PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOK NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING radiography Volume I — Origin and Nature of Radiation Copyright © 1983 GENERAL DYNAMICS ‘Convair DivisionTABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Admowledgements Introduetion Instructions Chapter 1 — Structure of the Atom Atomie Number (2) Mass Number (A) Review Chapter’ — Radionctive Material Isotopes Radioisotopes Activity Spoctie Activity Half Life Review Chapter 3 — Characteristics of X-Rays & Gamma Rays EI Wave Length lectromagnstie Speetrum Frequeney Energy Intensity Photon Review Chapter 4 — Interaction With Matter — Absorption & Scatter Penetration Tonization P Page i 4 a7 3.09Photoelectric Bifect 8 48 Compton Eifect an Scatter y Bremsstrahlung eae Half-Value Layer 428 Review 498 Chapter 5 ~ Alpha, Beta, & Neutron Radiation pe Alpha Particles $2 Beta Particle 4 Neutrons i Review Br 17 Self-Test Glossary48 “at 428 498 PREFACE ‘This “programmed instruction” handbook, P16 (5 volumes), is a setstudy ‘coureein Radiographic Testing, General Dynamics has for several years been ‘and using programmed instructional materials in the training of developing: nondestructive testing personnel, This effort was greatly accelerated when the Convair Division of General Dynamies was awarded a contract to expand tnd complete the training program for NASA's George C, Marshall Space Flight Center. The course on Radiographic Testing, although well along the time of the NASA involvement, was nevertheless toward completion at benefited to significant degree by the NASA assistance. Other programmed instruction handbooks in the Nondestructive Testing PI4-1_ Introduction to Nondestructive Testing PL42 Liquid Penetrant Testing PL49 Magnetic Particle Testing PL44 Ultrasonic Testing, PI45 Eddy Curront Testing rnded that PI-41, Introduction to Nondestructive ‘Testing, be It is recommer have the benefit of cartain completed before starting this book in order to pacie metallurgy information that will make this book more understandable and easier to master,ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This handbook was originally propared by the Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation under a joint arrangement with NASA's George ¢ Marsball Space Flight Center. Convair's original activities in the proparation lof nondestructive testing training materials were greatly enhanced and acce erated by the MSFC technical and financial participation. Quality and Rela bility Assurance Laboratory personnel at NASA’s MSFC were to a large degree responsible forthe successful completion ofthat program. Their under standing ofthe problems involved in teaching dificult materials by a relatively new technique, their realistic handling of NASA agency reviews, and their efficiont transmittal of reviewer com nts made the publisher's task simpler than it might have been. Convair considers itself fortunate to have boen associatod with NASA on that project. Additional assistance in the form of process data, Vechnical reviews, and technical advice was provided by a great many eompanies and individual The following listing is an attempt. to acknowledge this assistance and to express our gratitude for the high degree of interest exhibited by the firme, their representatives, and other individuals, many of whom gave considerable time and effort to the project. AcrojetGeneral Corp; AgleGovaert, Ine Automation Industries, Ine Sherry Products Division; Aveo Corporation; Babeock & Wieax Ca The Rocing Company; The Budd Co, Instruments Division; E.I. DuPont De Nemours & Co, Ine; Eastman Kodak Company; General Analine & Film Corp.; Grammon Aerospace Corp: Lockheed Aircraft Corp), Marti Marietta Aerospace Denver Division; MeDonnell Douglas Corp; C.H.F. Muller, Gmbh Rontgonverk; Philips Electronic Instruments; Pieker Corp. Professor Horry Richardson, LSU; Rockwell International, North American Aerospace Group; Rohr Industries, Inc; Richard Seifert & Co. Rontgenwerk: Southern California Cancer Center, Southwest: Research Institute: 8. Louis Testing Laboratories, Ine; Technical Operations, Ine; Uresco, Ine; X-Ray Produets Corp. Our thanks is also extended to the many individuals who assisted in the testing ofthe materials to validate the teaching effectiveness. Their patience and con ‘ments contributed greatly vo the successful completion of the handbook.Here is a bret account of the contents of each volume of the Radiographic "Teating Programmed Instruction series Volume I~ ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION A knowledge of the origin and nature of X-radiation and gamma radiation i srecossary in order to properly understand the radiographic process, Volume I in devoted to teaching, the fandanentals of atomic theory; dh character nrays, and certain other particulate radiations; and Uheinter h matter. The presentation is admittedly of X-rays, gamma actions of these radiations wi vs, Broadly generalized The intent of Voluine Tis to Timited and, in several cas present only those facta necessary toa proper understanding of the material feontained in subsequent volumes ofthe series. Volume II ~ RADIATION SAFETY Safety is an important aspect of radiographic testing, and Volume II is entirely devoted ¢o that subject. Radiation presents a hazard to those who work around Sc However ifthe proper safely precautions are used and alle safety roles followed, radiography need not be a hazardous job. ‘This volume wil introduce radiation measurement techniques and devices; the means by which radiation ‘doses are limited for workers; radiation doses and their effects; personnel pro tection; and some of the procedures and regulations which wil be encountered in onthejob situations Volume III ~ RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT Volume II presents a solid, full range coverage of radiographie equipment, including an elaboration ofthe basic theory pertaining to the generation of X tadiation; a diseussion which ineludes the X-ray generation equipment, the X-ray tube and