16

Reproduction

Statements from Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry syllabus 0610 (for exams in 2016 – 2018)
14/04/2020
 16.1 Asexual reproduction
Define asexual reproduction as a process resulting in the
production of genetically identical offspring from one
parent
Identify examples of asexual reproduction from
information provided
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual
reproduction:
– to a population of a species in the wild
– to crop production
 What is reproduction?
. to produce new organisms by passing
the DNA to the offsprings.
Two kinds of Reproduction
1) Asexual Reproduction
= a single organism can reproduce
without the help of another

2) Sexual Reproduction
= requires two different sex cells
(haploid cells) from two different
individuals fusing together to reproduce
the first cell (diploid cell) of a new
organism
 Terms to know:

Haploid: having a single set of

chromosomes in each cell.
Diploid: having two sets of chromosomes in
each cell.
Mitosis: cell division, which produces two
genetically identical cells.
Meiosis: reduction division, which produces
four haploid reproductive cells.
 Animals vs. Plants
Plant Reproduction Animal Reproduction

Life cycle Alternation of generations No alternation of generations

Gametes Haploid gametes Haploid gametes

Spores Haploid spores No spores

Gametes made by Haploid gametophyte, by mitosis Diploid organism, by meiosis

Spores made by Diploid sporophyte, by meiosis No spores

 Two types of reproduction

Asexual Sexual
involves one parent usually involves 2 parents
involves gametes
involves no gamete (sex involves fertilization
cell) fusion of the nuclei of male & female
offspring are genetically gametes ⇒ zygote
identical to the parents – offspring are genetically different from
each of their parents
mitotic cell division
 Types of asexual reproduction

Examples of asexual reproduction

Binary fission Budding Spore formation

Fragmentation Vegetative
propagation
Fission: Asexual Reproduction

Fission: Cell division in prokaryotes that forms

two genetically identical cells
DNA is copied
The cell begins to grow longer, pulling the
two copies apart
The cell membrane pinches inward in the
middle of the cell
Cell splits to form two new uniform,
identical offspring
Examples: bacteria, Ecoli, pond critters
Budding: Asexual Reproduction

Budding: a new organism grows by

mitosis and cell division on the body
of its parent
The bud, or offspring is identical
to the parent
The bud, when large enough, can
break off of the parent and live on
its own
Offspring may remain attached and
form a colony
Examples: Yeast, Hydra, cactus
 Spore produced in large numbers.
formation
occurs in fungi
e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus
 Spore
formation

Hypha grows up
vertically and tip
swells with cytoplasm
containing many
nuclei (Sporangium)
Tip release spore
 Asexual reproduction
Natural method – eg. strawberry runner

Strawberry runners
are more correctly
called “stolons”.
They are horizontal
stems that run above
the ground and
produce new clone
plants at “nodes”
Under favourable conditions (warm, spaced at varying
sufficient water), most strawberry plants intervals
produce lots of runners. It is not uncommon
for a single plant to produce between 30 and
50 runners.
 Vegetative Propagation: Asexual

Vegetative Propagation: uniform offspring

grow from a part of a parent plant
Parent plants sends out runners
Where the runner touches the ground, roots
can grow
A new plant is produced even if the runner is
broken apart
Each new plant is uniform and identical to
the parent.
Examples: strawberries, potatoes, ivy,
crabgrass
development of new plants from vegetative /
food storage organs

1. Bulb 2. tuber 3. rhizome 4. corm

 Stem tubers

storage bud aerial

organ parts
1 When conditions become
unfavourable such as
winter,the aerial parts of
the plant die and the
storage organ stops
growing underground.
It survives through bad
conditions for growth.
 Vegetative
propagation

2 When conditions are suitable

for growth,a new plant
develops from a bud.
The storage organ
provides food for the
development of the new
plant.
 Vegetative
propagation

3 Adventitious
roots are
formed.They
absorb water
and minerals.
The shoot grows aerial
up and develops shoot
leaves.
adventitious
roots
 Vegetative
propagation

lea
f
4 The storage organ
dries up as food is
used up for growth.
 Vegetative
propagation

5 The plant can now survive on new storage

organ
its own by food made from
photosynthesis.Some
food made from
photosynthesis is passed
to a new storage organ.

