MODULE 1 - PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

Pattern of Development

● is the way the essay is organized, from one paragraph to the next, in order to present its thesis
and the relevant, authoritative support for it, in a coherent and meaningful fashion.

Seven Patterns of Paragraph Development

Narration
● Telling a story, whether real or fictional, is what you do in narrative writing.
● Any narrative has to have vivid description of details, consistent point of view, and verb tense,
and a well-defined point or significance.
● a narrative text to be effective in holding the readers’ interest, first, the description of events
should be as vivid as possible.
● include the four basic elements of a story in your narration which are the character/s, plot,
conflict, and theme.
Types of Narration
● Brief Narration - also known as “clipped narration”, where the writer only writes the most
important event and gives the general picture of what happened.
● Detailed Narration - also known as “paced narration”, where the writer writes about each event
and provides specific details about what happened.

Description
● involves putting the image of an object, person, place, scene, or event into words.
● It appeals to the reader’s senses and allows them to experience what is being described by the
writer in terms of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and/or taste.
● allows the relationship of the whole and its parts and focuses on featuring the differences of
objects, people, places, scenes, or events with the others of the same class.
Types of Description
● Brief Description - This type is informative, scientific, technical, and factual. it is denotative in
nature.
● Detailed Description - This type is suggestive or opinionated. it is connotative in nature
● Description comes in two types: objective and subjective.

Definition
● Defining is trying to understand the meanings of a word or an expression.
● It is analyzing, delineating, exploring, and discovering the different aspects of a particular
concept.
Types of Definition
● Brief Definition - the meaning it provides is literal and straight from the dictionary.
● Detailed Definition - The meaning it provides may be figurative or literary.
● Definition comes in two types: scientific and subjective.
Three Steps to Effective Definition
1. Tell readers what term is being defined.
2. Present clear and basic information.
3. Use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.
Many ways and strategies used by writers to define a term.
1. Denotation - the formal definition of a term, usually from the dictionary or a source.
2. Connotation - on the other hand, does not follow the dictionary definition of a word, but
instead, relies on the author’s perspective and experiences in shedding light on the term.
3. Comparison – this strategy associates the term at hand with indirectly related words through
analogy or figurative language.
4. Contrast – another technique in defining that makes the reader understand the difference
between two similar/related terms.
5. Etymology – shows the evolution of the word and how it was formed. Dictionaries often include
this for the user’s context of a word.

EXEMPLIFICATION
● Elaboration or explanation by giving examples.
● Listing, enumerating, and giving examples are very useful techniques in elaborating a topic or a
subject.
● can be made by providing factual information, narrating events,
● showing statistical data, using quotes and all others that can support the definition or
description of certain ideas or topics.
Types of Exemplification
● Illustrate - come in the form of illustrations like diagrams, pictures, and ideas.
● Explain - further explain a concept being defined or described.
● Tell a Story - narrate a story to prove or provide a point.
● Describe - describe a concept vividly to help the readers visualize and understand it as clearly as
possible.

Comparison and Contrast

● Comparison entails dealing with the similarities or differences of at least two subjects.
● Contrast, on the other hand, is tackling the differences between or among topics.
● Comparison and contrast are complementary to each other and are usually inseparable.
● Comparison and contrast, from what it’s called, elaborates on the similarities and differences
between two ideas.
● One technique in writing this type of paragraph development is analogy.
Ways to Present Comparison and Contrast in Writing
● Block Pattern - This is done by presenting the information, data, or characteristics about the first
item in one paragraph.
● Alternative Pattern - This is done by presenting both items side by side, then comparing their
similarities and contrasting their differences point by point.
Another technique in writing comparison and contrast paragraphs is the use of figurative language.
● Simile is defined as “a figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing
of a different kind and used to make a description more empathic or vivid.”
● Metaphor, on the other hand, is defined by the dictionary as “a figure of speech in which a word
or phrase is applied to an object or action which is not entirely applicable.”
● While simile gives a straightforward comparison between two subjects, metaphor does it
indirectly.

Causal Analysis
● Identifying the causes and effects of a situation, event, or phenomenon.
● A cause is what prompted something to happen. An effect is what yielded after something else
took place.
● Involves pointing out the relationship between certain actions, events, or situations by
identifying which among them are the reasons and which are the consequences.
● Causal chain in which multiple sets of cause and effect are somehow connected to each other.
Ways to Present Causal Analysis or Cause and Effect in Writing
● Cause to Effect - the cause of the event is presented first before its effects.
● Effect to Cause - the effect of the event is presented first before its causes.
● Consecutive Cause and Effect - the first cause and effect are presented together in a sentence
followed by the next cause and effect.
● The link between the causes and effects will serve as the controlling idea of the essay.
Cause and Effect paragraphs are written for the following purposes:
● to discuss why a certain phenomenon occurs
● to discuss the results of a phenomenon, event, feeling or action
● to understand a situation
● to solve a problem
● to predict an outcome to entertain
● to persuade
Some of the signal words used in this type of paragraph are the following:
● For, because, since, due to, so, but, for this reason, as a result, consequently, otherwise,
therefore, and thus.

