Section

How Rock Deforms

The Himalayas, the Rockies, and the Andes are some of Earth’s OBJECTIVES
most majestic mountain ranges. Mountain ranges are visible reminders that .
the shape of Earth’s surface changes constantly. These changes result from Summarize the principle of isostasy
deformation, or the bending, tilting, and breaking of Earth’s crust.
Identify the three main types of
stress.
Isostasy Compare folds and faults.

Deformation sometimes occurs because the weight of some part of Earth’s

KEY TERMS
crust changes. Earth’s crust is part of the lithospheric plates that ride on
top of the plastic part of the mantle called the asthenosphere. When parts deformation
of the lithosphere thicken and become heavier, they sink deeper into the isostasy stress
strain fold
asthenosphere. If parts of the lithosphere thin and become lighter, the
fault
lithosphere rises
higher in the asthenosphere. Gravitational
force
Vertical movement of the lithosphere depends on two opposing
Original
forces. One force is the force due to gravity, or weight, of the elevation
lithosphere pressing down on the asthenosphere. The other force is
the buoyant force of the asthenosphere pressing up on the lithosphere.
When these two forces are balanced, the lithosphere and Continental
lithosphere
asthenosphere are in a state called isostasy. However, when the
weight of the lithosphere changes, the lithosphere sinks or rises until
a balance of the forces is reached again. The movements of the
lithosphere to reach isostasy are called isostatic adjustments. One
type of isostatic adjustment is shown in Figure 1. As these isostatic
adjustments occur, areas of the crust are bent up and down. This
Buoyant force
bending causes rock in that area to deform. Figure 1 Isostatic
Adjustments as a Result of Erosion

New elevation

When the gravitational force equals the A

buoyant force, the lithosphere and li
asthenosphere are in isostasy. p

1
 Final elevation

In mountainous regions, isostatic

adjustments constantly occur. Over
millions of years, the rock that
forms mountains is worn away by
the erosive actions of wind, water,

deformation the bending, tilting, and breaking of Earth’s crust; the change in shape or and ice. This erosion can
volume of rock in response to stress isostasy a condition of gravitational and buoyant significantly reduce the height and
equilibrium between Earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere weight of a mountain range, such
as the one shown in Figure 2. As a
mountain becomes smaller and
lighter, the area may rise by
isostatic adjustment in a process
called uplift.
As erosion continues, the isostatic adjustment also continues.
Deposition and Isostasy
Section 1 How Rock Deforms Figure 2 Mt. Katahdin in Baxter State Park, Another type of isostatic
Maine, has been worn down by weathering and erosion. As the mountain adjustment occurs in areas where
shrinks, the crust underneath it is uplifted. rivers carrying large amounts of
mud, sand, and gravel flow into
larger bodies of water. When a
river flows into the ocean, most of
the material that the river carries is
5 min
deposited on the nearby ocean
floor. The added weight of the
deposited material causes the
ocean floor to sink by isostatic
adjustment in a process known as
Mountains and Isostasy subsidence. This process is

2 Deformation of the Crust

occurring in the Gulf of Mexico at the mouth of the Mississippi River,
where a thick accumulation of deposited materials has formed.

Glaciers and Isostasy

Isostatic adjustments also occur as a result of the growth and retreat of
glaciers and ice sheets. When a large amount of water is held in glaciers
and ice sheets, the weight of the ice causes the lithosphere beneath the
ice to sink. Simultaneously, the ocean floor rises because the weight of
the overlying ocean water is less. When glaciers and ice sheets melt, the
land that was covered with ice slowly rises as the weight of the crust
decreases. As the water returns to the ocean, the ocean floor sinks.

3
 Stress
As Earth’s lithosphere moves, the rock in Figure 3 Types of Stress
the crust is squeezed, stretched, and twisted.
These actions exert force on the rock. The
amount of force that is exerted on each unit
of area is called stress. For example, during
isostatic adjustments, the lithosphere sinks
and rises atop the asthenosphere. As the
lithosphere sinks, the rock in the crust is
squeezed and the direction of stress changes.
Compression
As the lithosphere rises, the rock in the crust
is stretched and the direction of stress
changes again. Similarly, stress occurs in
Earth’s crust when tectonic plates collide,
separate, or scrape past each other. Figure 3
shows the three main types of stress.