previous
storage
organ
 Vegetative
propagation

Examples of storage organs

Tuber Bulb Rhizome Corm
swollen horizontally
underground short growing short swollen
stem underground underground underground
e.g. potato stem with stem stem
tuber layers of e.g.
fleshy ‘scale e.g. ginger
rhizome Gladiolus
leaves’ corm
e.g. onion
bulb
 Vegetative
propagation

Tuber Vegetative propagation of a potato plant

 Vegetative
propagation

Tuber Vegetative propagation of a potato plant

In
In spring
winter

1 The aerial shoots die but the 2 Each bud can produce a
new tubers remain dormant. new independent plant.
tuber formed by shoo
last year’s plant t In
summer
old tuber

new tubers

adventitious roots eye (a bud)

3 The buds use the food stored 4 Excess food made
in the tuber to produce in the leaves is
adventitious roots and sent to the
shoots. underground
shoots and stored.
 Application of asexual reproduction

It is the only means of reproduction for

seedless plants such as pineapples,
vegetative
seedless propagation
grapes, done
oranges, roses,
sugarcane,
artificiallypotato, banana, etc.
Plants raised through vegetative
can produce
propagation aredesired varieties
genetically similar. It
preserves
quickly the type of characters that a
plant breeder desires to retain.
Itmethod:
is very economical
taking ofand easy method
‘cuttings’
for the multiplication of plants.
e.g. Coleus (stem),
African violet (leaves)
 Asexual reproduction in plants

Advantages Disadvantages
A relatively quick way Overcrowding can occur which
to produce new plants causes competition for resources
Good characters of the Disease of the parent plants can
parent are passed to the easily be transmitted to the offspring
offspring Offspring have no new features No
new features in offspring to adapt to
No external factors or any changes in environmental
other plants are needed conditions
for reproduction
Undesirable characters are passed on
to the offspring
Asexual Reproduction (review)
 16.2 Sexual reproduction
Define sexual reproduction as a process involving the
fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a
zygote and the production of offspring that are
genetically different from each other
Define fertilisation as the fusion of gamete nuclei
State that the nuclei of gametes are haploid and that the
nucleus of a zygote is diploid
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual
reproduction:
– to a population of a species in the wild
– to crop production
Sexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction in which the genetic materials

from two different cells combine, producing an offspring
The cells that combine are called sex cells
Female – egg
Male – sperm
Fertilization: an egg cell and a sperm cell join together
A new cell is formed and is called a zygote
 Fertilisation
. the fusion of two sex cells (also
known as gametes)

1) External fertilisation
- occurs outside of the organism
2) Internal fertilisation
- occurs within the body of the
organism
External Fertilisation

Frog Eggs
Internal Fertilisation
 Advantages: Sexual Reproduction

Diverse offspring: genetic variation among

offspring
Half of the DNA comes from mom
Half of the DNA comes from dad
Due to genetic variation, individuals within a
population have slight differences
Plants – resist diseases
Traits can develop to resist harsh
environments that allows an organism
survive
Advantages: Sexual Reproduction

Selective Breeding
Used to develop many types of
plants and animals that have
desirable traits
Agriculture/Farming: better
plants, larger animals
Desirable pets
Disadvantages: Sexual Reproduction

Time and Energy

Organisms have to grow and develop until they are old
enough to produce sex cells
Search and find a mate
Searching can expose individuals to predators, diseases, or
harsh environmental conditions
Fertilization cannot take place during pregnancy, which
can last as long as 2 years for some mammals.
 16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
Identify and draw, using a hand lens if necessary, the
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments and anthers, carpels,
style, stigma, ovary and ovules, of an insect-pollinated
flower
State the functions of the sepals, petals, anthers, stigmas
and ovaries
Use a hand lens to identify and describe the anthers and
stigmas of a wind-pollinated flower
Distinguish between the pollen grains of insect-
pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
Flowers
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

flowering plants reproduce sexually by producing flowers

anthe stame
stigm r
filamen
a n
styl t
carpe e peta
ovar
l l
y
ovul nectar
e y
sepa receptacl
l e petals,
sepals,
flower stamens and
stalk carpels are
attached to this
Structure of a
flower
 Making new plants

Let’s take a closer look at the different parts of this flower.

