canary Islands)
had over 1 million whale watchers and Australia and South Africa were fast
approaching this figure. He documented that whale watching was taking place in 87
countries around the world, in contrast with only 31 in 1991. Thirty-four of the 40
International Whaling Commission (IWC) member states were involved in whale
watching. This generated an estimated US$1,049 million of total expenditure in 1998
from direct and indirect revenue. The number of communities involved in whale
watching had jumped by 200 from 1994 to a total of 492 and in many cases the
benefits were substantial and the community involvement was profound.

28
 Wildlife Watching

There is a significant lack of knowledge about biology and behaviour of the target
species involved. Rarity, uniqueness, status as an intelligent mammal, interactivity
(including curiosity and sometimes highly developed boat or swimmer-seeking
behaviour), often-large size and history of exploitation all contribute to growing status
of whales as iconic ‘must see’ species. Low numbers and iconic status mean that the
probability of encounter is sometimes low and there is high pressure on operators to
deliver encounter experiences and hence overly-energetic attempts to engage reluctant
animals. There is little research on direct impacts of wildlife watching on whale
species and has mostly been focussed on odontocetes and especially dolphins. Very
little research has been done on baleen whales and most of that is on coastal species
(Humpbacks, Gray and Right whales). The oceanic rorquals (Balaenoptera includes
Blue, Finback, Sei, Brydes and Minke) have been largely ignored apart from recent
work on Dwarf Minke Whales in the Great Barrier Reef (Birtles et al. 2002, Valentine
et al. 2003). As a consequence short-term impacts are poorly understood and long-
term impacts virtually unstudied. There is considerable difficulty in linking short-term
and long-term effects. Cumulative impacts are often highly likely but are particularly
difficult to measure. These require long-term identification of known individuals. It
has proven difficult to find consistent research funding for the required long-term
photo ID studies.
Direct impacts of wildlife encounters, including whale watching, have to be
examined in the context of other threats to marine wildlife including: bycatch and
entanglement; noise pollution including low frequency sound; ship strikes (a
consequence of recovering populations, increase in traffic and higher speed vehicles);
hunting; coastal and oceanic pollution and litter.
The scientific basis for much management of whale and dolphin watching is
tenuous. Many of the current recommendations in guidelines and codes of practice
have been based on experience rather than detailed experimental research. Sometimes
legislation and guidelines developed on one species are applied inappropriately to
others (eg. regulations for large coastal whales such as Humpback and Right being
applied to small whales such as Minkes that behave more like large dolphins). There
are particular management challenges for the fast growing swim-with cetacean
interactions – both from the dedicated tourism industry but also from incidental
encounters and private recreational interactions.
Given our lack of knowledge about many quite basic aspects of the biology and
behaviour of target species and of our impacts on them, there is a need for use of the
precautionary principle (see Chapter 11). There is also a need for greater
understanding of this important management tool. Both elements of this principle need
to be appreciated: (a) caution in the face of our lack of knowledge but also (b) lack of
scientific certainty is not an excuse for management inaction if the consequences are
severe or irreversible.
There is considerable importance in understanding both the animals and the
humans who are watching them, particularly for the closer, more intimate interactions
involved in swim programs. These are two-way interactions with the behaviour of the
animals impacting on the people and vice versa. The successful management of such
encounters requires the best available natural science and social science research.
Ultimately it is usually not the wildlife being managed but people (Chapter 11). It is
therefore very important to understand the attitudes, motivations and experiences of
the human participants (Davis, Birtles, Valentine, Cuthill and Banks 1997, Valentine

29
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

et al. 2003). They are managed principally through education and good management
by the crews and also through the use of good interpretive material. Even so, it is often
unclear what are the best indicators of sustainability.
While management of all wildlife watching tourism is crucial (see Chapter 11),
marine situations have added complexity. Remoteness contributes to difficulties with
surveillance and enforcement (including significant cost factors). Cooperation between
management agencies and industry operators is particularly critical for marine based
wildlife watching. A very good example of how this might work is the relatively new
Dwarf Minke Whale tourism in the northern Great Barrier Reef (Birtles et al. 2002).
This example demonstrates collaboration between individual tourism operators, their
wildlife-watching customers, a research team and the various management agencies
responsible for the whales.