Compression
The type of stress that squeezes and shortens
a body is called compression. Compression
commonly reduces the amount of space that
rock occupies. In addition to reducing the
volume of rock, compression pushes rocks Tension
higher up or deeper down into the crust.
Much of the stress that occurs at or near
convergent boundaries, where tectonic
plates collide, is compression.

Tension
Another type of stress is tension. Tension is
stress that stretches and pulls a body apart.
When rocks are pulled apart by tension, they
tend to become thinner. Much of the stress
that occurs at or near divergent boundaries,
where tectonic plates pull apart, is tension.
Shear stress
Shear Stress
The third type of stress is shear stress. Shear stress distorts a body by
pushing parts of the body in opposite directions. Sheared rocks bend,
twist, or break apart as they slide past each other. Shear stress is common
at transform boundaries, where tectonic plates slide horizontally past each
other. However, each type of stress occurs at or near all types of plate
boundaries and in various other regions of the crust, too.

n l 3 Reading Check Which two kinds of stress

pull rock apart? (See the Appendix for answers to Reading Checks.)
stress the amount of force per unit area that acts on a rock

4 Deformation of the Crust

 Folds
When rock responds to stress by
deforming in a ductile way, folds
commonly form. A fold is a bend
in rock layers that results from
stress. A fold is most easily
observed where flat layers of rock
were compressed or squeezed
inward. As stress was applied, the
rock layers bent and folded.
Cracks sometimes appear in or
near a fold, but most commonly
the rock layers remain intact.
Although a fold commonly results
from compression, it can also
form as a result of shear stress.

Figure 4 This rock deformation in Kingman, Arizona, is an example of brittle strain. Anatomy of a Fold
Folds have features by which they
can be identified. Scientists use
strain any change in a rock’s shape or volume caused by stress
these features to describe folds.
The main features of a fold are
Strain shown by the illustration in Figure
When stress is applied to rock, rock may deform. Any change in the shape 5. The sloping sides of a fold are
or volume of rock that results from stress is called strain. When stress is called limbs. The limbs meet at the
applied slowly, the deformed rock may regain its original shape when the bend in the rock layers, which is
stress is removed. However, the amount of stress that rock can withstand called the hinge. Some folds also
without permanently changing shape is limited. This limit varies with the contain an additional feature. If a
type of rock and the conditions under which the stress is applied. If a stress fold’s structure is such that a
exceeds the rock’s limit, the rock’s shape permanently changes. plane could slice the fold into two
symmetrical halves, the fold is
symmetrical. The plane is called
Types of Permanent Strain the fold’s axial plane. However,
Materials that respond to stress by breaking or fracturing are brittle. Brittle the two halves of a fold are rarely
strain appears as cracks or fractures, as Figure 4 shows. Ductile materials symmetrical.
respond to stress by bending or deforming without breaking. Ductile strain Many folds bend vertically,
is a change in the volume or shape of rock in which the rock does not crack but folds can have many other
or fracture. Brittle strain and ductile strain are types of permanent strain. shapes, as shown by the
photograph in Figure 5. Folds can
Factors That Affect Strain be asymmetrical. Sometimes, one
The composition of rock determines whether rock is ductile or brittle. limb of a fold dips more steeply
Temperature and pressure also affect how rock deforms. Near Earth’s than the other limb does. If a fold
surface, where temperature and pressure are low, rock is likely to deform in is overturned, the fold appears to
a brittle way. At higher temperature and pressure, rock is more likely to be lying on its side. Folds can
deform in a ductile way. have open shapes or be as tight as
The type of strain that stress causes is determined by the amount and a hairpin. A fold’s hinge can be a
type of stress and by the rate at which stress is applied to rock. The greater smooth bend or may come to a
the stress on rock is, the more likely rock is to undergo brittle strain. The sharp point. Each fold is unique
more quickly stress is applied to rock, the more likely rock is to respond in because the combination of
a brittle way. stresses and conditions that caused
the fold was unique.

How Rock Deforms 5

a fold. (See the limbs and hinge of each fold in the
Chapter 11 photo?
.)

