Chapter 3

Temperature sensors and thermal actuators

Le Viet Thong

Faculty of Electrical Electronic Engineering, Phenikaa University

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Content

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Thermoresistive sensors
3.2.1 Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
3.2.2 Silicon RTD
3.2.3 Thermistor
3.3 Thermoelectric sensors
3.4 p-n junction temperature sensors
3.5 Other temperature sensors

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3.1 Introduction
• Temperature sensors are the oldest sensors in use around 1600s (excluding the magnetic
compass)
• The classical thermometer is clearly a sensor although it does not provide an output signal.
• The Seebeck effect was discovered in 1821 by Thomas Johann Seebeck and became an
accepted method of temperature measurement when Antoine Cesar Becquerel used it in 1826
to build the first modern temperature sensor—the thermocouple.
• In 1834, Peltier effect discovered by Charles Athanase Peltier. It is used for sensing, but more
often it is used for cooling or heating as well as for thermoelectric power generation.
• In 1821, Humphry Davy found that the conductivity of metals decreases with temperature.
• In 1871, William Siemens described a method for measurement of temperature based on the
resistance–temperature relation in platinum. This method has become the basis of
thermoresistive sensors on which resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are based. Its
extension to semiconductors gave birth to thermistors (thermal resistors) as well as to a
variety of other useful sensors including semiconductor temperature sensors.
• Other sensors through the measurement of temperature: air velocity or fluid flow: measure the
cooling effect of moving air or that of a fluid with reference to a constant temperature.
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3.1.1 Unit of temperature
❖ SI unit: Kelvin (K)
❖ Celsius (C), Fahrenheit( F)
❖ Conversion between the three units are

T (oC) = T (K) – 273.15

T (oC) = 5/9{T (oF)-32}
T (oF) = 9/5 T (oC) + 32

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3.1.2 Heat, thermal conductivity, heat capacity

❖ Heat is a form of energy, unit: Joule (J), Megajoules (MJ), Gigajoules (GJ), calorie (cal)
1 J = 1 W.s
1kWh = 1000 W . 3600s = 3,6 MJ
1J = 4,18 cal
❖ Thermal conductivity (k or ) is a measure of the ability of materials to conduct heat.
Unit: W/m/K
❖ Heat capacity (C) refer to the amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of a
substance by a give amount.
Unit: J/K
Other derived parameters: molar heat capacity (J/mol/K), specific heat capacity (J/kg/K),
volumetric heat capacity (J/m3/K)

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3.2 Thermoresistive sensors (cảm biến nhiệt điện trở)
Thermoresistive sensors include two types:
(1) Resistance temperature detectors (RTD): based on solid conductor (metals
and silic). Those have positive temperature coefficients (PTC)
(2) Thermistors: based on semiconductors which mostly have negative
temperature coefficient (NTC)

▪ Positive temperature coefficients (PTC) mean the resistance of the sensor

increase with the temperature. (hệ số nhiệt điện trở dương)
▪ Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) mean the resistance of the sensor
decrease with the temperature. (hệ số nhiệt điện trở âm)

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 3.2.1 Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
▪ RTDs are made of metals such as platinum, nickel, copper.
▪ All RTDs are based on the change in resistance due to the temperature
coefficient of resistance (TCR) of the metal being use.
▪ The resistance of a conductor
𝐿
R= (3.1)
𝜎0 𝑆
R T = 𝑅(𝑇0) 1 + α 𝑇 − 𝑇0 (3.2)

where R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T0.

α is the TCR of the conductor.
Ex: a sensor with S = 0.1 mm2 and length L = 1 m gives a change in resistance of
6.61 105 Ω/C and a base resistance of 0.017 Ω at 20 C
Requirements: the sensor must be long and thin, have low conductivity, large
TCR http://phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
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• In practice, data available are the nominal resistance, usually given
at 0 C, the range (ex, -200 C to 600 C), self-heat, accuracy.
• The transfer function can approximately describe:

where R(0) is the resistance at 0 C and T is the temperature at which the resistance is sought.