its components, tube cooling, fcal spot, etc; power equlp ment, eiteuits, rectification, and special electron accelerators: gamme ray Source equipment and ratings; and other related radiographic equipment Upon completion of this volume, the reader will be well grounded in Fenowledge of radiographic equipment and how it functionswphie ntiely sround y rales rodeo diation rel pro intered ipment, on of X at, es equip ima ray pment. aded in ‘Volume IV — MAKING A RADIOGRAPH Volume IV discusses those theories and practice directly related to the pro duction ofa radiograph. The interrlationship of radiation, specimen, and film is reviewed, The factors that affect the quality of the radiograph are ident fied, and their effeets on the final radiograph are described. This volume teaches the mathematical processes that are necessary in computing expo nres and teaches the use of special charts commonly. used in radiography. the procedures to be followed in selecting the required equipment and tec iques are deseribed. And finaly, several specialized tochniques are taught, ‘Volume V — FILM HANDLING AND PROCESSING "The well rounded radiographer should have a knowledge of radiographic film its handling and processing. Volume V introduces the elements ofa typical darkroom. the care of film, the step-by-step process of devoloping and fixing a ‘radiograph, and some ofthe consequences of improper handling or processing. Limited coverage is also given automatic film processors. Do not rush through the volumes. Take whatever time you need to get the ‘most from the material presented. Depending on your background knowledge, ending speed, et. the reading time it takes you to complete the course may very from 20 hours to 40 hours or more.INSTRUCTIONS ‘The pages in this book should not be read consecutively as in conventional hook. You will be guided through the hook as you read. For example, after reading page 312, you may find an instruetion similar to one ofthe following at the bottom of the page — ‘+ Turn to the next page + Turn to page 3-15 + Return to poge 3:10 (On many pages you will be faced with «choice. For instance, you may find a Statement or question at the bottom of the page together with two or more possible answers, Each answer will indieate @ page number. You should choose the answer you think is correct and tura to the indicated page. That page will contain further instructions, ‘As you progress through the book, ignore the back ofeach page. THEY ARE PRINTED UPSIDE DOWN. You will be instructed when to turn the book around and read the upside-down printed pages. As you will son see, it's very simple ~ just follow instructions, ‘TURN 10 THE NEXT PAGE,ventional ple, after ‘lowing find 9 should Y ARE 1¢ book 1 CHAPTER 1 — STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM mn order to understand the subject of radiography, you must first know somthing about the nature of atoms — the basi building blocks of all mater. In this chaptor you are going to explore the structure and characteristics of atoms In a very general way. You wil lok at some ofthe particles that make up atoms and study the arrangement of these atomic particles within the atom. You will also learn to identity different materials by a system that con siders the type and number of atomic particles present in the atoms of the material Consider first the very basic atomie particles from which all atoms are com posed: the PROTON, the NEUTRON, and the ELECTRON. There are other ‘atomie particles in addition vo these, but they are of no particular importance to us in this discussion. The PROTON, NEUTRON, and ELECTRON fort the framework forall atoms; the other atomic particles are dificult to detect, and some have-a very Meeting existence. They are the “fuz2" that exists ‘alongside our three basi particles, Let's take a lok at these three basic atomie particles (the symbols shown are those we will use in later discussions) PROTON This isa relatively heavy atomic particl with a single positive (+) eletrieal charge NEUTRON 0 This particle very close to the same size and weight as the proton; however, as the name indicates, it has no lectrieal charge — i i neuera ELECTRON © This is very light particle compared to the proton or ‘neutron ~ about 1/1840th of their woight, It has a single negative (-} electrical charge. Fix the respective names and charges in your mind and then turn to the next age.From page 11 1 ® ° e "The numberof each ofthese particles present in the atom determines the kind of atom itis and, therefore, the kind of material i is ‘There are over 100 different kinds of basic atoms known, and the number is increasing as scientists ereate and discover new ones. Hach of these basic atoms is identified as an ELEMENT and is given a name. Carbon, oxygen, iron, sulfur, and lead are examples of basic elements. Bach basic element is ‘made up of a different form of atom. Elements, or chemical combinations (molecules) of elements, form all the things we see in our everyday living, The chair you are sitting on, the ceiling ‘overhead, the air around you ae all made up of atoms or combinations of dif- ferent atoms Atoms are extremely small picces of matter. There are billions of carbon ‘atoms in the tip of pencil Tis is an astounding fact when you frst hear i, but perhaps more astounding is the fact that over 8.99% of an atom is empty ‘space! At this moment you are sitting on less than 1/100th of one pereent of ‘what you think you are. Please turn to page 1-3From page 12 18 Let's take a Jook at an atom of the element helium — a very light gas. Z) fet [Notice that the protons and neutrons are packed together in the conter of the atom, This contral group of protons and neutrons is called the NUCLEUS of he atom, In the helium atom shown above, there are 2 protons and 2 neutrons in the rnieleus, The neutrons are neutral — they have no eloetrical charge, but each of the 2 protons has « single positive electrical charge; therefore, the nucleus of the helium atom has a plus 2 electrical charg. In order forthe helium atom tobe in electrical