Axial plane
 Hinge
fold a form of ductile strain in which pounds per square inch does 1 MPa
rock layers bend, usually as a result of compression equal?
(Note: 1 MPa 1,000,000 Pa)

MATHPRACTICE
Limb
Units of Stress Figure 5 Although not every fold is
Two units are commonly used to describe stress or pressure. One unit is the pascal symmetrical, every fold has a hinge and
(Pa). A pascal is a measure of force (in newtons) divided by area (in square meters). limbs. Can you identify the
The other unit of stress is the pound per square inch (psi). If the pressure in a region
of Earth’s crust is measured as 25 MPa (megapascals) and as 3,626 psi, how many
Section 1
Types of Folds
To categorize a fold, scientists study the relative ages of the rocks in the fold. The rock layers of the fold are identified by
age from youngest to oldest. An anticline is a fold in which the oldest layer is in the center of the fold. Anticlines are
commonly arch shaped. A syncline is a fold in which the youngest layer is in the center of the fold. Synclines are
commonly bowl shaped. A monocline is a fold in which both limbs are horizontal or almost horizontal. Monoclines form
when one part of Earth’s crust moves up or down relative to another part. The three major types of folds are shown in
Figure 6.

Sizes of Folds
Folds, which appear as wavelike structures in rock layers, vary greatly in size. Some folds are small enough to be
contained in a hand-held rock specimen. Other folds cover thousands of square kilometers and can be seen only from
the air.
Sometimes, a large anticline forms a ridge. A ridge is a large, narrow strip of elevated land that can occur near
mountains. Nearby, a large syncline may form a valley. The ridges and valleys of the Appalachian Mountains are
examples of landforms that were formed by anticlines and

6 Deformation of the Crust

Oldest rock

Youngest rock

Figure 6 The three major types

of folds are anticlines (top), synclines
(middle), and monoclines (bottom). synclines.

Oil Traps
Oil and natural gas form where the remains of organisms, especially marine plants, are t
buried in an environment that prevents the remains from rapidly decomposing. Over h
millions of years, chemical reactions slowly change the organic remains into oil and e
natural gas.
When prospecting for oil and natural gas, oil companies look for porous and a
permeable rock layers. Porous rock has spaces between rock particles. Permeable rock n
is rock in which the pore spaces are connected, so fl uids can fl ow through the rock. t
When a rock layer is both porous and permeable and contains oil or gas, the layer is i
called a reservoir. c
Because oil and natural gas are fl uids that have low densities, they move upward l
through rock toward Earth’s surface. Oil and gas move through rock layers until they meet i
an impermeable rock layer or structure, which then traps the oil and gas below it. n
In addition to looking for porous and permeable rock layers, petroleum engineers look e
for rock layers that have been folded. Many folds are anticlines
a
n
Figure 7 11 Normal and Reverse Faults
Chapter d
in which layers of impermeable rock overlay Reverse fault
Footwall a
layers of permeable rock. Because the limbs of
the fold slope upward, the oil and natural gas r
rise through the permeable layer to the crest of
Hanging wall e

How Rock Deforms 7

 Normal fault

Thrust fault

Faults
Stress does not always cause rock to fold. Near Earth’s surface,
where temperatures and pressure are low, stresses may simply
trapped there by the impermeable layer. Section 1
Engineers can then drill through the
impermeable layer to reach the oil or gas
reservoir.

This oil pump brings oil and natural gas up to

the surface.
cause rock to break. Breaks in rock are divided into two categories. A break
along which there is no movement of the surrounding rock is called a fracture.
A break along which the surrounding rock moves is called a fault. The surface
or plane along which the motion occurs is called the fault plane. In a nonvertical
fault, the hanging wall is the rock above the fault plane. The footwall is the rock
below the fault plane.

Normal Faults
As shown in Figure 7, a normal fault is a fault in which the hanging wall moves
downward relative to the footwall. Normal faults commonly form at divergent
boundaries, where the crust is being pulled apart by tension. Normal faults may
occur as a series of parallel fault lines, forming steep, steplike landforms. The
Great Rift Valley of East Africa formed by large-scale normal faulting.