Issues for environmental sustainability of wildlife-watching tourism

As already noted in the analysis of national wildlife-watching resources (above) the
key foundation for wildlife watching is conservation of the wildlife. Without this
wildlife tourism is simply short-term mining of the resource and has no role in a
modern sustainable society. But such conservation has many dimensions and is a
challenge for all countries. In wealthy countries there will often be high-yielding
alternative uses for the habitat. In poorer countries the choices may appear to be
impossible – short-term personal survival versus long-term intergenerational benefits.
In all countries there are many stakeholders in wildlife watching and ensuring the
development and sustainability of such tourism is a difficult task. While Governments
have special, often central, roles in ensuring proper legislative protection and
resources for conservation, other partners are also crucial. The habitat managers
(protected area managers, private landowners, conservation NGOs, traditional owners)
have high responsibility for the day to day outcomes. Community groups may offer
political, financial and intellectual support for wildlife-watching ventures. Tour
operators need to be part of planning and management. Finally tourists are critical for
the financial and political success and if properly managed and nurtured (in particular
through interpretation) may become valuable advocates for more resources and better
conservation outcomes. Underpinning these components of sustainable wildlife
watching is capacity-building at all levels.
Eagles et al. (2002), in their guidelines for planning and management of tourism in
protected areas, conclude that governments should make improvements to a number of
critical areas. These include support for effective legislation with adequate resources
for implementation, creation of national policies on protected areas and the
management of tourism and development of a management plan for each protected
area.
Some countries have formalised close relationships between the environmental
management arms of government and the tourism and recreation arms. For example in
the USA the National Park Service has a policy to develop and maintain constructive
dialogue and outreach effort with state tourism and travel offices (as well as private
businesses in the tourism industry). In Australia the Ministerial Councils responsible
for management of World Heritage sites usually consist of the Minister of the
Environment and the Minister of Tourism, thereby ensuring close collaboration. The
European Charter for Sustainable Tourism similarly emphasises not only the core need
to protect and conserve the natural environment but the significance of partnerships

30
 Wildlife Watching

(including local residents, local businesses, tourists and the management agency). One
key element of the Charter is to prepare and implement a sustainable tourism strategy
and action plan for each protected area.

Prospects for the future of wildlife-watching tourism

The classic paper by Budowski (1976) exploring the prospect of symbiosis between
wildlife and tourism has been frequently cited. Many subsequently have been sceptical
about the potential for tourism to be a positive force for wildlife and have identified
potential problems (Valentine 1984, 1992, Isaacs 2000, Chapter 6) as well as
opportunities (Valentine 1993, Chapter 6).
There is scope for misinterpretation by visitors about wildlife and their needs, and
there is a large literature reflecting that (for example relating to provisioning wild
animals – see Orams (2002) for a recent review). However, much habituation of
wildlife is accidental or incidental. Whether it is kangaroos or possums in camping
grounds in Australia, bears in the USA and Canada, coatimundi in Argentina, black
kites in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, the outcomes certainly change wildlife
behaviour. There are some examples of deliberate provisioning to ensure predictable
tourist outcomes and the long term sustainability and behaviour modification
consequences are sometimes weighed up against the immediate economic benefits
from the industry. Wright (1998) notes that changing views of urban populations about
animals may lead to incorrect interpretation and skewed influence of management
policies. Hughes (2001) raises a related issue with regard to dolphins in the UK. The
rise of concerns for individual animals may help ensure better management guidelines
(for example in the wild dolphin and whale tourism industry) but may also create
difficulty for the more interventionist management practices required through habitat
fragmentation and reduction (culling programs for instance).
The enthusiasm of wildlife tourists for their target species creates a different kind
of challenge. Here our urges to get too close discomfort the very creatures we desire.
Whale sharks in Ningaloo marine park in Australia, hunting cheetah in Kenya,
elephants in South Africa and numerous rare birds everywhere have been subject to
disturbance from wildlife watchers. In many instances the desire for greater proximity
is driven by the thirst for a close up photograph and is often enabled by professional
guides in need of better tips. In this context sustainable tourism needs better training
and salaries for guides, better performance management for parks staff and better
ethics and guidelines for tourists. These are all important elements of sustainable
tourism. For many elements of the wildlife watching industry such guidelines (for
operators and tourists) are now being supplemented with regulations associated with
permits for operators. A good example of cooperation in the development and
implementation of these guidelines and codes of practice is the new Dwarf Minke
Whale swim program in the Great Barrier Reef (Birtles et al. 2002; Valentine et al.
2003). A coalition of industry, researchers and managers, with input from tourists, has
worked to ensure the emerging industry is well placed to ensure sustainability.
Knowledge is a critical element in such codes of practice and guidelines. One
important lesson is that each species may be different and require careful research and
monitoring as a standard part of any wildlife-watching program. Chapter 11 provides
many examples of approaches to sustainable management of wildlife encounters.
One of the very interesting prospects for wildlife watching is a shift or expansion
of the industry into private property (see also Chapter 6). Already there are examples