Persuasion
● As a mode of paragraph development, it is almost always coupled with argumentation.
● According to Forlini (1990), “the purpose of persuasive writing is to obtain the reader’s
agreement on a matter of opinion.”
● The statements given in persuasive essays are heavy on opinion while based on facts. The
opinions of the writer must be (a) controversial enough or something that would inspire
conversation and debate, (b) significant and interesting, and (c) supported by evidence. (Forlini,
1990)
● Tone is crucial in writing persuasive essays.
● Supporting details weigh the most in persuasive essays as these will serve as reasons for readers
to support your stand or argument.
● Vital that in order to prove your stand, you must thoroughly research the issue you are about to
discuss.
MODULE 2 - PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

Paragraph - a series of sentences that are organized, coherent, and are all related to a single topic.
- should consider the properties of a well-written text.

Parts of a Paragraph
● Introduction
- first section of a paragraph
- include the topic sentence and any other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph
that give background information or provide a transition.
● Body
- follows the introduction
- discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, or other
information.
● Conclusion
- final section
- summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the body of the
paragraphs and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

Properties of a well-written text:

● Organization
● Coherence and Cohesion
● Language Use
● Mechanics

1. ORGANIZATION
- arrangement of ideas, incidents, evidence, or details in a definite order in a paragraph,
essay, or speech.
- achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged.

Different patterns of organization

● Chronological Order - details are arranged in the order in which they happened
● Spatial Order - sentences in a paragraph are arranged through a geographical location,
for example: left to right, up to down
● Emphatic Order - arranged depending on the writer’s purpose to emphasize certain
points; can be established in two ways: least to most important or from most to least
important

2. COHERENCE and COHESION

● Coherence - refers to the logical arrangement of sentences to be easily understood by
the reader.
 - deals with the quality of being logical and consistent throughout the
text.
- helps avoid confusion in understanding the entire text.
- presents ideas that are continuous, united, rational, and linked with one
another.

● Cohesion - refers to how the words, sentences, and ideas were connected through the
arrangement of details according to orders and the use of signal devices.

Ways to Create Cohesion

1. Reference – this involves the use of determiners and pronouns in the

succeeding statements in place of the nouns used in the previous statement.
Example: Karla enjoyed playing baseball. She said that is definitely her new
favorite sport.

2. Ellipsis – this involves omitting words which were already introduced in the first
context and do not need to be repeated in the latter part.
Example: I ate the cake I saw on the table. My brother did not. (eat the cake)

3. Lexis - this involves the use of synonyms, hyponyms, and superordinate words.
- Lexical chains are created in a text through the use of words belonging
to the same set.
- Through lexis and lexical chains, any central idea may be restated
without making the statements look monotonous to the readers.
Example: The keyboard, monitor, and mouse are still working in this computer.

4. Substitution – this involves the use of a word or phrase to replace another that
is previously used. One and the same are commonly used in substitution.
Example: Gelai hates wearing a dress, but that one looks great on her.

5. Use of Cohesive Nouns – cohesive nouns are used in the same way as lexis and
lexical chains.
- also called “umbrella nouns” because they can
summarize many words into one.
Example: Filipinos always give a warm welcome to the guests who visit them at
home. This Filipino trait is known worldwide.

6. Use of Conjunctions – conjunctions used to create cohesion in texts include

listing words such as first, next, and last
- linkers for addition such as and, moreover, and also
 - words that show contrast such as but, however, and
despite
- words that signal cause and effect such as therefore,
because, and as a result.
Example: The basketball player broke his ankle during the game; therefore, he
needs to be taken to the hospital right away.

3. LANGUAGE USE
- enables writers to effectively communicate ideas without confusing the reader.
- refers to the appropriateness of word usage and is known to be one of the clearest
indicators of a well- written text.

Levels of Language Use

1. Informal/Personal – slang, local expressions, text messaging
Examples: Hey, Bes, Yow, Sup, Pet (friend), Nigga, OTW, GNyt, Dude

2. Standard/Academic – widely accepted words and phrases found in books, magazines,

newspapers.
Note to a professor:
I missed last night’s class and will email my paper later. The problem was on garbage
management as it greatly affects the students who are occupying the SFH Blg.