Reverse Faults
When compression causes the hanging wall to move upward relative to the
footwall, also shown in Figure 7, a reverse fault forms. A thrust fault is a
special type of reverse fault in which the fault plane is at a low angle or is nearly
horizontal. Because of the low angle of the fault plane, the rock of the hanging
wall is pushed up and over the rock of the footwall. Reverse faults and thrust
faults are common in steep mountain ranges, such as the Rockies and the Alps.

n l3 Reading Check How does a thrust fault differ from a reverse fault?

( See the Appendix for answers to Reading Checks. )

fault a break in a body of rock along which one block slides relative to another; a form of brittle
strain

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8 Deformation of the Crust
Topic:Folding and Faulting
SciLinks code:
HQ60589
 Strike-Slip Faults
In a strike-slip fault, the rock on either side of the
fault plane slides horizontally in response to shear
stress. Strike-slip faults got their name because
they slide, or slip, parallel to the direction of the
length, or strike, of the fault. Some strike-slip fault
planes are vertical, but many are sloped.
Strike-slip faults commonly occur at transform
boundaries, where tectonic plates grind past each
other as they move in opposite directions. These
motions cause shear stress on the rocks at the
edges of the plates. Strike-slip faults also
occur at
fracture
zones
between
offset

Sizes of Faults
Figure 8 The San Andreas fault
segments of mid-ocean ridges. Commonly, strike-slip faults occur as
groups of smaller faults in areas where large-scale deformation is
happening.

system stretches more than 1,200 km that they affect only a few layers of rock in a small region. Other faults are
across California and is the result of two thousands of kilometers long and may extend several kilometers below
tectonic plates moving in different Earth’s surface. Generally, large faults that cover thousands of kilometers
directions. are composed of systems of many
Like folds, faults vary greatly in size. Some faults are so small
smaller, related faults, rather than of a single fault. The San Andreas fault
in California, shown in Figure 8, is an example of a large fault system.

Section 1 Review
1. Summarize how isostatic adjustments affect isostasy. 6. Describe four types of faults.

2. Identify and describe three types of stress. 7. Compare folding and faulting as responses to stress.

3. Compare stress and strain. CRITICAL THINKING

4. Describe one type of strain that results when rock 8. Applying Ideas Why is faulting most likely to occur near
responds to stress by permanently deforming without Earth’s surface and not deep within Earth?
breaking. 9. Making Comparisons How would the isostatic
adjustment that results from the melting of glaciers
5. Identify features that all types of folds share and differ from the isostatic adjustment that may occur
features that only some types of folds have. when a large river empties into the ocean?

9
10 . Analyzing Relationships You are examining a rock world’s attention in 1980 when its explosive eruption
outcrop that shows a fold in which both limbs are devastated the surrounding area.
horizontal but occur at different elevations. What type
of fold does this outcrop show, and what can you say
about the type of stress that the rock underwent? Mountain Ranges and Systems
11 . Predicting Consequences You are watching a lab A group of adjacent mountains that are related to
experiment in which a rock sample is being gently each other in shape and structure is called a

Section
How Mountains Form
A mountain 2 is the most extreme type of deformation. Mount
heated and slowly bent. Would you expect the rock to
fold or to fracture? Explain your reasoning.
OBJECTIVES
mountain range. Mount Everest is part of the Great
Himalaya Range, and Mount St. Helens is part
Identify the types of plate collisions that form mountains.
CONCEPT MAPPING
Identify four types of mountains.
12. Use the following terms to create a concept map:
stress, compression, strain, tension, shear stress, folds, Compare how folded and faultblock mountains form.
and faults.
Everest, whose elevation is more than 8 km above KEY TERMS
sea level, is Earth’s highest mountain. Forces inside mountain range folded mountain fault-block
Earth cause Mount Everest to grow taller every year. mountain dome mountain
Mount St. Helens, a volcanic mountain, captured the
of the Cascade Range. A group of mountain ranges that are adjacent
is called a mountain system. In the eastern United States, for
example, the Great Smoky, Blue Ridge, Cumberland, and Green
mountain ranges make up the Appalachian mountain system.
The largest mountain systems are part of two larger systems
called mountain belts. Earth’s two major mountain belts, the circum-
Pacific belt and the Eurasian-Melanesian belt, are shown in Figure 1.
The circum-Pacific belt forms a ring around the Pacific Ocean. The
Eurasian-Melanesian belt runs from the Pacific islands through Asia
and southern Europe and into northwestern Africa.
mountain range a series of mountains
that are closely related in orientation, age, and mode of formation

Figure 1 Most mountain

10 Chapter 11 Deformation of the Crust

ranges lie along either the EurasianMelanesian mountain belt or the Cause-and- convergent plate boundaries.