• Pt is mostly used for RTD. The manufacturer conform to existing

standards:
For example, Platinum RTD with different grade will have different TCR
α = 0.00385 : EN 60751 European curve
α = 0.003926 : American curve

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Callendar–Van Dusen equations
• Note that the TCR  in (3.2) is considered to be a constant. This is an
approximation.
• To improve its accuracy, the transfer function is given as:
For T  0 C :
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅(0) 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 2 (3.3)
For T < 0 C:
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅(0) 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 2 + 𝑐 𝑇 − 100 𝑇 3 (3.4)
The coefficients a and b are calculated for each material based on fixed temperatures. Those
are known as the Callendar-Van Dusen equation.

For example, for platinum (standard EN 60751, α = 0.00385), the coefficients are
a = 3,98083  10-3, b = -5,775  10-7 , c = -4,183  10-12

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RTD structure: wire-wound vs thin film

a thin layer of platinum is deposited onto a ceramic substrate

built by winding a length of platinum around a ceramic or glass
core. The entire element is normally packaged inside a ceramic or
glass tube for protection purposes

Wire-wound RTDs are typically more accurate than the thin film
type. However, they are more expensive and more likely to be
damaged by vibrations.
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RTD construction

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in-industrial_23.html
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RTD connection styles

RTDs typically come in relatively low resistances ➔ resistance of lead wires

resistance (điện trở dây nối) will affect the precision. ➔ some commercial sensors
come in two-, three-, or fourwire configurations. ➔ facilitate compensation for the
lead wires
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Materials

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Example 3.1: Wire-spool sensor
A spool of magnet wire (copper wire insulated with a thin layer of polyurethane) contains 500 m of
wire with a diameter of 0.2 mm. It is proposed to use the spool as a temperature sensor to sense the
temperature in a freezer. The proposed range is between -45 C and +10 C. A milliammeter is used
to display the temperature by connecting the sensor directly to a 1.5 V battery and measuring the
current through it.
(a) Calculate the resistance of the sensor and the corresponding currents at the minimum and
maximum temperatures.
(b) Calculate the maximum power the sensor dissipates
Solution 𝑙
The resistance of a length of wire 𝑅=
𝜎𝑆
𝑙
Table 3.1 gives the conductivity as 0 = 5.8 107 S/m at 20 C 𝑅(20) =
𝜎0 𝑆
𝑙
R T = 𝑅(20) 1 + α 𝑇 − 20 = 1 + α 𝑇 − 20
𝜎0 𝑆

The TCR of copper  = 0.0039

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 𝑙
R T = 1 + α 𝑇 − 20
𝜎0 𝑆
500
R −45 = 1 + 0,0039 −45 − 20 = 204,8 Ω
5,8 10 3,14 (0,0001)
7 2

500
R +10 = 1 + 0,0039 10 − 20 = 263,7 Ω
5,8 10 3,14 (0,0001)
7 2

The resistance changes from 204.8 Ω at -45 C to 263.7 Ω at +10 C. The currents are
1,5 1,5
I −45 = = 7,323 𝑚𝐴 I +10 = = 5,688 𝑚𝐴
204,8 263,7
Sensitivity is 29,72 A/ C, meaning that a micrometer with resolution 1 A can measure a change of
0,03 C.

P(10C)=𝐼 2 𝑅 = 5,688 × 10−3 2 × 263,7 = 8,53 𝑚𝑊

P(−45C)=𝐼 2 𝑅 = 7,323 × 10−3 2 × 204,84 = 10,98 𝑚𝑊

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Example 3.2: Wire RTD resistance and sensitivity
A wire-wound RTD sensor is made of pure platinum wire, 0.1 mm in diameter, to have a
resistance of 25 at 0 C. Assume here that the TCR is constant with temperature.
(a) Find the necessary length for the wire.
(b) Find the resistance of the RTD at 100 C.
(c) Find the sensitivity of the sensor in ohms/degree Celsius [ / C ].
Solution:
𝑙 𝑙
(a) R T = 𝑅 𝑇0 1 + α 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 1 + α 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 2 1 + α 𝑇 − 𝑇0
𝜎0 𝑆 𝜎0 𝜋𝑟
We have: T = 0 C, R(0) = 25 
From table 3.1: T0 = 20 C, 0 = 9,4  106 S/m;
TCR  = 0,003926
𝑙
25 = 1 + 0,003926 0 − 20 = 12,48l
9,4  1063,140,052 10−6

l = 2,003m The sensor requires 2 m of platinum wire.