The stigma is The petals attract
sticky to keep hold insects.
of the pollen.
The anther is the
The style part that makes
supports the the pollen.
stigma and
connects it to
The filament
the ovary.
holds up the
anther.
The ovary is
where the ovules, The sepal leaves
or eggs, are. protect the flower
before it opens.
Structure of a flower
sepa
Sepals l

make up the outermost ring

(calyx) of a flower
protect the inner parts of
the flower when it is a bud
 peta
Petals l

make up the second ring

(corolla) of a flower
may be brightly-coloured to
attract insects
nectaries may be present at
the base to produce nectar
which attracts insects
may have insect guides to lead
insects towards the nectaries insect guide
Stamens

male reproductive organs

consists of 2-4 pollen
filament anth sacs inside which
er pollen grains are
support formed
s anther
pollen sacs
anther when anthers ripen
split open to
pollen release
sacs pollens which
contain male
gametes
filament
Carpels
stigm styl
a e
the centre of a flower
female reproductive
parts
each consists of
stigma (receives pollen
grains)
style (carries the stigma)
ovary (with ovules inside)
Carpels
ovules are protected by stigm
a
integument which has a
small hole (micropyle) ovary wall styl
e
ovules contain the integument
s
female gametes ovul femal
e ovar
each ovule is e y
gamet
attached to the ovary micropyl
e
wall by a stalk e

Structure of a
carpel
 16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
Define pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma
Define self-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or different
flower on the same plant
Define cross-pollination as transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant
of the same species
Discuss the implications to a species of self-pollination and
cross-pollination in terms of variation, capacity to respond to
changes in the environment and reliance on pollinators
Describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers
Pollination
the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigmas
fertilization of male & female gametes in ovules

cross-pollination self-pollination

1
Pollinatio
n
2

wind-pollination insect-pollination
Cross-pollination and self-pollination
Cross-pollination
pollen grains are
transferred to a
different plant
Cross-pollination and self-pollination
Self-pollination
pollen grains are transferred
within the same plant
Inbreeding (Self-pollination)

Advantages:
1. Preserves well-adapted
genotypes
2. Insures seed set in the
absence of pollinators

Disadvantages:
Decreases genetic variability
Outbreeding (Cross-pollination)

Advantages:
1. Increases genetic variability
2. Strong evolutionary potential
3. Adaptation to changing conditions
4. Successful in long-term

Disadvantages:
1. Can destroy well-adapted genotypes
(offspring are not guaranteed to be viable)
2. Relies on effective cross-pollination
Wind-pollination and insect-pollination

Wind pollination pollinated by wind

Insect pollination pollinated by insects

The flowers are structurally adapted to

pollination.

Wind-pollinated flowers Insect-pollinated flowers

Insect-pollinated flowers are adapted to attract
insects to them to enable transfer of pollen
Pollen has
barbs for
hooking onto
nectar and a insect fur
scent present

Anthers positioned
to rub pollen onto
insects

Sticky stigma to
collect pollen Brightly
coloured petals

Flower Structure Pollination Fertilisation Seed Dispersal Germination Test

 Wind-pollinated flowers are different in structure because they
do not have to attract insects to them but do need to be exposed
to the wind.

Pollen grains are very Anthers are exposed to the

small and light. They wind so that pollen can
occur in very large easily be blown away
numbers

Stigma are
feathery to catch
pollen carried on
wind

Petals are small and

green as there is no
need to attract No scent or
insects nectary

Flower Structure Pollination Fertilisation Seed Dispersal Germination Test

Comparison of insect and wind
pollinated flowers
Wind pollinated flowers Insect pollinated flowers

Flowers are small and do not have brightly Flowers are large and have brightly coloured
coloured petals (if at all) petals

Large amounts of small, very light pollen grains Sticky pollen is produced in small amounts.
produced.

Stigmas are long and feathery and held outside Stigmas are positioned inside the flower so
of the flower insects brush against them

Anthers are held outside of the flower by long Anthers are positioned inside the flower so
filaments that insects will brush against them.

Wind pollinated flowers do not produce nectar Insect pollinated flowers produce nectar in
nectaries.