Section 2 How Mountains Form

Effect However, evidence indicates that
Map the places at which these ranges
Create the Graphic Organizer entitled “Cause-and-Effect Map” described in formed were previously active
the Skills Handbook section of the Appendix. Label the effect with plate boundaries.
“Mountain formation.” Then, fill in the map with causes of mountain
formation and details about why mountains form.
Collisions Between Continental
and Oceanic Crust
Some mountains form when
oceanic lithosphere and
continental lithosphere collide at
convergent plate boundaries.
When the moving plates collide,
the oceanic lithosphere subducts
beneath the continental
lithosphere, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 The Andes, shown below, are being uplifted as the Pacifi c plate This type of collision produces
subducts beneath the
such large-scale deformation of
Plate Tectonics and Mountains rock that high mountains are
uplifted. In addition, the
Both the circum-Pacific and the Eurasian-Melanesian mountain belts
subduction of the oceanic
are located along convergent plate boundaries. Scientists think that the
lithosphere causes partial melting
location of these two mountain belts provides evidence that most
of the overlying mantle and crust.
mountains form as a result of collisions between tectonic plates. Some
This melting produces magma
mountains, such as the Appalachians, do not lie along active
that may eventually erupt to form

11
volcanic mountains on Earth’s surface. The mountains of the Cascade Figure 4 The Himalayas formed when
Range in the northwest region of the United States formed in this way. India collided with Eurasia.
The Andes mountains on the western coast of South America are
another example of mountains that formed by this type of collision.
Mountains can also form
Some mountains when
at the two continents
boundary between collide, as Figure
continental 4 shows. The Himalaya Mountains formed from such
lithosphere
a collision. About 100 million years ago, India broke apart
and oceanic lithosphere may form by a different process. As the from Africa and Antarctica and became a separate
continent.
oceanic The Indian
lithosphere plate then
subducts, began
pieces moving
of crust callednorth toward
terranes are Eurasia. The oceanic lithosphere of the Indian plate
subducted beneath the Eurasian plate. This subduction continued
scraped off. These terranes then become part of the continent and may until the continental lithosphere of India collided
with the continental lithosphere of Eurasia. Because the two continents have equally dense lithosphere, subduction
stopped, but the collision continued. The intense deformation that resulted from the collision uplifted the Himalayas.
Because the plates are still colliding, the Himalayas are still growing taller.

n l 3 Reading Check Why are the Himalayas

Ocean trench

growing taller today? (See the Appendix for answers to Reading Checks.)
Active
volcano Island arc volcanoes
Trench

Oceanic
Magma
lithosphere
Oceanic
lithosphere
N ZONE Asthenosphere Subduction
UCTIO
SUBD zone
Continent B Continent A

form mountains.
Deformed ocean
Collisions Between Oceanic Crust and floor sediments
Oceanic Crust
Volcanic mountains commonly form where two
plates whose edges consist of oceanic lithosphere Magma
collide. In this collision, the denser oceanic plate
subducts beneath the other oceanic plate, as shown
Thrust faults
in Figure 3. As the denser oceanic plate subducts,
fluids from the subducting lithosphere cause partial
melting of the overlying mantle and crust. The
resulting magma rises and breaks through the
oceanic lithosphere. These eruptions of magma
form an arc of volcanic mountains on the ocean
floor. The Mariana Islands are the peaks of
volcanic mountains that rose above sea level.

Collisions Between Continents

Figure 3 The Mariana Islands in the North Pacifi c Ocean
are volcanic mountains that formed by the collision of two
oceanic plates.

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Deformation of the
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Association

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subject, go to www.scilinks.org

Topic:Types of Mountains
folded mountain a mountain that forms when rock layers are squeezed together and classify mountains according to
uplifted
the way in which the crust was
deformed and shaped by
mountain-building stresses.
Examples of several types of
mountains are shown in Figure 5.