balance (complete, it must be tlectrcally neutra therefore, 2 electrons, each with a single negative charge orbit, or cree, around the nucleus. ‘When you consider the size of the nucleus and the electrons the distance from the nucleus at which the electrons orbit is very large, and all the space between the nucleus and the electrons is empty. ‘This is the reason for the statement on the last page about 99.00-+ percent of the atom being empty Read the following statements, pick the one that you think is correet, and turn to the indicated page. Allatomshave 2 protons and 2 neutrons in the nuclous Page 4 ‘All complete atoms must have an equal number of protons and electrons Page 5Frompage 3 14 You picked, “All atoms have 2 protons and 2 neutrons in the nucleus, ‘The helium atom shown on page 1-8 was picked as an example of « simple atom. It is not typical ofall atoms. The helium atom does have 2 protons and 2 neutrons in its nuclous, but i i the only atom that does. Atoms of other ‘loments have diforent numbers of protons and neutrons in their nuclei, We will discuss this some more later in the progrem, "Tho point we are trying to make at this time is that complote atom must bo sloctreslly neutral feloctrically balanced therefore, all complete ators must hhave an equal numbor of protons (+ charges) and electrons {~ charges) ‘Now turn back to page 1-3, reond the material, and make another seFrompage 1s 1s Very good Al complete atoms must have an equal numberof protons and Sct, You understand the pat we re tng to make al eomplte toma mas be detrally nstal Hore are some more examples of compete electilly neural atoms Be This is an atom of the clement Berjtiam. Count the mune of proton (o}- neutrons (oh and eee trons (eh y % | (7 Mp) domes neutrons, and electrons. y p From your examination ofthese atoms, what fact becomes apparent? Although, in an atom of any clement, the number of lectrons must equal the number of protons, the number fof neutrons in atoms of different elements may be quite different Page 16 ‘The number of neutrons in an atom must be the samme as tho number of protons and eloetrons Page 18From page 15 16 You say that the number of neutrons in an atom can be diffrent than the ‘number of protons or electrons, You are absolutely right. And this brings wp our next point. ‘The number of protons (2) in an atom land therefore the number of eloctrons (2) sinco they ere equal) determines the hind of atom, or element, For exam ple, all atoms that have 8 protons are atoms of oxygen, and all atoms that hhave 28 protons are atoms of iron. Les take a look at a partial listing of the basic elements, starting with the simplest, and see how they relate to the number of protons in the nucleus allatoms that contain 1 proton ere Aydrogen atoms allatoms that contain 2 protons are helium atoms all atoms that contain $ protons are chium atoms all atoms that contain 4 protons are berylium atoms all atoms that contain 26 protons are iron atoms all atoms that contain 27 protons are cobalt atoms all atoms that contain 28 protons are nickel atoms all atoms that contain 77 protons are iridium atoms allatoms that contain 78 protons are platinum atoms te, ee, otc. “The above list could be filled in and extended, one ndditional proton ata time, to more than 100, And every number would identify a different basic element. ‘Tum to page 1.From page 1-6 an ‘The basic elements, such ns those sted on the last page, ean be identified oF labeled in several ways. ‘The obvious way is to use a name, just what we heve been doing so far. For example — hydrogen, helivm, cobalt, ridiam, et In addition, each of the elements has # eymbol or abbreviation that is very often used instead of the full name. For example, ‘Sometimes the symbols don't look much ike the name, for example, gold. Its symbol is Av "There is a third way of identifying a basic element: that should be evident to you. Since each basic element has a specific number of protons in each ofits Atoms, any element ean be identified by this number. ‘The number of protons (=) in the nucleus of an atom is call the ATOMIC. NUMBER or Z NUMBER. No two clements have the same ATOMIC (2) number because no twa elements have the same number of protons in thelr ‘atoms, Loole at our typical clement again, Anatom that has'7 protons, 115 neutrons and'77 electrons has an ATOMIC (2) numberof 115, Page 19 n Page 1-10,From page 5 18 Sorry, but you made a bad choice. ‘The number of neutrons in an atom is not necessarily the ame as the number of protons or electrons |.you counted the numberof particle the berylium atom you found 4 protons and 5 neutrons! Although many atoms have an equal number of protons and neutrons such as the oxygen atom shown on page 1-6), ite not a rule. In fact, most atome have fan unequal number Remember, the numberof protons(-+ charges) and electrons ~ charges) must bbe equal in a complete atom; however, the number of neutrons (neutral par ticles) may be diferent. Please turn to page 14.Frompage 1-7 19 Not go, An atom that has'77 proto Ihave an atomie (2) number of 115. 115 neutrons, and 77 eleetrons does not ‘Tho atomic (2) number represents the number of protons in the atom, not the ‘number of neutrons. An atom with aZ numberof 115 would have 118 protons In ita nucleus and 115 electrons in arbit to balance the electrical charge, Such an atom is not known to exist at the present time. Don’t confuse proton (a) with neutron (0) Please return to page 1-7, reread the material, and make another selectirrom page 1-7 10 ‘Yes. You have the right idea. An atom with 77 protons would have a Z number of 77. The number of neutrons has nothing to do with the atomic (2) number. ‘As a matter of intrest, the atom deseribed — 77 protons, 115 neutrons, and 11 electrons — is radionetive iridium, a source of radiation eommonly used in radiography. Let's go on. We mentioned earlier that protons and neutrons are about equal in sizo and weight. The only difference, so far as we are concerned, is that the proton has a positive charge and the neutron has no charge. Wealso