Eg. the grasses, cereals Eg. orchids, foxgloves

 16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
State that fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus
fuses with a nucleus in an ovule
Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into
the ovule followed by fertilisation (details of production
of endosperm and development are not required)
Investigate and state the environmental conditions that
affect germination of seeds, limited to the requirement
for water, oxygen and a suitable temperature
 Fertilisation
STIGMA

Understand that the STYLE

growth of the pollen
tube followed by
fertilisation leads to
seed and fruit
formation
OVARY
 Fertilisation
The pollen grain lands
STIGMA
on the sticky stigma,
and produces a pollen
tube.
STYLE

OVARY
 Fertilisation
STIGMA

The pollen tube,

containing the male STYLE
nuclei, grows down
through the style

OVARY
 Fertilisation
STIGMA

STYLE

OVARY
The pollen tube
continues until it
reaches the embryo
sac of the ovule in the
ovary
 Fertilisation
The fertilized egg
then divides by STIGMA
mitosis and grows into
a seed which will
become a new plant. STYLE
The layers around the
ovule harden and
become the seed coat.
OVARY
The male nucleus in
the pollen tube fuses EMBRYO SAC
with the egg nucleus
in the embryo sac.
EGG NUCLEUS
In some plants the ovary grows into a
fruit to help with seed dispersal.
Flower to Fruit
 20.4What happens to the floral
parts after fertilization?
wither
and drop remains of stigma
and style scar
off
sepal stamen
integument seed
petal coat
ovary fruit
wall wall

ovule seed

ovum embryo

A Bauhinia flower Fruit(pod) splits

after fertilization open to two halves
Fruits and seeds

Fruit

consists
of

fruit wall protect seed help plant dispersal

s s
made up
of

seed coat protects undeveloped provides food

plant embryo food store
Fruits and seeds
Structure of a mung bean seed
micropyle
a hole through which
embryo absorbs water
before it germinates hilum
seed coat a scar on the
surrounds the embryo surface of the
and protects it from coat;formed
damageand against when the ovule
attack of micro- detaches from
organisms such as the ovary wall
bacteria and fungi
External appearance
Structure of a mung bean seed

plumule
develops into
the shoot
radicle embryo
develops into
the root
cotyledons
act as food stores
contain starch and
proteins to supply food
for the plumule and
Embryo cut opened radicle to develop
Dispersal of seeds and fruits

Why seeds and fruits

have to be dispersed
to
distances far away
from parents ?
To colonize new areas
which are suitable for
To reduce seed germination and
overcrowding and survival of species.
competition for
materials.
 Dispersal

wind dispersal animal dispersal

adaptive features of fruits and seeds are
small brightly-coloured
light sweet, juicy and good to
may have wings/feathery eat (succulent)
hair may have hooks
 Germination
What’s needed?
Water
- to hydrate Oxygen
the
- For aerobic
protoplasm, to
respiration to
mobilise
supply energy
enzymes, to
Some seeds require light, others
for growth
hydrolyse
stored food dark, for germination, but most
(starch) Warmth – to enable
are indifferent
enzymes to work
 Germination
D: Water,
A: No B: No C: No oxygen,
water oxygen warmth warmth
Result: only
Wet
Seeds seeds in tube D
cotton
wool
Dry
germinate! So
cotton
wool
seeds need
water, oxygen
NaOH
All tubes and warmth
NaOH and pyrogallol to Put in
except C put in absorb oxygen refrigerator

a warm place
 Seed germination
4

1 2

1.4. The
The
3. seed
The
leaves
first
germinates
areleaves
now fully
begin
and the
photosynthesising
to first
uncurlgrowth
and is
and2. providing
The firstThe
photosynthesise.
seen. roots
all the and
stored
The shoot isbegin
nourishment
food
food
store tothe
utilised.
that
in the grow.
seed
plant
is
Food stores in theused seedup.
needs.are still being used.
 16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
Identify and name on diagrams of the male reproductive
system: the testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland,
urethra and penis, and state the functions of these parts
Identify and name on diagrams of the female
reproductive system: the ovaries, oviducts, uterus,
cervix and vagina, and state the functions of these parts
Describe fertilisation as the fusion of the nuclei from a
male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (egg
cell/ovum)
Male reproductive system
seminal vas
vesicle deferens
prostate erectile
gland tissue
Cowper’s penis
gland
epididymis urethra
scrotum testis
side view
The male reproductive system
Male reproductive system
It consists of:

1 a pair of testes contained in

the scrotum

produce sperm and male

sex hormones

the scrotum maintains

the testes at a lower
temperature for sperm
development
Male reproductive system
a It consists
mixture ofof:
sperm and seminal fluid
2 a penis for copulation

contains erectile tissue and

ejects
bloodsemen
vesselsto the female’s
vagina (ejaculation)

erects when sexually

stimulated
ejects semen to the female’s vagina
(ejaculation)
Male reproductive system
It consists of:

