COMMON TERMINOLOGIES IN ASSESSMENT consequences, such as being forced to take remedial classes or not being

Defining the terms: Measurement and Assessment

- The terms “measurement” and “assessment” are often used

interchangeably in education. However, while they are related, they have
different meanings and purposes.

Measurement

When we think about measurement, we often assume it means quantifying

concrete objects. For example, you may imagine a ruler or a measuring cup.
In these cases, there is a physical object naming the value, the amount, or
the length of something.

But this definition fails to fully define measurement in: Teaching The learning
process; or Education

When it comes to testing students, measurement is the standard or process

students are compared against.

Measurement is the quantifiable part of the testing process, and it is required

to gauge the efficacy of our programs and the growth of our students.
Without measurement, we do not know what to assess.

TESTING it is a systematic procedure to determine the presence or absence

of certain characteristics or qualities in a learner.

TESTING: STANDARDIZED TESTING AND HIGH STAKES TESTING

Standardized tests are tests administered and scored under a consistent set
of procedures. able to practice a profession. Examples of high-stakes tests include college
entrance examinations, high/secondary school exit examinations, and
• Uniform conditions of administration are necessary to make it possible to professional licensing examinations.
compare results across individuals or schools. For example, it would be
unfair if the performance of students taking a test in February were to be •Students: Test results may be used to determine whether students advance
compared to the performance of students tested in May or if one group of to the next grade level or whether they receive a diploma.
students had help from their teacher while another group did not.
•Educators: Test results may be used in the job-performance evaluations of
• The most familiar standardized tests of achievement are traditional teachers or to determine professional compensation.
machine-scorable and multiple-choice tests.
•Schools: Tests results may be used to trigger penalties for schools, including
Many other assessments, such as open-ended performance assessments, negative public ratings, the replacement of staff members, or even closure.
personality and attitude measures, English-language proficiency tests, or For example, some federal and state policies require that test results be used
Advanced Placement essay tests, may also be standardized so that results to impose a variety of consequences, such as firing or transferring some or all
can be interpreted on a common scale. of a school’s administrators and faculty, or forcing a school to pay for
additional services and transportation costs for students.
A standardized test score is usually represented as a number indicating how
well a child performed on an assessment. There are a number of different EVALUATION
types of scores used in educational testing. Test scores can either be: 1.
Norm-referenced (comparing kids to others the same age) these are tests ASSESSMENT and EVALUATION – What is the Difference?
that used to compare students' progress to other students in a
The primary objective for using the strategy or tool determines its purpose.
predetermined peer group.
Is the data to be gathered for assessment, evaluation or both?
2.Criterion-referenced (assessing a child's performance on a specific task).
Assessment is classroom research to provide useful feedback for the
Criterion-referenced tests compare a person's knowledge or skills against a improvement of teaching and learning. Assessment is feedback from the
predetermined standard, learning goal, performance level, or other criterion. student to the instructor about the student’s learning.
With criterionreferenced tests, each person's performance is compared
Evaluation uses methods and measures to judge student learning and
directly to the standard, without considering how other students perform on
understanding of the material for purposes of grading and reporting.
the test.
Evaluation is feedback from the instructor to the student about the
High-stakes testing is a term that was first used in the 1980s to describe student’s learning. .
testing programs that have serious consequences for students or educators.
Remember ASSESSMENT is NOT for EVALUATION
Tests are highstakes if their outcomes determine such important things as
promotion to the next grade, graduation, merit pay for teachers, or school Evaluation is the RESULTS for the purpose of grading, appraising, judging,
rankings reported in a newspaper. etc.
Assessments with important consequences for test takers, on the basis of EVALUATION: Purpose is to “grade” or “appraise” or “judge” students or
their performance. Passing has important benefits, such as progressing to a faculty/staff
higher grade, a high school diploma, a scholarship, entrance into the labor
market or getting a license to practice a profession. Failing also has • Quizzes
• Exams • TRUE OR FALSE

• Worksheets • MATCHING TYPE

• Clinical Evaluations SUBJECTIVE TEST

• Papers • ESSAY

• Projects: Group and Individual EXAMPLE:

• Skills and Competencies/Practical Exam POOR- Write an essay about the first EDSA revolution.