said that tho electron is vory much lighter than the proton or neutron, in fact only 1/1840¢h ae heavy. If we could weight a single atom, most of the reading on the scale would be ‘caused by the nucleus (protons and neutrons). The elactrons and other inciden tal particles (za) are ao light that they would not make any significant con tribution to the weight. Please turn to the next pageFrom page 1-10 ua cause atoms are such extremely small bits of matter, it wouldn't make ‘sense to try to express their weight in ounces or grams, Instead a smaller unit of weight is used — The “atomic mass unit” oF "AMU. ‘Technically, one AMU is 1/12 of the weight, oF mass, of @ carbon atom that ha 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nuclous. Practically, however, one AMU is almost exactly equal té the weight, or mass, fof one proton or one neutron. A [Now lets tako an atom of the radioactive iridium that we mentionod before. ‘The atom is made up of 77 protons, 116 neutrons, and 7 electrons. If it were possible to place this atom on a sensitive sale, what would be ts approximate weight in AMU's? 269 AMU's Page 12 192 AMU’ Page 1-18From page 1-11 ha Nope. You picked the wrong answer One AMU is almost exactly equal to the weight, or mass, of one proton or one However, an electron weighs only LI840th as much es proton or neutron You mado tho mistako of edding the eletrons to the weight figure. The 77 yen soy NOK From page 1-13, 14 Don't be too concerned about AMU's (atomic mass unite) Im your work as @ radiographer you may see the term oecesionally, but itis of litle importance except at engineering lvels. We used it here merely to assist in the definition fof the MASS or A number ‘Tho use ofthe letters Z and A to represent atomic number and mass number, respectively, is unfortunate because is sometimes confusing. It may help to differentiate between the two if you remember that “A” does not stand for “atomic” number ~ it means “mass.” You have to go tothe opposite end of the alphabet to find the designation for “atomic” number Hore are the definitions again Z = atomic number. ‘The number of protons in the nucleus. ‘This ‘umber determines the type of element, ‘A = mass number. The numberof protons and neutrons in the nucleus. ‘This number identifies diferent atoms of the same element. ‘Turn to page 1-1ood pxoU 2M 07 eaR, “zL Bunenousd “11 1 énvoy a10 suonnon, “6 oawsouod -g oper ——— ‘on30} poode ys yg (o8003) womesnaaod “g ny aned wuss uy“ wude From page 1-14 1s Let's summarize the facts we've lexred in this section concerning basic atomic particles and atoms, Fest Atoms are composed of three basie particles — protons neutrons, and electrons, There are others, but they are not Important to us, Second A proton has a single positive electrical charge, a neutron has no electrical charge, and an electron has a single negative elec tical charg, Third ‘The protons and neutrons are grouped together in the center of {he atom and are called the nucleus, The electrons orbit at some distance from the nuclus. Fourth A complete atom must be eletrically neutral. The number of electrons must equal the number of protons. fin Al atoms of one element have the same number of protons, If the numberof protons is different, it is a different element. si The number of protons ie called the “atomic” number or “2 numberof an element. Seventh The total numberof protons and neutrons is called the “mas! number or “A” number of an element. In the next chapter we will find out what happens when the number of neutrons in an atom changes but the number of protons remeins the same (Same Z number but different A mamber) Turn to page 116 fora review of Chapter 1From Page 1-15 1. ‘The next few pages are diferent from the ones which you have been reading. Tere aro rows on this entire page. (Write in the correct number of arrows) Do not read the frames below. FOLLOW THE ARROW and eum to the TOP of the next page Phere you will correct word for the bla Inyoen asm suosinaN, “TT suornau “91 positive (plus) ‘axa s20jou0y3so7o ~ he sopapaed meg OF the three basic atomic particles, the one that has no electrical charge is the sages a, > electrons, protons on 3s axe Aouy asneaog g Although the number of electrons and protons in an atom must be the same, the number of may be different. > 15. protons, neutrons apnzed ru09 9ay) pon Y 18, Every atom can be identified, not only by its atomic number (number), but by a mage number, or “A number, that represents thetotalmumberof and inthe a > ayojnop sedus eauies 1 jo ane— ose st saoyclestoypes wouswo> 24} Jo UN “O (01 earn Bey ona 1 speed weg, opr eydye ‘paade 98 sy) Jo asnenoq ‘woneypes vou pur eiaq eydly 919 afd wou Finis is the anawer to the blank in Frame number 1 1, four" Frame 2 is nxt oF ‘These sections will prov tothis point. There will beone or more blanks in each f ‘An electron (2) has a single — 1 12, in ite nucleus, protons neutrons, neous 11, A given element always has the same ‘Turn to the next page Follow the arrow. electrical charge. Bach of the basic elements is characterized by the number of idea review ofthe material you have covered > > number¥ LT aBed oy wamy on, 2 gost | sun00N, auad sora wed mq 2 sapofou anovoqpes eng Vv ude oy peas ude ay os wow or a4 raja reyaifo st oy E704 Imani sogpes uy ue aay ysis ones, ves sina ques em. Crowne joug w 95058 sr-gemed woss, By following the arrows or instructions, you will bo directed to the section which fllows in sequence. Bach section presents informa: tion and requires the filing in of » gate ins s * 3 8 Iman atom, the protons and neutrons are groupe together inthe canter ofthe atom, This groupings called the atthe ’ 12, protons é 18, Ifyou coud examine an atom of helium, you would fin 2 protons in its nucleus. All atoms that contain only 2 protons in the mucus are som of — — 11, atomic (2 1B. Atoms of the same element always have the same atomic (2) number but they may have different ‘numbers because the number of| Jn the nucel may vary. >‘od rou on 01 wang, rare pus 8401 x opye qeaysour St 9p 0408101, nok “kydeoypes Kea asayy“sasodind ano so, w X aim suopenydle w SA X Jo abrO4ar a qo 2094 Xf J0 O01 104 ap a1B}OUDM AOU, ny @u02)n0U “s0A0MOFY ‘suozynou A 20 9401 50 sa2inos 1p aq 30U Praow wore qn any ava at a20j0q iy aay auo st O04, prgoted maag, 8. blanks (spaces, vou) | 4, Now for the reviow. Atoms are made up of three basic particles: (), 8 nucleus (o), and (oh 9, Anatom consists mostly of empty space because the arbit at relatively large distance from the nucleus. 