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(b) Find the resistance of the RTD at 100 C.
oC
2,003
R 100 = 1 + 0,003926 100 − 20 = 35,67Ω
9,4  3,140,052
106 10−6

The resistance changes from 25 C at 0 C to 35.67 Ω at +100 C.

(c) Find the sensitivity of the sensor in ohms/degree Celsius [ / C ].

sensitivity of the sensor in ohms/degree Celsius meaning the change of resistance

corresponds to the temperature increase 1 C

Δ𝑅 𝑅 𝑇 + 1 − 𝑅(𝑇)
S= = = 𝑅 𝑇 + 1 − 𝑅(𝑇)
Δ𝑇 𝑇+1 −𝑇

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 𝑙
R T = 1 + α 𝑇 − 20
𝜎0 𝑆

𝑙
R T+1 = 1 + α 𝑇 + 1 − 20
𝜎0 𝑆

𝑙 𝑙 𝑙𝛼
R T+1 −𝑅 𝑇 = 1 + α 𝑇 + 1 − 20 − 1 + α 𝑇 − 20 =
𝜎0 𝑆 𝜎0 𝑆 𝜎0 𝑆

sensitivity

Δ𝑅 𝑅 𝑇 + 1 − 𝑅(𝑇) 𝑙𝛼 2,003 × 0,003926

S= = = = = 0,1065 Ω/C
Δ𝑇 𝑇+1 −𝑇 𝜎0 𝑆 9,4  10 3,140,05  10
6 2 −6

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Example 3.3: RTD representation and accuracy
An RTD with nominal resistance of 100  at 0 C is specified for the range from -200
C to 600 C. The engineer has the option of using the approximate transfer function in
(3.2) or the exact transfer function in (3.3) and (3.4). Assume TCR α = 0.00385/ C.
(a) Calculate the error incurred by using the approximate transfer function at the
extremes of the range.
(b) What are the errors if the range used is from - 50 C to +100 C?
Solution:
(a) For the linear approximation (using equation 3.2) R T = 𝑅(𝑇0) 1 + α 𝑇 − 𝑇0

R 600 C = 𝑅 0 1 + α𝑇 = 100 1 + 0,00385 × 600 = 331 Ω

R −200 C = 𝑅 0 1 + α𝑇 = 100 1 − 0,00385 × 200 = 23 Ω

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Using Callendar–Van Dusen equations
For T  0 C : 𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅(0) 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 2
For T < 0 C: 𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅(0) 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 2 + 𝑐 𝑇 − 100 𝑇 3
For Pt: a = 3,98083  10-3, b = -5,775  10-7 , c = -4,183  10-12
R 600 C = 𝑅 0 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇2
= 100 1 + 3,9808310−3600−5,775 10−7 6002 = 313,7 Ω
R −200 C = 𝑅 0 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇2 + 𝑐 𝑇 − 100 𝑇 3
= 100 1 + 3,9808310−3(−200)− 5,775 10−7 2002−4,183  10−12(−200)3
= 18,52 Ω
The resistance calculated with the approximate formula is higher by 5.51% at 600 C and
higher by 24.19% at 200 C. These deviations are not acceptable and therefore one cannot
use the approximate formula for the whole range—the use of the Callendar–Van Dusen
relations is essential.