3. Business/Technical – scientific terms, jargons, and special expressions

Psychiatrist’s report:
“Dissociative rage order is not indicated by the special ER assessment.”

Principles in Language Use/Diction

1. Use clear and concise sentences, usually about 18 words long.
2. Avoid redundancies, clichés, wordiness, and highfalutin.
3. Although it may be used, avoid overusing “There” and “It”, drop it.
4. Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate. Condensed.
5. Be consistent in pronoun POV.
6. Avoid sexist language.
7. Use the appropriate level of formality.

Usage Labels
There are labels that define the use of words according to certain contexts. The
limitations set by each usage label help in choosing the right words to use in writing texts. The
definition and examples of some usage labels are started in the following table.
1. Jargon - refers to occupational varieties. It consists of words, terms, and expressions
that are familiar to a group of people with a similar profession but are difficult to
understand by others.
Medical Jargons
- tourniquet
- WBC
- scoop and run
Computer Jargons
- hardware
- GHz
- RAM
Business Jargons
- Supply and demand
- Assets and liabilities
- Bank statement
Education Jargons
- Lesson plan
- Formative assessment
- SHS
2. Tenor - relationship of the sender and the receiver of information.
- doctor
- prosecutor/attorney and client
- agent and customer
- teacher and student

3. Mode - relationship of the sender and the receiver of information.

4. Denotation - literal meaning of a word found in the dictionary.

5. Hypernym - refers to a general word or a word’s higher name.

6. Hyponym - refers to a specific word or a word’s lower name.

7. Idiomatic Expression - also known as “idiom”. It is an expression which has a figurative

meaning.

8. Figure of Speech - a rhetorical device with just a single word or phrase that has a
figurative rather than a literal meaning.

● Hyperbole – use of exaggeration for emphasis

Example: My cacti died so I cried a river of tears.
● Simile – comparison with the use of words such as “as” or “like” to show similarities
between two unlike things
Example: Kamille is as beautiful as the succulent.
● Metaphor – implied comparison between two unlike things that have something similar
to one another
Example: Over and over, she was told by others that she will not be successful in life but
now she is. This is all because she has the heart of a lion.
● Onomatopoeia – use of words that imitate the sounds of an object being referred to
Example: She banged the door when she left.
● Oxymoron – use of contradictory terms side by side
Example: What a deafening silence.
● Personification – attribution of human qualities or abilities to inanimate objects,
intangible concepts, or animals
Example: I felt the wind kissing my cheeks.
● Understatement – deliberate description of a situation in a way that it seems less
important or serious that it is
Example: Getting my car fixed after the accident will only take a second or two.
● Euphemism – use of an inoffensive word in place of another which is explicitly offensive
Example: Her dad just recently passed away.

9. Colloquial - a linguistic style used in informal context. It consists of very casual words
used in communication. It is commonly a part of one’s everyday language and can be
understood generally.

10. Slang - refers to informal and very casual words. It is similar to colloquial but is
restricted to certain social groups.

11. Dialect - a particular language used in a specific region or social group.

12. Archaic - refers to terms that are very old or old-fashioned which are not regularly used
anymore.
4. MECHANICS
- focuses on the technical structure of the text.
- determines errors in grammar, abbreviations, spelling, acronyms, capitalization, the use of
numbers as part of the statement, and correct punctuation marks.

Technical aspects of a written text include:

● Spacing - refers to the areas between words, letters, lines, and paragraphs. It allows the division
of the different parts of the text and keeps the entire text in order. A text with proper spacing
can be easily read and understood by the readers. Some of the basic rules in spacing are the
following:
1. Use a space to separate words within a sentence or a phase.
2. Set one space between sentences.
3. Leave one space after a comma, colon, or semicolon.
4. Do not use a space before or after an en dash or em dash.
5. Do not leave a space between enclosures such as quotation marks, parentheses and
brackets, and the enclosed words.
6. Do not set a space before or after a hyphen, except for angles.

● Punctuation - refers to the use of various marks to separate the elements of a text from one
another. It ensures clarity in meaning and structure.
- helps to convey the emotions expressed in every statement throughout the
entire text. By observing proper punctuation in writing, readers will not be
confused or misled.