12, helium 14. Bach eloment is identified by @ name, symbol, oF atomic number."The stomie number, oF Z-mumber as itis sometimes calle count of the number of of the element __in the, is actually a of an atom > 18. mass (Ab, 19, ‘The atomic (2) number represents the number of in the nucleus, and ‘The mass (A) number represents the number of {in the nucleus. »1 ee on wanna Sane Sunyyenseuosg 9604, svonposd ys 38203 cr 30 4 epsom 1p ouoJog 201n08 OM conn wondaxo ox, wondaoxs ssounos asa 035 soj> 709 ae Aydeaorper nag yo aamnos 049 30} Sy {mj sapsnzed wyoq Jo wou 60 90u st woyqoxE 10 “parayyups Jo onunos i aBossvd et 6g sex pra syoq ap SoU srgaBed wosy, 4, protons, neatrons, electrons electrical 4 45. A proton (0) has single 9, electrons NO. Inany complete atom, the numberof number of 4 BA. protons, nucleus : “and 4 5. Most of the weight of an atom is caused by the heavy particles: charge. Return to page 1-16. frame 6, must oqual the Retarn to page 1-16, frame 11 Return to page 1-16, frame 16,CHAPTER 2 — RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS In the last chaptor you learned that an element is identified by the number of protons in its nucleus fts Z number. We also indicated that any one element ‘may vary in the numberof neutrons It has in its nucleus; that és the same Iment may have several A numbers. In this chapter we will elaborate on this fin of different numbers of neutrons in atoms of the same element end com sider the effect of this situation on the stability of che atoms, You will earn the primary processes through which radioactivity cakes place and some methods of measuring radioactivity Let's take a look at some atoms of the same element in which the A numbers fare different. We'll use tho element hydrogen as an example — it is the simplest and lightest ofall the elements, Hydrogen has a Z number of | s0 we now that al! atoms of hydrogen will have | proton in its nucleus, This i= the common form of ra hydrogen. It has 1. proton and 1 balancing electron. It has no neu tons. (This is the only atom that thas no neutrons in its nucleus) “719 o8ed 01 wing ‘This is @ lees common form of 02 x we Suwon yo ogee n wove Suny yenSUIOHG 50 244 © PUL 9.2800 a } atom of hydrogen also has 1 neuton & in its nucleus. It is known as pone ponds soy Au ey ae heavy” hydrogen, because it nye euosns9f9 sean Ash weighs twice ae mich as common 0 379 SuONRDOD (9f b ay 20 soydeuRoqpes vo onan yons oy pausjuoa ip WoyS aba UIA YOR "6420 '4poq sN04 uo Us addons 24 pynost ‘somos up J, 999 oN yA Loydeasoypes & ga mp yo ou0 fsa, undeph rsqns w Burqwoy wr 1,96 pue“1-g id 07 ws 514 10709 poquoeqe qh your ut pasvoun) poyensdoy "0 wungpes Ragen an wa sino 0 Due Ler wise ‘ger ump + sadonost aanranoypes an per a pocinanoa sf oye a4, -worepes eye 98:04 ‘nos jem a) ynoqe pos soy qu0sqe sno pes ays 04 pave toe @ >aon Sojried wydye "205 soup 204 1 sopmiod oy soya ue 5 a aauooas no “poo e-9 980d woProm page 27 29 You heve the right idea. A different element with » % number of S2 has resulted from the radioactive decay of the atom, Tho atom of Po-210 has focayed into a stable isotope of lend, Pb-206, Notice thatthe A numberof the Jaa 4 ese than the A niimber ofthe polonium, This resulted fom the loss of protons and 2 neutrons from the polonium nucleus [As shown above, alpha (a) particle decay will aways result in new element with two less protons and with an A number four les than the original ‘When radioactive decay of an stom takes place by the emission of «beta i) pantle, the process is alittle more complex. In order to understand beta (2) particle decay, we'll have to take alittle closer look at the neutron, Consider the veutron as being a combination of « proton (a) and an electron { @m2@-() meurnow Notice that we have not changed the basic idea of a neutral particle. The noutron has a single positive charge anda single nogative charge; therefore, it Ig elctricaly neutral, Untersianding the concept of a neutron is necessary to our discussion "99 oBied 0} wang, I Baeause we are going to start changing neutrons (o) into protans (s) by sub Aiacting electrons (0) Don't got the ide that this is a common occurrence in roses a,usoep puv étpydes alos. In a stable atom, the protons, neutrons, and electrons are perfectly ames 291 9M ysnoMTTy | Eantent to stay the way they are, Only inan unstable, or radioactive, stom will Xu, 21a ovuy pou ro09 YO Find forces hat will change one particle invo another. tod ogy asus 9g no§ urn to the next page. “pds dosp 2930 Aax}uenb 98361 yo Bu0uo aur 20 pods am oped eydye wy “£1103 egaied wosglFrom page 29 210 Son radioactive nucle! emit bota (8) particles (high speed electrons) when they decay. Noto thet these are not orbital elections — they originate in the fucleus. Normally, we don't think of a nucleus as having any electrons in it: however. es discussed on the last page, a neutron isa combination ofa proton (ol and an elotzon (0) ‘When the electron is removed, the neutran becomes a proton Inhis is what happens during beta (s) decay. A neutron in the radioactive cleus gives off a bota particle (nuclear electron) and becomes a proton, 99 aed oy wang, 'As an example, consider the radioactive isotope of iridium, 1-192 (shown on eu Suv sowwzroued spre thelett below). It has 77 protons and 116 neutrons in its nucleus (77 + 115 = 1 8 az0ju044, st aarsod)f IBY. When an electron is jected ws a heta particle, one neutron is converted sow au, “suo! aameau toa proton. ls axe 3049 SUOND9| OU, @*0 @20 Me new atom now has 78 protons and 114 neutrons. The A number remains same, (18 + 114 = 192}; however, the Z number is now 