• Graded Assignments of all formats BETTER: Write an essay about the first EDSA revolution giving focus on the
main characters of the revolution and their respective roles.
Diagnostic test -With this test you can test how much your students already
know about a given subject or topic. You can use the results of this test to 2.Product Rating Scales
schedule your class. Which subjects need some extra attention. For the
student this gives him or her some insights in which part of the class need A teacher is often tasked to rate products, examples that are frequently
some extra study hours. rated in education are book reports maps, charts, diagrams, notebooks, and
essays.
Placement test-This kind of test can be used to place the student in the
appropriate class or level. For example for language classes this is often used 3. PERFORMANCE TESTS
prior to starting the class.
One of the most frequently used measurement instrument is the checklist.
Progress or Achievement tests -These tests are used to measure progress in
A performance checklist consists of a list of behavior that make up a certain
a given subject. This will mostly follow a diagnostic test or can be in regular
type of performance (e.g .using a microscope, typing a letter, solving a
intervals. If you measure regularly you get a better picture of the progress of
mathematics problem)
your students.
It is used to determine whether or not an individual behaves in a certain way
Internal Tests- Internal tests are those given by the institution where the
when asked to complete a particular task.
learner is taking the course. They are often given at the end of a course in the
form of a final exam. 4. ORAL QUESTIONING
External Tests -External tests are those given by an outside body. Example: An appropriate assessment method when objective are: a. To assess the
IELTS. The exams themselves are the basis for admission to university, job student’s stock knowledge
recruitment, or promotion.
b. To determine the student’s ability to communicate ideas in coherent
Objective tests -Objective test have clear right or wrong answers. All verbal sentences
multiple-choice test fall into this group. The students get a pre-defined set of
answers to choose the correct answer from. It is also an option for assessment.

Subjective tests With this type of tests the maker of the exam has to pass 5. OBSERVATION AND SELF REPORTS
judgement on the answers of the student. Mostly this in the form of free text
questions or essays. These are useful supplementary assessment methods when use in
conjunction with oral questioning and performance tests. Such method can
PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT offset the negative impact on the students brought about by their fears and
anxiety during oral questioning or when performing actual task under
CLEAR AND APPROPRIATE TARGETS observation.

PROPERTIES OF ASSESSMENT METHODS

The quality of the assessment instrument and method used in education is

very important since the evaluation and judgement that the teacher gives to
student are based on the information he obtains using these instruments.
Accordingly, teachers follow a number of procedures to ensure that the
entire assessment process is valid and reliable.

PROPERTIES OF ASSESSMENT METHODS

A. VALIDITY

- refers to the appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness and usefulness

of the specific conclusions that a teacher reaches regarding the teaching-
learning situation

- the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for
APPROPRIATENESS AND ASSESSMENT METHOD a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and
interpreted .
1.WRITTEN RESPONSE INSTRUMENTS
TYPES OF VALIDITY
OBJECTIVE TESTS: • MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Content-validity
• IDENTIFICATION
 -To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement Construct validity is a valuable tool used primarily in social sciences,
method must cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If psychology, and education where there is a lot of subjectivity to concepts.
some aspects are missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are These areas of study work with intangible attributes such as emotional
included), the validity is threatened and the research is likely suffering from states, abilities, characteristics, traits, or intelligence levels, properties not
omitted variable bias. easily measurable or observable.

Omitted variable bias occurs when a statistical model fails to include one or • you might try to find out if an educational program increases emotional
more relevant variables. In other words, it means that you left out an maturity in elementary school age children. Construct validity would measure
important factor in your analysis. if your research is actually measuring emotional maturity

Example: B. RELIABILITY

A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her The reliability of an assessment method refers to its consistency. Reliability
class. The test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the refers to whether an assessment instrument gives the same results each time
class. If some types of algebra are left out, then the results may not be an it is used in the same setting with the same type of subjects. Reliability
accurate indication of students’ understanding of the subject. Similarly, if she essentially means consistent or dependable results. Reliability is a part of the
includes questions that are not related to algebra, the results are no longer a assessment of validity.
valid measure of algebra knowledge.
Reliability refers to the consistency of assessment results and includes the
a variable is defined as an attribute of an object of study. following considerations.

Example: If you want to test whether some plant species are more salt- First, an assessment should have consistent results over time when taken
tolerant than others, some key variables you might measure include the under the same conditions. If a student completes the same assessment on
amount of salt you add to the water, the species of plants being studied, and two different days under similar conditions, the results should be about the
variables related to plant health like growth and wilting. same. Next, multiple versions of the same assessment should produce
consistent results. Such as version A and version B, with different versions
2. Face validity given to different students or at different times.

- considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the surface. It’s If a student takes version A of a test one day, and version B of the same test
similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and subjective on another day under similar conditions, the results should be about the
assessment. same.