Some of the commonly used punctuation marks are listed in the following:

1. Period (.) – used after sentences, in abbreviations, and as decimals

2. Exclamation Point (!) – placed at the emphatic or forceful sentences
3. Question Mark (?) – placed at the end of a question and to note questionable items
4. Quotation Marks (“”) – to indicate direct quotations, for titles of poems, short stories,
chapters, essays, songs, episodes of television shows
5. Apostrophe (‘) – to show possession, to show missing letters and number, to show
plurals of letters
6. Colon (:) – after independent clauses to introduce elements, to separate items in
numerals, ratios, titles and subtitles, time references, scripture references
7. Parentheses (()) – to set off nonessential details and explanations, to enclose letters and
numbers used when listing items, first-time use of acronym
8. Brackets ([ ]) – to set off clarifications inserted in quotations
9. Dash (-) – to show sudden break of thought, to set off an introduction to a series
10. Slash (/) – to separate words or to show alternatives
 11. Semicolon (;) – to join independent clauses when and, or, yet, but, or so are not
present, to separate items in a series that contains commas
12. Ellipsis (...) – to indicate that words have been deleted from quoted material
13. Comma (,) – to signal pauses and shifts in sentences, used with and, or, so, but, yet to
join independent clauses

● Abbreviation - refers to the setting of a word or a phrase in shortened form.

- commonly done to save time and space in writing.
- Some abbreviations are used in everyday communication, while others are
exclusive to a particular setting or context.
- Many of these abbreviations are considered informal, so it is important to avoid
using them in writing formal texts.

1. Acronym - an abbreviation formed from the first letters of a group of words. It is

pronounced as a word.
Examples: LET (Licensure Examinationfor Teachers)

2. Initialism - formed from the first letters of a group of words. It is pronounced by saying
each letter individually.
Examples: WHO (World Health Organization), PNP (Philippine National Police)

3. Clipping or Shortening - formed by omitting the beginning or end of a word.

Examples: plane (airplane), phone (telephone), exam (examination)

4. Blend or Portmanteau - an abbreviation made up of two or more words joined together

to coin a new word but refers to a single concept.
Examples: spork (spoon + fork), camcorder (camera +recorder)

5. Conventional abbreviation - made by omitting letters from the middle of a word. It is

used and accepted universally.
Examples: Dr. (Doctor), Atty. (Attorney), Blvd. (Boulevard)

6. Contraction - made up of words combined together and pronounced as one. An

apostrophe is used to replace one or some of the omitted letters.
Examples: I’m (I am), can’t (cannot), we’re (we are)
MODULE 3: IDENTIFYING CLAIMS

Explicit (explicitus)
● obvious and apparent; directly stated
Implicit (implicitus)
● not expressed clearly; only suggested; indirectly stated
Recognizing the Explicit and Processing the Implicit
Practice:
All living things are made up of cells. Since humans are alive, we are also made of cells. Cells make our
body tissue. Tissue makes our body organs. Organs make our body systems. Cells are the building blocks
of our bodies.
Answer:
All living things are made up of cells. Since humans are alive, we are also made of cells. Cells make our
body tissue. Tissue makes our body organs. Organs make our body systems. Cells are the building
blocks of our bodies.
Here are 2 explicit questions to answer:
● What are made of cells?
● What is the main idea of the context.
Explicit Information
● Explicit information is any idea that is stated.
● With explicit information, you see the text explained!

Fact and Opinion

Fact
● a statement about the real world reinforced by reliable evidence
● can express explicit or obvious information
● remains the same
● a true piece of information
Opinion
● a statement expressing one's feelings or personal judgment.
Kind of Facts
1. Empirical Facts - facts that can be proven by scientific observation, experience, or experiment.
Example: The Philippines is composed of three major islands, namely Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao.
2. Analytical Facts - facts that make use of various operations in mathematics to prove a
statement
Example: 5 x 3 means 5 + 5 + 5 = 15
3. Evaluative Facts - facts that are supported by laws, local and international, and ideally give
order
Example: Philippines owns Spratly Island.
 4. Metaphysical Facts - facts that are verified by revelatory evidence or self-evidence. Facts that
are assumed to be true without external evidence.
Example: All men are created equal.
5. Claim - a statement that the author wants the reader to accept. Writer's point or position
regarding the chosen topic.
Kinds of Claims
1. Claim of Fact
● relates to the statement that can be verified, no matter how difficult
● inferred from a reliable source of information
● claim that can be proven by steadfast information or data
● not dependent on merely on a person's preference, but can be true or false
Example: All men are created equal.
2. Claim of Policy
● an argument that asserts the implementation of a certain policy
● depends on an existing policy, rule, or law
● posits that specific action should be chosen as solution to a particular problem
● begins with “should,” “ought to,” or “must.”
● Example: The government must devote more funds to building schools than building roads.
3. Claim of Value
● is based on personal taste or practices and morality
● argues whether something is good or bad
● a statement about which is better, more important, more desirable, more needed, or more
useful
● Example: It is more advantageous for a Filipino child to grow up speaking Filipino instead of
English.