3 a system of ducts connecting

the testes to the penis, including

transports sperm to
the urethra
urethra vas
deferens
dischargesepididymis
semen and urine

stores sperm temporarily

Male reproductive system

3. Accessory glands:

seminal vesicles

prostate gland

Cowper’s gland
Functions of seminal fluid
To provide a medium for the sperms to swim
To activate and nourish (fructose) the sperms
To neutralize the acidity in the male and female reproductive tract
 16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
Explain the adaptive features of sperm, limited to
flagellum, mitochondria and enzymes in the acrosome
State the adaptive features of egg cells, limited to energy
stores and a jelly coating that changes after fertilisation
Compare male and female gametes in terms of size,
structure, motility and numbers
 1 Sperm
acrosome head
midpiece

nucleus
mitochond
ria
It consists of:
looks
1 a like
2 heada tadpole
midpiece

contains
about 0.05 mma nucleus
numerous
long with
mitochondria
haploid number of
chromosomes
to supply energy for swimming
with acrosome which contains enzymes for penetration into
produced
the ovumin during
large numbers
fertilization
 1 Sperm

tail
It consists of:

3 a tail / flagellum

allows the sperm to swim

 2 Ovum
cannot move
spherical in shape
1 2a nucleus
a cytoplasm
produced
about 0.1 mmin much smaller numbers
in diameter
withthan
contains sperm
haploid
food number
reserveoffor early
biggest human cell
chromosomes
embryo development
surrounded by follicle cells

3 a cell membrane

surrounded by a protective layer

Sperm or egg?
Female reproductive system
funnel-shaped
opening of oviduct
oviduct
uterus
ovar
y
cervi
x
vagina

side view
The female reproductive system
Female reproductive system
It consists of:

1 a pair of oviducts
2 ovaries
beating action helps transport the
produce ova and female sex ova
hormones
cilia
with a funnel-shaped opening
near each ovary

transport an ovum to the

site of fertilization
uterus
 Female reproductive system
It consists of:

holds3 theaacts
provides an as during
the environment
acidic
penis
uterus birth canal to
sexual
reduce bacterial growth
intercourse
providesto
narrows protection
form cervix and a stable
environment for embryo
can dilate to allow foetus to pass
development
through during labour

the wall contracts to push out

the foetus during labour
which leads to the
vagina
Male or female?

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Roles of the reproductive system

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 16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
State that in early development, the zygote forms an
embryo which is a ball of cells that implants into the
wall of the uterus
Outline the growth and development of the fetus in
terms of increasing complexity in the early stages and
increasing size towards the end of pregnancy
State the functions of the umbilical cord, placenta,
amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
Sexual intercourse
During sexual intercourse the
man inserts his penis into the
woman’s vagina.

Millions of sperm cells are

ejaculated into the top of the
vagina.

They enter the uterus through

the cervix, where the sperm cells
may meet an egg.

Now fertilization can occur.

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How are characteristics inherited?

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Identical twins

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Non-identical twins

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Fertilization and implantation

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Word check – reproduction processes

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 16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord
in relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and
excretory products and providing a barrier to toxins and
pathogens (structural details are not required)
State that some toxins, e.g. nicotine, and pathogens, e.g.
rubella virus, can pass across the placenta and affect the
fetus
Describe the ante-natal care of pregnant women, limited
to special dietary needs and the harm from smoking and
alcohol consumption
Formation of placenta
First Trimester
close,
amnio but
Humanembryo’s
gestation cannot
be divided into maternal
three
join
n months each blood space
capillaries
trimesters of about three
The first trimester
Is the time of most radical change for both the mother
and the embryo
During its first 2 to 4 weeks of development maternal
The embryo obtains nutrients directly from the
endometrium
venule
Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst maternal
Mingles with the endometrium and eventually forms the
placenta arteriole
placent
embryo a
placenta
umbilical
The placenta
How does an embryo receive food and oxygen and how does
it get rid of waste?

An embryo forms a structure called the placenta, which attaches

to the uterus wall.
umbilical
The umbilical cord joins cord
the fetus to the placenta.

In the placenta, food and oxygen

diffuse from the mother’s blood
into the blood of the fetus.