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(b) What are the errors if the range used is from - 50 C to +100 C?
❖ Using linear approximation
• R 100 C = 𝑅 0 1 + α𝑇 = 100 1 + 0,00385 × 100 = 138,5 Ω

• R −50 C = 𝑅 0 1 + α𝑇 = 100 1 − 0,00385 × 50 = 80,75 Ω

❖ Using Callendar–Van Dusen equations:

• R 100 C = 𝑅 0 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇2
= 100 1 + 3,9808310−3100−5,775 10−7 1002 = 138,5055 Ω
• R −50 C = 𝑅 0 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇2 + 𝑐 𝑇 − 100 𝑇 3
= 100 1 + 3,9808310−3(−50)− 5,775 10−7 502−4,183  10−12(−50)3
= 80,3063 Ω
The resistance calculated with the approximate formula is only 0.0397% lower at 100 C and
lower by 0.552% at 50 C. These deviations may be quite acceptable and the approximate
formula can be used.
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 Self-heat of RTD
To operate, RTD must be connected in the circuit with the current through.
This will generate heat as formulated P = RI2, where I is the current and R is the
resistance of the RTD.
Typically, as part of the specification of the sensor, the temperature increase per
unit power (C /mW) or the power per degree (mW/ C) is given by the
manufacturer, allowing the designer to compensate for these errors in the reading
of the sensor. Typical errors are on the
order of 0.01 C /mW to 0.2 C /mW.

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 Example 3.4: Self-heat of RTDs
Consider the self-heat of an RTD operating in the range -200 C to +850 C that has a nominal
resistance of 100 Ω at 0 C. Its self-heat is provided in its data sheet as 0.08 C /mW in air
(typically, this value is given at a low airspeed of 1 m/s). Calculate the maximum error
expected due to self-heat if
(a) The resistance is measured by applying a constant voltage of 1 V across the sensor.
(b) The resistance is measured by applying a constant current of 10 mA through
the sensor.
Note: Both of these measurements provide a nominal current of 10 mA at 0 C.
Solution:
R −200 C = 𝑅 0 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇2 + 𝑐 𝑇 − 100 𝑇 3
= 100 1 + 3,9808310−3(−200)− 5,775 10−7 2002−4,183  10−12(−200)3
= 18,52 Ω
R 850 C = 𝑅 0 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇2
= 100 1 + 3,9808310−3850−5,775 10−7 8502 = 390,48 Ω
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(a) Power at constant voltage
𝑉2 1
𝑃 −200C = = = 54 𝑚𝑊
𝑅 18,52
𝑉2 1
𝑃 850C = = = 2,56 𝑚𝑊
𝑅 390,48
error at -200 C is 54  0,08 = 4,32 C
error at 850 C is 2,56  0,08 = 0,205 C
The maximum error occurs at -200 C and equals 4.3 C or 2.15%.
(b) Power at constant current
𝑃 −200C = 𝑅𝐼2 = 18,520,012 = 1,85 𝑚𝑊
𝑃 850C = 𝑅𝐼2 = 390,480,012 = 39 𝑚𝑊
error at -200 C is 1,85  0,08 = 0,148 C
error at 850 C is 39 0,08 = 3,12 C
The maximum error occurs at 850 C and equals 3,12 C or 0.37%.

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Review RTD Pt100

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 3.2.2 RTD Silicon

❖ TCR of Si ~ 0.7%/oC.
❖ Conductivity of silic

❖ Conductivity of doped Si (n-type or p-type)

❖ The resistance of silicon resistive sensor as a function of

temperature as follow:

(3.11)

HOT (higher-order term): hệ số điều chỉnh bậc cao

Với R0 là điện trở ở nhiệt độ Tref.
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Example 3.6: Silicon-resistive sensor
A silicon-resistive sensor is described by the first two terms in (3.11) with coefficient
a =7.63510-3, b = 1.731 10-5 with a reference resistance of 1 kΩ at 25 C. The sensor
is to be used for temperature sensing in the range from 0 C to 75 C. Calculate the
maximum deviation of resistance from linearity, where the linear response is given by
(3.2) with a temperature coefficient of 0.013/ C .
Solution:
T0 = 25 C, R(T0) = 1 kΩ

R 0 C = 𝑅 T0 1 + α 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 1000 1 + 0,013(0 − 25) = 675 Ω

R 0 C = 𝑅 0 1 + 𝑎(𝑇 − 𝑇0) + 𝑏(𝑇 − 𝑇0)2

= 100 1 + 7,63510−3(0−25) +1.731 10−5(0−25)2 = 992,4 Ω
The difference is 317.4 W. This is 31.98% and clearly the linear formula cannot be used
for practical implementation.