31
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

in South Africa of many private landowners managing their land for wildlife watching.
In some cases such owners are collaborating with government protected areas so that a
larger extent of area may be jointly managed (dropping fences for example between
private game parks and the Greater St Lucia Wetlands Park in South Africa).
Abandoned grazing lands may also be developed as wildlife parks – one of the best
examples is also in South Africa, the Pilanesberg National Park. Monteverde Reserve
in Costa Rica is a famous example of private (in this case cooperative) landowners
managing their land for conservation for wildlife watching (see Box 2.2 above). In the
USA there are many examples (Benson 2001) and in Canada, the number one activity
of vacation farm visitors is wildlife watching (Fennell and Weaver, 1997). As private
landowners increase their interest in managing lands for wildlife watching, the overall
security of conservation efforts should increase due to the ecological benefits of
increased habitat area. The subsequent challenge will be to ensure coordinated
management within the ecosystem-based model of modern landscape ecology
(Brunner and Clark 1997; Soule and Terborgh 1999)
Ecosystem-based management as a philosophy and practice is already official
policy in, for example, the US National Park Service, the US Fish and Wildlife
Service and the US Forest Service, three major land management agencies involved
with wildlife watching. This commitment to ecosystem-based management is now
widespread through IUCN and other conservation organisations.
A final aspect of future wildlife watching is the role of technology (Higginbottom
and Buckley, 2003). The enthusiasm for proximity to wildlife and its adverse effects
on target species may sometimes be addressed through technology. Already virtual
access is provided at many sites from penguin rookeries to seal breeding grounds.
Where this is in association with physical proximity to the site (but slightly removed)
visitors may actually enjoy enhanced experiences in greater comfort and safety, with
little or no impact on the wildlife. Using sophisticated video, transmission and
screening equipment visitors can obtain even more intimate encounters. In some
instances such images are now available on the internet as a form of ersatz tourism
(although this is unlikely to be a substitute for real tourism). Perhaps of greater
significance is the prospect of technology supporting the essential monitoring needs of
wildlife watching. Already some partnerships exist between management agencies,
tour operators and tourists to provide continuous monitoring for management
purposes.

The way forward

Wildlife watching tourism is a major element of nature-based tourism and is present
across a wide spectrum of environments and countries. Some countries are particularly
well-endowed with natural resources for wildlife watching. For this form of wildlife
tourism to be translated into successful future growth of the industry there needs to be
consideration of a number of other factors and many of these are addressed in parts 2
and 3 of this volume. For the industry to be sustainable, a collaborative approach using
ecosystem-based management approaches offers greatest prospect. There is a
significant need for capacity building at all levels and for strong government
leadership to enable best-practice codes and guidelines to be implemented. All
stakeholders should participate to ensure a full spread of benefits but the crucial task is
conservation of the wildlife already threatened by extensive habitat loss and in most
countries inadequate habitat protection. There is also a large number of uncertainties

32
 Wildlife Watching

associated with wildlife watching. These include inadequate knowledge about the
effects of wildlife watching on target species; a lack of clarity about the desire for
proximity in wildlife watching tourists (including the willingness to take risk and
uncertainty as part of the experience); the scope for expansion into new groups of
target species and their likely appeal; the kinds of economic developments that are
compatible with, or at least not destructive of, wildlife watching; the sustainability of
an increasingly interventionist management style for wildlife and identification of
appropriate indicators for monitoring and sustainability measures. It will take
considerable cooperation between researchers, industry and management to address
these concerns and take advantage of the opportunities.