Carbon dioxide and waste products

diffuse from the blood of the fetus
into the mother’s blood.

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How does the placenta work?

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PLACENTA 3.10 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo (TA)

Diffuse from
foetus to mother:
1) CO2
2) water,
3) Urea
Diffuse from
mother to foetus:
1) O2
2) glucose,
3) amino acids,
4) minerals
PLACENTA 3.10 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo (TA)

The placenta is
adapted for diffusion
in much the same
way as other
exchange organs:
1. Huge surface area (it
has lots of villi-like
projections)
2. Only a few cells thick
3. Blood supplies keep
the concentration
gradients high
4. Counter-current
system
Second Trimester
During the second trimester
The fetus grows and is very active
The mother may feel fetal movements
Pregnancy become obvious

14 weeks. Growth and 20 weeks - The child can hear and recognize her mother's voice. Though still
development of the offspring, small and fragile, the baby is growing rapidly and could possibly survive if
now called a fetus, continue born at this stage. Fingernails and fingerprints appear. Sex organs are visible.
during the second trimester.This Using an ultrasound device, the doctor can tell if the child is a girl or a boy.
fetus is about 6 cm long. The one on the left is a baby girl.
AMNIOTIC FLUID
 Functions of amniotic fluid
To keep the foetus moist to prevent
desiccation /drying
As a water cushion to
support the foetus
allow it to move freely
absorb shock
protect the foetus from mechanical injuries
To reduce temperature fluctuation
To lubricate the vagina during birth
 Third Trimester
During the third trimester
The fetus continues to grow and fills the available space
within the embryonic membranes

24 weeks - here at six months, the unborn child is 32 weeks - The fetus sleeps 90-
covered with a fine, downy hair. Its tender skin is 95% of the day, and sometimes
protected by a waxy substance. Some of this experiences REM sleep, an
substance may still be on the child's skin at birth. indication of dreaming.
The child practices breathing by inhaling amnionic
fluid into developing lungs.
 From embryo to fetus – animation

1 of © Boardworks Ltd 2005

2004
The stages of pregnancy

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 16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
Outline the processes involved in labour and birth,
limited to:
– breaking of the amniotic sac
– contraction of the muscles in the uterus wall
– dilation of the cervix
– passage through the vagina
– tying and cutting the umbilical cord
– delivery of the afterbirth
Birth
After 40 weeks of gestation, the baby is
ready to be born. At this point, the head
usually lies just above the cervix.

Birth begins with small contractions of

the uterus wall, which gradually
become stronger and more frequent.

Eventually the contractions cause the amnion to break and the

fluid escapes. The cervix then widens and dilates as the baby is
pushed through the vagina.

After a few minutes, the placenta comes away from the

uterus wall. This is pushed out as the afterbirth.

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Birth animation

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 16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of breast-
feeding compared with bottle-feeding using formula
milk
Advantage & Disadvantage
 16.5 Sex hormones in humans
Describe the roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the
development and regulation of secondary sexual
characteristics during puberty
Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the
ovaries and in the lining of the uterus
Describe the sites of production of oestrogen and
progesterone in the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy
Explain the role of hormones in controlling the
menstrual cycle and pregnancy, limited to FSH, LH,
progesterone and oestrogen
What happens during puberty?
Humans are born with a complete set of
sex organs. However, they do not usually
become active until between the ages of 10
and 18.

In males, the testes start to make

sperm, and in females, the ovaries
start to release eggs.

This stage of development is called

puberty, and is caused by hormones.

During this important time, many

changes take place in the bodies of
young men and women.

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Puberty in girls

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Puberty in boys

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MENSTRUAL CYCLE 3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
Periods
The menstrual cycle
Day 1 to 5
5menstruation The
If fertilization
uterine lining
doesand
the
not unfertilized
occur, ovum
developing
thenfollicles
discharge through
thickened uterine lining
in the ovary
the vagina.
will break down
yellow body will
degenerate
menstruation
about 14 days after
ovulation. day
1 5 s
The menstrual cycle
Day 1 to 5
IfMenstruation
fertilization occurs,
will
not
the occur
womanuntil after
becomes
the baby is born.
pregnant
uterine lining will not
break down
degeneration of yellow
body will be delayed
The menstrual cycle
Day 14
5 to 14
Ovulation occurs.
ovulation
mature follicle
in the ovary

a mature ovum is
released

day
1 5 1 s
4
 The menstrual cycle
13.2

The menstrual cycle

Day 14day
After to 28
IfThe
fertilization
uterine
yellowlining
lining
body
does not
remains
occur,
becomes
menstruation
cycle
veryrepeats.
thick.
thickened
If fertilization occurs, the
uterine lining will
remain thickened.
the ovum is
moved towards
the uterus day
1 5 1 2 s
4 8
MENSTRUAL CYCLE 3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
Hormone Site of Target Organ Function
Secretion