78 instead of 7. Iridium atom has changed to platinum ~ Pr-192. ea particle decay results in the atom becoming the atom of a new element ving one more proton (Z number) than the original: however, the A number ilerasin the same. ned apoyo uo 10 ‘swore p uoyo8104 0a,nog aduysog gamed mong to the next page,-Ajda0p yeanauad you op nowy pudza soprsed mye ‘jdaop anezouad > Suons ou sopansed wy aarenound poy ‘iemou ayezaua qe yg 3985 a1 SuopIsuo) Y) é 8 S aw ide 9 “paapopp st uonooy ‘1 zou soe 1051009 5 nnsod w pur aor arn Joxouras et wox999 we uo “oye 6904 2ywprs onn ay sossod as p oF S203 uos90 ue Af Bou "4B mf 30} sexes nds moqs Ajpaneps 24 4 roman oudhy ay 5. s-9aRed woud From page2-10 au Inne radioactive isotope of cobalt, Co-60, is another icotope that decays by Jenission ofa bota particle Lan atom of cobalt 60 contains 27 protons and 83 neutrons @10 Wien the atom disintegrates, a bot particle is ejected, Islonks in the lustration above forthe resulting atom? ‘you fll in the Hye the page for the answeraquoy vo su 2zqu0! you op sopred eydh or uozs ae soaried wud ( anoqe 403 nod pine eH bg Sy uo 3904 ajqu9prsuo> w oq poods oye 2 0.920809 sono uy oops opaied wy 94 ‘onaoyo uo 10 opopzed w0q voy sos soar ws 44 ‘uon29[9 3 anoyI wos F suyeyuoo fona6d wy uy uy Koop annoys yo "A primed auydo we oy ox -goaed wou rom page 2-11 ) @»0 ‘When the cobalt 60 atom emits a beta particle, it results in a new element, hike! 60 (NFO) that has 28 protons and 32 neutrons ‘Ore neutron has lost an electron and becomes « proton. ‘The mass (A) number remains the same because the total number of neutrons and protons has not changed um to pare 2-13.Irom page 212 SFP 1.0m pun 2-9 offed 02 anfeg ar, we have discussed only the emission of alpha and beta pasticles when ioactive atoms disintegrate bor mum 20 X ws OEP roneype: eUONLAALO }0 OM, although ot necessarily, there is an enerKy adjustment in the fadasctive atom when an alpha particle or a beta particle is emitted. This gy adjustment results in the emission of a gamma (y) ry. ‘rexamoy ‘wonmpes vos "= uonepes ware jo saan (0s oany pInous nos “to.0O} PAS THE GAMMA RAY EMISSION THAT WE ARE INTERESTED IN, vou oyojornied woq pu wy [Alpha particles and beta particles are of no value in radiography. When work: ing with radioactive Isotopes, only the gamma rays are of any use to the radlographer. aeuae uowny 4 por2e19p soyyou syn) >00d Io summarize the common modes or processes of radioactive decay, aradioae 1 ovjond ‘sem 040 Wye atom, depending on its type, ean decay by one ofthe following means: 1, Alpha emission ony. (of no interest to us) I Beta emission only, (of no interest to us) 13 Alpha emission with associated gamma ray emission. Uf Beta emission with associated gamma ray emission 1e¥ spouses £4 porooyze 193i 30 poods ye poser dion 20 sem ann There ave other decay patterns that occur, but they are not common and will It be discussed her, top Jong w e oq “sem | SIoyP uoRIPRE meqHOH ‘mou woqt ossnoetp azom soppried oi vos aqwnored jo so a 197301 uonpes sperma ven “dormpes yon o 1 yo suo oy) 9903 89 >es,namne, yno9 4 pur sce x —uonerpe: | 4 Is9 uowssn2eyp sm Jo 180 | ‘WHdly — § YaLavH9}From page 213, 214 vet axon aut J should be mentioned here that any one radioactive isotope will decay recording to a characteristic pattern, For example, a quantity of thuluan 170 {fi-170) will always emit beta partici within a certain predictable range of teres plus gamma rays of a specific energy. No other isotope has exactly the seme decay pattern Ti should aloo be mentioned that the product of radioactive decay may also be Idiactive. For example, when radium decays, it gives off an alpha particle land becomes the radioactive element radon. The radon in turn decays into flher radioactive elements in a sevies of disintegrations until finally it ui aonpoud pu suaxjoa ) etimes a stable isotope of lead, Ph206. > put 129979 a1>9poerO4e fy suonooqo ABauo.ysi yf Allaf the now elements that result from radionctive decay, whether they are raioactive or stable, are called DAUGHTER PRODUCTS of the original U adlctive isotope, eva Mur to page 2-15. 0 01 0) “AOy § 0 AS0U fo woroud aosi-oog © JT howe (-) oaneaeu “C+)aanysodFrom page 214 215 ‘We don't want to confuse the issue any more than it already i however, some fof you may be asking, “Whore isthe enctgy corning from that is given to the slomie particles that ar ejected, and where does the energy originate that is ven off a5 gamma rays? Aro we getting something for nothing?” 1 0 om Jo wm S96 onyea sey 2004, aoe onpea te, fu aro interested, here isn simplified answer. ‘Do you romomber sosing this equation before? 34 601 IR SuoxDRIE P2910 pes As0pu0008, L9H SM, wors7p8a “Aaepuoses ‘woydasog, Mhis equation was furnished by a giant of our times Albert Einstein, Ie means hut energy and mass are interchangeable. In the equation, Fis energy, mis fas, and cis the spood of light Obviously, since the speod of light isa large nurnber, esa very large number. his means that a very small mass, m, could be converted into rather high ls of energy. This conversion is the basis on which the atomic and rogen bombs work — the conversion of atomic mass into energy. nn ex — 24 17 wovoyd mou ou, the case of radioactivity, the “mass loss" in the nucleus that results in gy emission s extremely small and insignificant The mass (A) number of atom isnot affected by such slight changes in mas, kp to page 216, nou m0. Ue oH AYIrom page 215 216 jy that you have an idea of how radioactive isotopes disintegrate oF decay w uno 92/1 £4 Aas. uNquORGe Jo SSSREDNT MLL, wil explain about how radioactivity fs measured basic unit for describing tho activity (radioactivity) of « quantity of ctive material isthe “eure,” named after Marie Curie the discoverer of heelemont redium, en 37 billion of its atoms disintegrate in one second, (In scientific terms, this is 7 we know that some of the unstable atoms are going to disintegrate or a 7 every second, If the rate of disintegration happens to be 37 billion —— F the two radioactive sources shown above, One decays at « rate of Dillion atoms per second and the other at the rate of 74 billion atoms per id. What are their activites in euros? ee unour, 0 au om So4e ARsoUD ONDA WE LAY 1040 Yo] -Airpodso ‘59509 amos tt and 2 cures Poge2-17 n't enough information given. I would have to have the dimensions of sources Page21a sae Jo von as | Wnonp ayenened Ka 8 puv ses x) Sueno (6x04) 2640p,From page 216 zat Yor say thet the two sources have activities of 12 and 2 cures tu ——— preosjou tordwog 30 [OHO SL "Pygry good. Since you are tokd how many atoms decay per second in each {soure, it isa simple matter to find the activities of the sources in curies, (woroyd) Aer x Well say it has an activity of 4 cures. If we eut the source into two equal parts of 12 co each, what will be the activity ofeach piece? 