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Response of a silicon-resistive sensor showing the deviation between
the approximate linear formula and the second-order formula

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 3.2.3 Thermistor
Made by oxide materials: MgO, MgAl2O4, Mn2O3, Fe3O4, Co2O3, NiO, ZnTiO4

1 1
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝛽 − (3.5)
𝑇 𝑇0
Steinhart-Hart equation

where R0 [Ω] is the resistance of the thermistor at

the reference temperature T0 [K],
β [K] is the material constant and is specific for
the particular material used in a device,
R(T) [Ω] is the resistance of the thermistor and T
[K] is the temperature sensed.

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From Steinhart-Hart equation
1 1
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝛽 −
𝑇 𝑇0

One can rewrite:

(3.6)

or
(3.7)

The constants a, b, and c are evaluated from three known points on the thermistor
response

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Features of thermistors
• Error due to self-heating similar to RTD, typical value are between 0,01 C /mW in
water and 1 C /mW in air.
• Usually, thermistor has very high resistance ➔ low current ➔ low power ➔ low
error.
• Long-term stability is an issue since the resistance changed with aging right after
production ➔ they are aged prior to shipment
• The temperature range of thermistors is higher than that of silicon RTD, typical -270
C to 1500 C.

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3.3 Thermoelectric sensors or thermocouple
(Cảm biến cặp nhiệt điện)
3.3.1 Thermoelectric effect (hiệu ứng nhiệt điện)
❖ The Seebeck effect is an electromotive force (emf) (voltage) produced across the
junction between two dissimilar conducting materials.

(3.16)

(3.17)

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Thermoelectric laws

1. Law of homogeneous circuit: A thermoelectric current cannot be established

in a homogeneous circuit by heat alone. This law establishes the need for
junctions of dissimilar materials since a single conductor is not sufficient to
establish an emf and hence a current.
2. Law of intermediate materials: The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric forces
(emfs) in a circuit composed of any number and combination of dissimilar
materials is zero if all junctions are at the same temperature.
3. Law of intermediate temperatures: If two junctions at temperatures T1 and
T2 produce Seebeck voltage V1 and temperatures T2 and T3 produce Seebeck
voltage V2, temperatures T1 and T3 produce Seebeck voltage V3 = V1 + V2.

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Thermocouple structure

T1 reference temperature
T2 measurement temperature

• Reference temperature T1 can be

measured by RTD and should be
maintained at a constant.

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Compensation circuit
• In practice, the reference temperature cannot be at constant ➔ need a compensation circuit.

where αba, is the relative Seebeck coefficients.

The compensation term emfcomp is added to ensure that T2 is correctly measured. The purpose of the compensation
circuit is to cancel the term αbaT. That is, the emf supplied by the compensation circuit must be

(a) Connection of a thermocouple through a uniform temperature zone (T) and a

compensation circuit to replace the reference junction. (b) The compensation circuit
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3.4 p-n junction temperature sensors
forward current through diode

the voltage across the diode

Eg band gap(J)
C is a temperature-independent constant
for the diode
I is the current through the junction
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Potential drop on a forward-biased p–n junction versus temperature
(1N4148 silicon switching diode, evaluated experimentally)

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Example 3.12: Silicon diode as a temperature sensor
A silicon diode is proposed for use as a temperature sensor in a vehicle to sense ambient
temperature between -45 C and +45 C. To determine its response, the diode is forward
biased with a 1 mA current and its forward voltage drop is measured at 0 C as 0.712 V. The
bandgap energy of silicon is 1.11 eV. Calculate:
(a) The output expected for the span needed.
(b) The sensitivity of the sensor.
(c) The error in measuring temperature if the self-heating specification for the
diode in still air is 220 C /W.
Solution:
(a) The output expected for the span needed.
Voltage across the diode

➔ Need to determine the constant C

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We have T = 0 C, Vf = 0.712 V

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The forward voltage drop varies between 0.77765 V at - 45 C and 0.64654 V at +45 C.