Example: You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary C. FAIRNESS
habits. You review the survey items, which ask questions about every meal of
the day and snacks eaten in between for every day of the week. On its An assessment procedure needs to be fair. This means many things.
surface, the survey seems like a good representation of what you want to
test, so you consider it to have high face validity. • First, students need to know exactly what the learning targets are and what
method of assessment will be used. Students need to be informed how their
As face validity is a subjective measure, it’s often considered the weakest progress will be assessed.
form of validity. However, it can be useful in the initial stages of developing a
method. • Second, assessment has to be viewed as an opportunity to learn rather
than an opportunity to weed out poor and slow learners.
3. Criterion validity
• Third, fairness also implies freedom from teacher- stereotyping. Ex. boys
Criterion validity evaluates how well a test can predict a concrete outcome, are better than girls in Math.
or how well the results of your test approximate the results of another test.
D. PRACTICALITY AND EFFICIENCY
What is a criterion variable?
An assessment procedure should be practical in the sense that the teacher
A criterion variable is an established and effective measurement that is should be familiar with it. And does not required too much time.
widely considered valid, sometimes referred to as a “gold standard”
measurement. Criterion variables can be very difficult to find. A complex assessment procedure tends to be difficult to score and interpret
resulting in a lot of misdiagnosis or too long a feedback period which may
Example: render the test inefficient.

A university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ English E. ETHICS IN ASSESSMENT
writing ability. To assess how well the test really does measure students’
writing ability, she finds an existing test that is considered a valid The term ETHICS refers to question of right and wrong. When teachers think
measurement of English writing ability, and compares the results when the a specific knowledge or investigate a certain question. Are there some
same group of students take both tests. If the outcomes are very similar, the aspects of the teaching and learning situation should not be assessed? Here
new test has high criterion validity. are some situations in which assessment any not be called for:

4. Construct validity ➢ Requiring students to answer checklist of their sexual fantasies

Construct validity refers to the degree to which a test or other measure ➢ Asking elementary pupils to answer sensitive questions without consent of
assesses the underlying theoretical construct it is supposed to measure (i.e., their parents
the test is measuring what it is purported to measure).
➢ Testing the mental abilities of pupils using an instrument whose validity
When you’re talking about a construct in relation to testing and construct and reliability are unknown
validity, it has nothing to do with the way a test is designed or constructed. A
construct is something that happens in the brain, like a skill, level of emotion,
ability or proficiency. For example, proficiency in any language is a construct.
Teach Elem 313C Child/adult reading – The adult models, then the student practices.
Choral reading – reading in unison.
Literacy development begins early in life. Assisted reading – reading along with a recorded text.
Literacy is the foundation for reading, writing, communicating and Partner reading – reading along with another child
socializing. Reader’s Theatre – playing characters, as in a play.
Characteristics of an Emergent Reader, Stages of Reading Process,
Early literacy is learning about sounds, words and language. Characteristics of an Emergent Writer, and Vehicles to early literacy
You can support early literacy development by talking, reading books, singing Characteristics of an Emergent Reader
songs, playing with rhyme, and drawing. Emergent reading pertains to the first stage in a child’s growth toward
Children learn best through everyday activities like singing, talking and literacy
playing games. Harris and Hodges (1981) refer to this period of acquiring the specific skills
abilities that allow reading to take as place as preparedness or reading
Literacy: what is it and why is it important? readiness.
Literacy is being able to read, write, listen, speak and create texts in ways Reading readiness is viewed as set of social, emotional, physical and cognitive
that allow us to communicate well with others. competencies.

Literacy is the foundation for doing well at school, socializing with others, Stages of Reading Process
problem-solving, making decisions, developing independence, managing
money and working. Stage 1- Emergent Readers 2-7 years old
Familiarize themselves with the concepts of print
Literacy development is vital to overall development for children. Value of picture clues to the meaning of the story
Literacy development in childhood Make text to words connections

Before children can learn to read and write, they need to develop Stage 2- Early Readers 5-7 years old
the building blocks for literacy – the ability to speak, listen, understand, Picking up from the concepts attained as an emergent reader, early readers
watch and draw. now begin to rely more heavily on the printed text than on the pictures in a
book.
And as children get older, they need to learn about the connection between Begin to develop word recognition strategies such as monitoring, searching,
letters on a page and spoken sounds. cross checking, and self-correction.