7 Oo uone oquosqe sf i049 woroud aurany suosoyd Buronpord + uso suonoyd :0U YH aq HO, Page219 Page 220 1 04 mat wos funpar Sey yp O29 sear wo}oyd A93E00T © FT aunsooro sy oensseq exer euIE psn Aquourwuos s} peor, (away asuopFrom page 216 iis -— we o worssyue | You say that you need the dimensions before you can determine the activity nun2ajoo4y £4 poddoys so | of the two pieces oud 1 unyRNESHON m ‘S79 sorry. All the information you need is given in the problem, Remember, Tonsiper p eutleequals 37 billion dsintegrations per second (87 10° disioc. There i nothing in the definition ofa curie that speeifies the size ofthe source; i could anousewonoo9 i Pet? A pe the size ofa match head or the sizeof a melon. Ifit decays atthe rate of 37 billion atoms per second, it has an activity of 1 cure, Inovr problem we have 2 sources, one that decays at rate of 18.5 billion (18.5 x 10°) atoms per socond and the second at 74 billion (74 x 10%) atoms per see f arou wopaenp amtueya | ond. Therefore, they have activities of 1/2 and 2 cures, respectively. XE “oye wordwog, uy Turn to page 2-17 vay of s8000%d sf, UNO 3 on pu AB Hp woroyd ae waza. sys uy oon asenduae og, pov axe eyeozea 3841 (239 “woupods | wourisqns) jssneu2 pur x 50 wopydaoeqe ox eee ou Wa sae yqo}NRNL Tay) wy ou og Hoty 30 ofa avd wor ww Suea19 oyoyd op *woye wv uF HoH Tn 0 6eax we GOHAN uo} sanrsod — ay uo suopudop ‘8309043 0) won}ppR UT From poge217 219 Fixoelent. ach piece has an activity of 2 cures. You apparently understand fhatby cutting the source in half, che numberof atoms in each piece is haf of he original: therefore, che number of atoms that decay each second in each pee is hal ofthe original {Op rae occasions you may be concerned with extremely sinallsadioactive fourees in radiographic work. There are sub-curle units to deseribe the activ Uy ofsuch sources. A millicurie (me is 11000 of a eure, and & mieracure (ue) {1,000,000 ofa cure WNotiesthat in these discussions about “activity” of radioactive source, we have talked about “disincegrations” ofthe atoms and not about the resulting Haltion. As we mentioned before, each radioactive source has its own ier pattern of decay. One disintegration in radioactive source doesn't Beeossarily mean chat one gamma ray is emitted, For example, in a Co60 source, each atom decays by emitting a beta particle, ‘Aliost immediately, additional energy adjustments are made in the atom, Bnd to gamma rays are emitted. Each of the gamma rays has a certain lense that is always the same. Inthe case of Co-60, then, each disintegration Fesuls in wo gamma rays, Bot as efficent as Co-60; however, it has other characteristics that male i ul in radiography. Hotopes may be the same, the number of gamma rays that result from the say oftheir atoms may be quite diferent. stake another example, Tm-170. When a thulium source decays, approx: ely 114 ofits atoms emit beta particles and an associated gamma ray pat 8/4 of the atoms emit beta particles with no associated gamma ray 70 always decays inthis pattern, So, as a gamma ray producer, Tn-170 Point we are trying to make is that, although the activities of differentFrom page 217 220 Tam; sson | You thinke that when a4 curie source is cut in two, each half will algo have sn onpmpas yemawono oun uy ativity of 4 cures ne "te A emember that activity ie a measure of the actual number of atoms that ecay in one second. When you eut the number of atoms in a aoure in half doesn't it seem reasonable that the number of atoms Uhat will deeay will also Iye cut in boll? ned wor ct 04 cou ayy woroyd moun, sot fm to page 2-19, uo yon moss wore Uy | ) aamedou fos 041 0 » Aaiqe Funenoved ayFrom page 2-19 221 ‘We have learned that the activity of «radioactive source is « measure of the pumbor of stoms that decay each second, We also know that activity varies os ow 20} ey ood On WIRD phe sizeof the source changes. -cyouoquy Given two different sourees, chances are that one will be more active than the twoqeauod ther. From what wo have discussed so far, we ean't tall which of the two is ‘nye geH, ctualy the better souree — which one is aetually more productive of radia: tion. One may have mare activity simply bocsuse itis linger than the other yp suosoud ea pe XIV {You've heard boxing fans compare two fightors with, “Pound for pound, he's is betier man.” With radioactive sources we compare activities “gram for spesoy Kea am. ,uormppes wordieg, ‘qui The activity, in euries, of 1 gram of any radiouctive gouree is known as the "GPECIFIC ACTIVITY of tho souree. oe ao [2 pasos Remember, to be specific, you need to know more than just the activity Jeures) of the source, you also need to know the weight ofthe source, wwomeztuor no passi%o5 For example, if 2 grams of cobalt 60 (Co60) source has an activity of 50 tutes, the specific activity ofthe CoO source is 26 curies per gram (25 cl o rpend on Yo wosdwory 1f4 groms of iridium 182 (tr-192) shows an activity of 1400 cures, what isthe pec cctivity (lg? synsou pus mro2poroud tific ectivity is 1400 eg Pogo 2-22 Spite activity i 350 Page 2-23 som 50g, q wonezwoy sapquy 2804, wow pu x. sxe wtp swe pe 0 &rwuruane jag 8,00 ecw‘oqo snow aye Pu uaopy euOrIPpe 80 HOLA puoses axp ysinonyn posse east 914 999 YNOIT pa jour saga anes ay As og snk on t90qe oi s96yy anes ose aI0N 3040] 9004 som soso sly 3849 en09h «07 #12309 9007 04,00 UY Prom page 221 pS ‘We anparently didn’t make our point clear, 1400 curies isthe total activity of 4 grams of the Ir-192, However, wear trying to determine the specific activi fy lt activity of just 1 gram of the 1-192 In order to do this, we must divide 1400 by 4, The resul, 850, is the speci activity in curies per gram (el ‘Turn to page 2.28From paye 221 aaa Right. 