Follicle Stimulating Pituitary Ovary stimulates the growth & development of

Hormone (FSH) gland
the follicle
stimulates secretion of oestrogen
effect of LH in stimulating ovulation
Oestrogen Ovary Endometrium stimulates repair of uterine lining
(lining of the
uterus) at high conc. inhibits FSH, however
during 'pituitary hormone surge' it
stimulates further FSH production
as conc. peaks stimulates release of LH
Lutenising Pituitary Ovary stimulates the final development of the
Hormone (LH)
follicle
stimulates ovulation
stimulates the development of the corpus
luteum
stimulates production of progesterone
Progestrone Corpus Uterus maintains uterine lining endometrium)
luteum
inhibits release of FSH
inhibits release of LH
fall in conc. results in menstruation
fall in conc. removes inhibition of FSH
and a new cycle begins.
 16.6 Methods of birth control
Outline the following methods of birth control:
– natural, limited to abstinence, monitoring body temperature
and cervical mucus
– chemical, limited to IUD, IUS, contraceptive pill, implant
and injection
– barrier, limited to condom, femidom, diaphragm
– surgical, limited to vasectomy and female sterilisation
Outline the use of hormones in contraception and fertility
treatments
Outline artificial insemination (AI)
Outline in vitro fertilisation (IVF)
Discuss the social implications of contraception and fertility
treatments
What are contraceptives?
Contraceptives are devices designed to prevent pregnancy.

Some types of contraception can also stop

the spread of sexually transmitted
infections.

Sexually transmitted infections are

diseases that can be passed on by
sexual contact.

Contraceptives are not 100% reliable and

some can cause other side effects.

How do the different types of contraceptives work?

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Different types of contraceptives
Condoms – a latex barrier worn
over an erect penis. This barrier
prevents sperm entering the vagina
and causing pregnancy. It can also
help to stop the spread of sexually
transmitted infections.

Contraceptive pill – a pill containing a mixture of hormones

taken every day. These hormones stop the release of eggs,
preventing pregnancy. However the pill cannot protect
against disease.

Diaphragm and cap – these are barriers inserted into the

vagina to prevent sperm reaching the egg.

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 i) Rhythm
ii)
iii)Barrier
Surgicalmethods
method
methods
body temperature
1 ovulation
the cervix is likely to
diaphragms and condoms
diaphragm covers
(°C) Vasectomy
occur
37. vas deferens are cut and tied
237.
036.
836.
sperm cannot be transferred to the
636. female body
day of
436. often coated with spermicide menstrual
2 1 cycle
4
2 Prevent ovulation
by synthetic sex hormones
- contraceptive
injection once patches
pills
a fewtaken
months
to be
daily
replaced weekly
3 Prevent implantation
by intra-uterine device (IUD)

inserted into uterus by doctor

very reliable

removal resumes fertility

Which contraceptive?
Causes of infertility and its cures
1. 1Blocked oviducts an operation may be undertaken to unblock the
tubes
2 Irregular menstrual cycle
hormone treatment
3 Incorrect frequency
and/or timing of Counseling on the most appropriate time
intercourse (the middle of the menstrual cycle) to have
sexual intercourse
4 Non-production of ova
Use of a donated ovum from another
female for IVF
Artificial insemination of a surrogate
mother
5 Non-production of
sperms Donated sperms from another male ;
artificially insemination
6 Impotence
Counseling and guidance
Physical devices
viagra
 16.7 Sexually transmitted infections
Define sexually transmitted infection as an infection that
is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact
Explain how the spread of STIs is controlled
State that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an
example of an STI
Describe the methods of transmission of HIV
State that HIV infection may lead to AIDS
Outline how HIV affects the immune system, limited to
decreased lymphocyte numbers and reduced ability to
produce antibodies
Sexually transmitted infections

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HIV and AIDS

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Anagrams

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Multiple-choice quiz

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