Folded Mountains and

Plateaus
The highest mountain ranges in
the world consist of folded
mountains that form when
continents collide. Folded
mountains form when tectonic
movements squeeze rock layers
Figure 5 Mountains in the together into accordion-like folds.
Types of Mountains Parts of the Alps, the Himalayas,
Mountains are more than just elevated parts of Earth’s crust. the Appalachians, and Russia’s
Mountains are complicated structures whose rock formations provide Ural Mountains consist of very
evidence of the stresses that created the mountains. Scientists large and complex folds.

13
 The same stresses that form folded mountains also uplift
plateaus. Plateaus are large, flat areas of rock high above sea level.
Most plateaus form when thick, horizontal layers of rock are slowly
uplifted so that the layers remain flat instead of faulting and folding.
Most plateaus are located near mountain ranges. For example, the
Tibetan Plateau is next to the Himalaya Mountains, and the Colorado
Plateau is next to the Rockies. Plateaus can also form when layers of
molten rock harden and pile up on Earth’s

14 Chapter 11 Deformation of the Crust

Fault-Block Mountains and Grabens gently away from a central point.
Dome mountains may
Where parts of Earth’s crust have been stretched and broken into
fault-block mountain a mountain that forms
large blocks, faulting may cause the blocks to tilt and drop relative to where faults break Earth’s crust into large
other blocks. The relatively higher blocks form fault-block blocks and some blocks drop down relative to
mountains. The Sierra Nevada range of California consists of many other blocks dome mountain a circular or
elliptical, almost symmetrical elevation or
fault-block mountains.
structure in which the stratifi ed rock slopes
The same type of faulting that forms fault-block mountains also downward gently from the central point of
forms long, narrow valleys called grabens. Grabens develop when folding
steep faults break the crust into blocks and one block slips
downward relative to the surrounding blocks. Grabens and
faultblock mountain ranges commonly occur together. For example,
the Basin and Range Province of the western United States consists
of grabens separated by fault-block mountain ranges.

Dome Mountains This dome mountain is part of the

A rare type of mountain forms when magma rises through the crust
and pushes up the rock layers above the magma. The result is a
dome mountain, a circular structure made of rock layers that slope

15
16 Chapter 11 Deformation of the Crust
 Volcanic Mountains
Mountains that form when magma erupts onto
Earth’s surface are called volcanic mountains.
Volcanic mountains commonly form along
convergent plate boundaries. The Cascade Range
of Washington, Oregon, and northern
California is composed of this type of volcanic
mountain, two of which are shown in Figure 6.
Some of the largest volcanic mountains are
part of the mid-ocean ridges along divergent plate
boundaries. Magma rising to Earth’s surface at
divergent boundaries makes mid-ocean ridges
volcanically active areas. The peaks of these
volcanic mountains sometimes rise above sea
level to form volcanic islands, such as the Azores
in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Other large volcanic mountains form on the
ocean floor at hot spots. Hot spots are volcanically
active areas that lie far

Figure 6 Mount St. Helens (front) and from tectonic plate boundaries. These areas seem to correspond to places
Mount Rainier (back) in the Cascade where hot material rises through Earth’s interior and reaches the
Range of the western United States are lithosphere. The Hawaiian Islands are an example of this type of volcanic
volcanic mountains that formed along a mountain. The main island of Hawaii is a volcanic mountain that reaches
convergent boundary.
almost 9 km above the ocean
floor and has a base that is more than 160 km wide.

Section

1.
2 Review
Describe three types of tectonic plate collisions that Chapter 11
form mountains. 8. Making Connections Explain why fault-block
mountains and grabens are commonly found near each
2. Summarize the process by which folded mountains other.
form.
9. Analyzing Ideas You are standing on a large, flat area
3. Compare how plateaus form with how folded of land and are examining the nearby mountains. You
mountains form. notice that many of the mountains have large folds. Are
you standing on a plateau or a graben? Explain your
4. Describe the formation of fault-block mountains. answer.
5. Explain how dome mountains form. 10. Making Predictions Igneous rocks form from cooled
magma. Near what types of mountains would you
6. Explain how volcanic mountains form.
expect to find new igneous rocks?