References
Benson, D.E. 2001 Wildlife and recreation on private lands in the United States American Journal of
Agricultural Economics 84(5):1384-1389.
Birtles, A., Valentine, P. and Curnock, M. 2001. Wildlife Tourism Research Report No. 11, Status
Assessment of Wildlife Tourism in Australia Series, Tourism Based on Free-Ranging Marine Wildlife:
opportunities and responsibilities. CRC for Sustainable Tourism, Gold Coast, Queensland.
Birtles, A., Valentine, P., Curnock, M., Arnold, P. and Dunstan, A. 2002 Incorporating visitor experiences
into ecologically sustainable dwarf minke whale tourism in the northern Great Barrier Reef, CRC
Reef Research Centre Technical Report No 42, 60 pp.
Brunner, R.D. and Clark, T.W. 1997 A practice-based approach to ecosystem management. Conservation
Biology 11(1): 48-58.
Budowski, G. 1976 Tourism and conservation: conflict coexistence or symbiosis. Environmental
Conservation. 3(1): 27-31.
Caudill, J. 2003. 2001 National and State Economic Impacts of Wildlife Watching, Report 2001-2, US Fish
and Wildlife Service, Arlington.
Caudill, J. and Laughland, A. 1998. 1996 National and State Economic impacts of Wildlife Watching,
Report 1996-1, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington.
Davis, D., Birtles, A., Valentine, P., Cuthill, M., and Banks, S. 1997. Whale sharks in Ningaloo Marine
Park: managing tourism in an Australian marine protected area. Tourism Management. 18(5): 259-271.
Eagles, P. F. J., McCool, S.F. and Haynes, C.D. 2002 Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, IUCN,
Gland.
Fennell, D.A. and Weaver, D.B. 1997 Vacation farms and ecotourism in Saskatchewan, Canada. Journal of
Rural Studies 13(4):467-475.
Glassberg, J. 1993 Butterflies Through Binoculars. Oxford University Press, New York.
Higginbottom, K., Rann, K., Moscardo, G., Davis, D. and Muloin, S. 2001. Wildlife Tourism Research
Report No. 1, Status Assessment of Wildlife Tourism in Australia Series Wildlife Tourism in Australia
Overview. CRC for Sustainable Tourism, Gold Coast, Queensland.
Higginbottom, K. and Buckley, R. 2003. Wildlife Tourism Research Report No. 9, Status Assessment of
Wildlife Tourism in Australia Series, Viewing of Free-Ranging Land-Dwelling Wildlife. CRC for
Sustainable Tourism, Gold Coast, Queensland.
Hoyt, E. 2000 Whale watching 2000. Worldwide tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding socio-
economic benefits. IFAW.
Hughes, P. 2001 Animals, values and tourism – structural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision. Tourism
Management. 22(4):321-329.
Isaacs, J.C. 2000 The limited potential of ecotourism to contribute to wildlife conservation. Wildlife Society
Bulletin. 28(1)61-69.
Jones, D. and Buckley, R. 2001. Wildlife Tourism Research Report No. 10, Status Assessment of Wildlife
Tourism in Australia Series, Birdwatching Tourism in Australia. CRC for Sustainable Tourism, Gold
Coast, Queensland.
Kellert, S. R. 1996 The Value of Life: biological diversity and human society. Island Press, Washington.
La Rouche, G.P. 2003 Birding in the United States: A Demographic and Economic Analysis. US Fish &
Wildlife Service, Washington.
McCool, S. M. 1996. Wildlife viewing, natural area protection and community sustainability and resilience.
Natural Areas Journal. 16(2): 147-151.
Millington, R. 1981 A Twitcher’s Diary, Blandford Press, Dorset.
Oddie, Bill 1980 Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book. Methuen, London. 148pp
Orams, M.B. 2002 Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: a review of issues and impacts. Tourism
Management. 23(3) 281-293.

33
Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning

Ryan, C. 1998. Saltwater crocodiles as tourist attractions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 6(4): 314-327.
Shackley, M. 1996. Wildlife Tourism. International Thomson Business Press, London. Tourism. 6(4): 314-
327.
Soule, M. and Terborgh, J. 1999 Continental Conservation: Design and Management principles for long-
term, Regional Conservation Networks, Washington DC, Island Press.
Valentine, P.S. 1984 Wildlife and tourism: some ideas on potential and conflict. In O'Rourke B (ed)
Contemporary Issues in Australian Tourism, University of Sydney, pp 29-54
Valentine, P.S. 1992 Nature-based Tourism, Chapter 9, pp 105-127 in Special Interest Tourism edited by B.
Weiler and C.M. Hall, Bellhaven Press, London.
Valentine, P.S. 1993 Ecotourism and nature conservation: a definition with some recent developments in
Micronesia, Tourism Management 14(2):107-115.
Valentine, P.S., Birtles, A., Curnock, M., Arnold, P. and Dunstan, A. 2003 Getting closer to whales –
passenger expectations and experiences, and the management of swim with dwarf minke whale
interactions in the Great Barrier Reef. Tourism Management (in press) 24(3):
Vardaman, J.M. 1982 Birding around the world : 1041 species in ten days. Birding XIV(5):182-191.
Vardaman, J. M. 1980 Call Collect, ask for Birdman. St Martin’s Press, New York.
Wilson, E.O. 1988 Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington.
Wright, R.G. 1998 A review of relationships between visitors and ungulates in National Parks. Wildlife
Society Bulletin. 26(3):471-476.

34