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(b) The sensitivity of the sensor.
Since Vf is linear with temperature, the sensitivity of the device is the
difference between the two range points divided by the difference in temperature:

(c) The error in measuring temperature if the self-heating specification for the diode in
still air is 220 C/W.
The self-heating effect causes an increase in temperature of 220 C/ C or 0.22 C /mW.
Since the current through the diode is 1 mA, the power dissipated is
At -45 C
P(-45 C) = U.I = 0,77765 x 0,001 = 0,77 mW

The increase in temperature is 0.778× 0.22 = 0.171 C

the forward voltage decreases by 0.171× 1.457 = 0.249 mV.
The temperature reading error 0,249/0.77765 = 0.38%
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At 45 C
P(45 C) = U.I = 0,6465 x 0,001 = 0,647 mW

The increase in temperature is 0.647× 0.22 = 0.142 C

the forward voltage decreases by 0.142× 1.457 = 0.207 mV.
The error in temperature reading is 0.207/0.64654 = 0.32%.

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IC temperature sensor

The two LEDs are used at the output to indicate the high and low temperatures. As the
temperature rises, it increases the voltages of a comparator, The comparator then
amplifies the difference of voltages and indicates high or low temperature by
triggering the Led.
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LM35

(phụ tùng)

HVAC: Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (Hệ thống sưởi

ấm, thông gió và điều hoà không khí)

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Overview

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3.5 Other temperature sensors
IR temperature sensor
❖ The camera converts infrared heat from objects
into an electronic image that shows the
apparent surface temperature of the object
being measured
❖ An infrared camera contains an optical system
that focuses infrared energy onto a special
detector chip (sensor array) that contains
thousands of detector pixels arranged in a grid.
❖ Each pixel in the sensor array reacts to the
infrared energy focused on it and produces an
electronic signal. The camera processor takes
the signal from each pixel and applies a
mathematical calculation to it to create a color
map of the apparent temperature of the object

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Optical and acoustical sensors

the relation between temperature and the speed of sound in air in a tube:

Acoustic temperature sensing. (a) Sound travels through a fluid-filled channel. (b) Sound travels through
the working fluid itself
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Thermomechanical sensors and actuators
The change in volume due to the change in temperature is

𝑉 = 𝑉0[1 +  𝑇 − 𝑇0 ] [m3]
where V0 is the volume at the
reference temperature T0

Temperature sensing based on expansion of gases (or liquids)

The position of the piston is sensed in any of a number of ways:

- Drive a potentiometer and the resistance
- Connect to a mirror and change it tilt
- Drive a needle directly

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Thermopneumatic sensor (cảm biến nhiệt khí nén)

The Golay cell is a thermopneumatic sensor based on the expansion of gasses.

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Bimetal sensor

Bimetal sensor. (a) Basic construction. (b) Displacement with

temperature. (c) Coil bimetal temperature sensor

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temperature sensor in flow meter
• A resistive element with a large temperature coefficient of resistance
is wound on the upstream side (Rus) and the downstream side (Rds)
around the capillary tube.
• When electric current flows through these sections, the two resistive
elements generate heat.
• When no fluid flows in the capillary tube at that time, the temperature
of the upstream side is the same as that of the downstream side,
matching each other.
• When the fluid begins to flow in this state, the temperature
distribution changes as shown by the broken line in Figure 3.
• As the temperature difference (∆T) has a functional relation to the
mass flow of fluid, mass flow instruments pick up electric signals that
represent the change in respective resistance values and amplify and
correct the signal to permit the mass flow to be measured under a
certain condition.

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Temp sensors in mass flow controller

In the mass flow controller, the opening of

the flow control valve is controlled by a
high-velocity, high-resolution piezo or
solenoid actuator based on the comparison
between the external flow setting signal
and the flow signal output from the sensor.

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 Homework

3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14,
3.15, 3.16, 3.25, 3.26

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The end

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