14 grams of 1-192 has an activity of 1400, then 1 ity 14 ofthat, oF 250, ‘The specific activity ofthe In-192 is 260 el. ra hasan activ Let's try some more A. Six grams of an isotope has an activity of 90 cures BB, Two grams of an isotope has an aetivity of 2000 euries C. 12 gram of an isotope has an activity of 760 curiés How would you arrange these isotopes in descending order of specific activity [highest specific activity frst, te? B-c-A Page 224 c-B-A Page 2-25, ne-p aed 07 wi co oxoue any MH NOX roa sf 3040] on ox ut soywo psenoa (304 sous 31 3do0u09 my ay poonpas a beep Syston an, “V3 us womoypas oy, ipoo8 ve-vased wsFrom pago223 You arranged the isotopes in BC — A order. Sorry, Hithor we didn't make clear whet its we want, or your arithmetic is rusty. Specific activity isthe number of curiae in 1 gram ofthe isotope. When you haveothor than 1 gram of radioactive materia, you must divide the number of ‘exries by the number of gram. For example if 3 grams ofan isotope has an activity of $0 cures, the specific. activity ofthat particular source ie 20¢ + 9 g or 10 curies per gram. Or, given source of 12 cuties activity that weighs 1/2 gram, the specife activity i126 12g oF 24 curies per gram, Toturn to page 223 and try again ysuoqut uonrper om {mod sm aad MON suman saxon FH 2K 09 90 CU 26 soe sey we sor sy sen ain eeuooes noA 20 ‘e-pamed ulrom page223 ‘You ssid C had the highest specific activity, followed by Band A. Right you ©. 750.¢ 12g = 1500 ol B, 2000 ¢ + 2g = 1000 elg Ae +6g= 150g In the familly of isotopes commonly used for radiography; specific activity is Important because itis n indication ofthe sizeof the radioactive pellet ot pil” source) that will be required to furnish the necessary activity to do.a radiographic inspection. Ifthe specific activity is low, it would mean thatthe pellet, or pil size would have to be too big to give good radiographic results in some applications. You il get more on this subject in Volume 4 Tara to page 226, ‘ep oud oy wan uy doop se 9q 301 prot yp oH 98 ond 4H 1 you pynom ses wun nay ssnoraqo spe uo sry a8 9,1 m0 zo-ponedp00] 94 PIO “TAH 990] 94 INO TAH Ul sy poste aso aye woddey pynom 040 ‘Moy ou 8 paneer Hayeu0sqe own 28 poquosqe aq sea (es yo sage) su cf go ou ogo © EH ety 29808 09-09 B Lang, map Ws 09 4 pu enue) yous > ay 0 oydurexa Ue 5, sanod Supenpuod 2 ke anes 4,“ opp aied| From page 225 et’s take another look at the decay process ina radioactive isotope. practically speaking, there is no such thing as @ puro chunk ofa radioactive faotope. Even if it were possible to completely separate a radioactive isotope from its surrounding materials, the purity of the piece would Ist but an fhotant because some of the atoms would immediately start to decay into fiher isotopes. ‘These new isotopes then become contaminants, and the friginal isotope would no longer be pure. Tbvery radioactive isotope has its own pattorn of decay. Not only dos it decay by giving off various energies of different particles or rays as we've already Giscussed, but it decays at a rate that ie characteristic ofthe isotope. Some feotopes docay quite rapidly and, therefore, have a high specific activity (Others decoy at a very slow rate and, therefore, have a very low specific activity he rae at which a radioactive isotope decays is commonly measured in “hal ite.” halflife of an isotope isthe time i takes for 1/2 ofthe atoms ofthe isotope fodisintegrate, to the next page.aed 0 wang, oop 04 8 doy ‘810;0204), uoyoyd 48009 (nwo waa, aoyo4 #004 Oe pated wosg From page 2.26 2a ry radioisotope (short for “radiographic isotope") has its own peculiar Aalf.ife, Half ives for various radiisotopes range rom afew microseconds to many thousands of years Forexample, the halflife of cesium 197(Cs-197)is 90 years. This means thet at tho end of 30 years, 12 of the cesium 137 atoms in a source would have decayed, leaving 1/2 of the original atoms intact. It dossn't make any di ference how much Cs187 we start with ~ only 1/2 would be left intact at the fend of a halflife, 30 years, ‘What fraction of the orginal Cs-187 atoms would remain intact in « source after 90 years? 118 would remain intact Poge2-28 116 would remain intact Page 229 u would remain intact Page 2-30woo 94 pIROM AL wets PROM 3 tuo 1009 © p> syaraed 9 MY wy sr dep 5PM su fo saquumy) sou wos 9 ony 40 uomppe ‘adoop {wopydaosqe ous, re0q ap #2 woos >ondiosqe ous, 29 998 8291 HO se-poied wosg From page 2.27 228 ‘You think that after 90 years, 1/9 of the Cs-197 atoms would remain intact ‘You made a bad pick. From your answer it would appear that you recognize that 90 years i equal to 3 halflives for Co-137, but you didn't quite know how to-apply that fact to the problem. In one halflife the number of intact atoms is reducod to 12, In the second halflife, the 1/2 that remains intact is again cut in half leaving 1/4 of the original Co-137 atoms intact. Can you take it from there? Turn back to page 2.27 and make another choice.gr aed oy wan, popes pass 225 06 03 wey Buse fqn a, ouuyos "ut NOK a0, Lerroded woss Prom page 227 2.29 ‘You feel that after 90 years, [of the C2197 atoma would remain intact ‘You almost have i, but your arithmetic is off. You apparently realize that 90 years is equal to 3 halflives of Cs-197 and in trying to couple tie with che fact that 1/2 the atome remain intact after one half, you came up with 16. ‘Take a closer look. At the end of one halflife, 12 of tho Cs-187 atoms remain intact. At the end of the second halflife, 1/2 of the U2, of 14, ofthe atoms r tain intact. At the end of the third halflife, 1/2 ofthe 1/4 remains intact ‘Turn back to page 2.27 and make anethor choice