For this to happen, children need plenty of experience with: Stage 3- Transitional Readers
Pictures and objects – how you can use words to talk about them Transitional readers make the leap into fluent reading as they are generally
Letters and words – how they look and sound, and what they’re called able to read in meaningful phrases with comfortable pace and appropriate
Sounds – how words can rhyme, begin and end with the same letters, be voice intonation.
broken up into parts like syllables, be formed by blending different sounds Read lengthy texts with little reliance on the pictures for text meaning
and so on. The readers tend to range from 5-7 years old.
You can help with all these areas of your child’s early literacy Stage 4- Self- Extending Readers
development by: Reading progress into reading independence in the fourth development
Talking and communicating with your child stage.
Reading books together They often read a variety of textual genres and use reading as a tool for
Playing with rhyme and other sounds with your child. gaining new knowledge or building upon existing knowledge.
And the great news is that you can do this in ways that are fun for both of Read more complex texts and begin to read for a variety of purposes.
you. These readers range in age from 6-9 years of age.
DEVELOPING READING FLUENCY
Reading fluency is the ability to read accurately, smoothly and with Stage 5- Advanced Readers
expression. Fluent readers recognize words automatically, without struggling Readers have attained a level of mastery
over decoding issues. They are generally over the age of 9 and have proficient in reading and in
comprehending various text sources
When reading silently, in addition to recognizing words automatically, fluent Enjoy reading and use reading as a gain of knowledge
readers group words rapidly to help gain meaning from their reading, which Read fluently both and interpret concrete and inferential level
then translates into their understanding of the text. Internalize series of reading strategies

When reading aloud, fluent readers sound natural, as if they’re speaking.

Non-fluent readers read slowly and sound choppy.

Fluency is important because it builds a bridge between word recognition

and comprehension. It allows students time to focus on what the text is
saying. They are able to make connections between what they are reading
and their own background knowledge. Therefore, they are able to
concentrate on comprehension.

On the other hand, non-fluent readers have to spend more time decoding,
leaving less time for comprehending the text. Due to mistakes made when
reading, they will often have to read the same passage over several times to
attain comprehension. In addition, non-fluent readers often do no read with
expression

Here are several ways children can practice fluent reading; Characteristics of an Emergent Writer
The emergent writing of the kids are characterized by playful markings to Goodman(1984) asserted that literacy- rich environments can make learning
communicate something, which signals their knowledge of the uses of to read as natural as language acquisition.
written language before the learning form.
C. Emotional and Motivational Climate
Bissex (1980) and Read (1975) described writing as self- initiated and self- Refers to the relationship among family members, parents’ attitude toward
directed or voluntary ,and by observing more skilled others and by literacy and the aspirations for their child’s achievement.
participating in literacy events, by exploring and learned writing though Teale(1977) indicate that, to become literate, children must learn about the
interaction with literate others. functions and uses of literacy.

Writing is always related to reading. Thus reading is always connected to

writing.

The child’s experimentation with writing allows him to construct and refine
the kind of knowledge about written language that makes reading possible.
The child creates previous and existing knowledge to create new knowledge.
Thus , as the child writes he/she integrates knowledge of reading with
knowledge of writing.

Vehicles to early literacy

Writing involves the integration of knowledge of reading with knowledge of
writing. Therefore, language aids speaking, reading and writing; reading aids
speaking and writing; writing aids speaking and writing, a whole language
approach as Newmann ( 1985) identified.
Halliday(1975) described how language helps children to learn to ascertain
meaning from the world around them.
While, Chomsky (1972) found that children who are introduced to literature
at an early age tend to develop sophisticated language structures.
Holdaway (1979) pointed out that homes provide socially, emotionally, and
intellectually conducive to literacy and growth.
Leichter (1984) identified three ways by which the families influence literacy
development.

A.Interpersonal interaction
Is describe as the literacy experiences shared by the parents and other adult
family members with the child to promote early literacy. These literacy
experiences may include home practices and social functions of speaking,
reading, and writing.
Story telling, reading aloud, reading newspapers and letters, sending greeting
cards and notes are some of these interactions which encourage literacy of
young learners in the family.

B. Physical Environment
Involves the literacy materials available in the home.
Appropriate and readily accessible literacy materials like picture- concept
books, picture- story books, TV program- related books, newspaper,
magazines.
Parent can also help their child to acquire familiarity with environmental
logos(institutions and stores) and labels(food).
Hansen (1969) reported that a literacy- rich environment correlates most
highly with children’s early reading.
Durken(1966), Holdaway (1979), Taylor (1983) and Teale (1984) described
home environments in which the ability and the desire to read develop quite
naturally especially in their homes which serve as rich reading environment.