CRITICAL THINKING
CONCEPT MAPPING
7. Making Connections Explain two ways in which
11. Use the following terms to create a concept map:
volcanic mountains might get smaller.
mountain range, fault-block mountains, mountain belt,
folded mountains, mountain system, dome mountains,
and volcanic mountains.

17 Deformation of the Crust

 Highlights
11
Chapter

Sections Key Terms Key Concepts

1 How Rock Deforms deformation, 271 Tectonic plate movement and isostatic
isostasy, 271 adjustments cause stress on the rock in
stress, 273 Earth’s crust.
strain, 274 Stress can squeeze rock together, pull rock
fold, 275 apart, and bend and twist rock.
fault, 277
Stress on rock can cause strain, or the
deformation of rock. Rock can deform by
folding or by breaking to form fractures or
faults.
Three types of faults occur in rock: nor
mal faults, reverse faults (including thrust
faults), and strike-slip faults.

2 How Mountains Form mountain range, Mountains make up mountain ranges,

279 which, in turn, make up mountain systems.
folded mountain, The largest mountain systems form two
282 major mountain belts.
fault-block
Four types of mountains are folded moun
mountain, 283
tains, fault-block mountains, dome moun
dome mountain,
tains, and volcanic mountains.
283
Mountains commonly form as the result of
the collision of tectonic plates.
A mountain is classified according to the
way in which the crust deforms when the
mountain forms.

Chapter 11 Highlights 285

18 Deformation of the Crust

 sentence.
Chapter Review a. monoclines. c. synclines.

11
1. isostasy
2. compression b. fractures. d. anticlines.

3. shear stress 14. When a fault is not vertical, the rock above the
fault plane makes up the
Using Key Terms 13. Folds in which both limbs remain
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of a. tension.are
horizontal c. hanging
called wall.
theeach
Use termsofdiffer.
the following terms in a separate b. footwall. d. compression.
4. stress and strain
15. A fault in which the rock on either side of the fault
5. fold and fault plane moves horizontally in nearly opposite
6. syncline and monocline directions is called a
a. normal fault. c. strike-slip fault.
7. dome mountains and volcanic mountains
b. reverse fault. d. thrust fault.
8. folded mountains and fault-block mountains
16. The largest mountain systems are part of still
Understanding Key Concepts larger systems called a. continental margins.
b. ranges.
9. When the weight of an area of Earth’s crust
c. belts.
increases, the lithosphere
d. synclines.
a. sinks. c. rises.
b. melts. d. collides. 17. Large areas of flat-topped rock high above the
surrounding landscape are
10. The force per unit area that changes the shape and
a. grabens. c. hanging walls.
volume of rock is
b. footwalls. d. plateaus.
a. footwall. c. rising.
b. isostasy. d. stress.
Short Answer
11. Shear stress
18. Name two types of deformation in Earth’s crust,
a. bends, twists, or breaks rock.
and explain how each type occurs.
b. causes isostasy.
c. causes rock to melt. 19. Explain how to identify an anticline.
d. causes rock to expand.
20. Identify the two major mountain belts on Earth.
12. When stress is applied under conditions of high
21. Describe how the various types of mountains are
pressure and high temperature, rock is more likely
to categorized.
a. fracture. c. fault. 22. Identify the two forces that are kept in balance by
b. sink. d. fold. isostatic adjustments.
23. Compare the features of dome mountains with those of fault-block mountains.
Chapter 11

Writing Skills
 the perspective of a rock that is being
deformed. Describe the stresses that are
affecting the rock and the final result of
the stress.

32. Writing from Research Look for photos or

illustrations of folding and faulting in a
particular area. Then, research the geologic
history of the area, and write a report based
on your
24. Evaluating Ideas If thick ice sheets covered large parts of Earth’s findings.
continents Use any
again, howphotos
wouldor draw
you expect the
ings that you find to illustrate your report.

lithosphere to respond to the added weight of the Interpreting Graphics

continental ice sheets? Explain your answer.
The diagram below shows a fault. Use the dia
25. Analyzing Relationships When the Indian plate gram below to answer the questions that follow.
collided with the Eurasian plate and produced the
Himalaya Mountains, which type of stress most
likely occurred? Which type of stress is most likely
occurring along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge? Which
type of stress would you expect to find along the
San Andreas fault? Explain your answers.
B
26. Making Predictions If the force that causes a rock to
A
deform slightly begins to ease, what may happen to
the rock? What might happen if the force causing C B
the deformation became greater?

27. Analyzing Processes Why do you think that dome D

mountains do not always become volcanic C
mountains? E
D

Concept Mapping
F E
28. Use the following terms to create a concept map: Block 1 Block 2
stress, strain, brittle, ductile, folds, fault, normal
fault, reverse fault, thrust fault, and strike-slip 33. Is Block 2 a footwall or a hanging wall?
fault. Explain your answer.

34. What type of fault is illustrated? Explain

Math Skills your answer.
29. Making Calculations Scientists calculate that parts 35. What type of stress generally causes this
of the Himalayas are growing at a rate of 6.1 mm type of fault?
per year. At this rate, in how many years will the
Himalayas have grown 1 m taller?

30. Analyzing Data Rock stress is measured as 48 MPa

at point A below Earth’s surface. At point B nearby, stress is measured as 12 MPa. What percentage of the stress
at point A is the stress at point B equal to?

Chapter 11 Review 287

For questions 1–6, write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1 What is the term for the condition of gravitational equilibrium in Earth’s crust?
A. deformation C. strain
B. isostasy D. stress
 2 As a volcanic mountain range is built, isostatic adjustment will cause the crust beneath
the volcanic mountain range to do what?
F. cool H. sink
G. shear I. uplift

3 Which of the following statements describes the formation of rock along strike-slip
faults?
A. Rock on either side of the fault plane slides vertically.
B. Rock on either side of the fault plane slides horizontally.
C. Rock in the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall.
D. Rock in the hanging wall is pushed up and over the rock of the footwall.
4 Which of the following can result in mountain formation?
F. deposition and isostasy
G. weathering and erosion
H. strike-slip faulting involving two continental plates
I. subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate

5 The temperature and pressure changes caused by stress in the

Earth’s crust can cause rocks to deform. This deformation can take different
forms which depend on the type of stress and rock composition.
Under what conditions is rock likely to respond with brittle or ductile strain?

6 Stress is defined as the amount of force per unit area that is put on a rock.
When enough stress is placed on a rock, the rock will become strained.
This strain will cause the rock to deform, usually by bending and
breaking. For example, if you put a small amount of pressure on the ends of a drinking
straw, the straw may not bend—even though you have put stress on it. However, when
you put enough pressure on it, the straw will bend, or become strained.
One example of stress is when tectonic plates collide. When plates collide, a large
amount of stress is placed on the rocks that make up the plate, especially the rocks
at the leading edge of the collision. Because of the stress, these rocks become
extremely strained. In fact, even the shapes of the tectonic plates can change as a
result of these powerful collisions.
Part A In what ways does rock deform as a result of strain? Part B
What happens to rocks when plates collide?

Chapter 11

For questions 7–9, write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

21
 The diagrams below show a divergent and a convergent plate boundary. Use the

map to answer questions 7 and 8. diagram B?

DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

Plate Plate

Plate Plate

7 Which of the following is most likely to or occur at the boundary shown in

F. divergent motion H. mid-ocean ridges G. transform motion I. active

volcanoes

8 What types of plates are most likely shown at the boundary represented in diagram A?
A. two oceanic plates
B. two continental plates
C. an oceanic plate and a continental plate
D. There is not enough information to determine the answer.

22 Deformation of the Crust

The diagram below shows two possible outcomes when pressure (represented by the
large arrows) is applied to the rock on the left. Use this diagram to answer question 9.

BASIC ROCK FOLDS

Test
Carefully study all
of the details of
B a diagram before
answering the
question or questions
that refer to it.
9 What type of deformation is seen in the rock labeled A?
F. brittle H. folding G. ductile I. monocline

Chapter 11 FCAT Prep

23
 Chapter
Making Models
Objectives 11
Model collisions between
continents.
Lab
Continental Collisions
When the subcontinent of India broke away from Africa and Antarctica
Explain how mountains form and began to move northward toward Eurasia, the oceanic crust on the
at convergent boundaries. northern side of India began to subduct beneath the Eurasian
plate. The deformation of the crust resulted in the formation of the
Materials Himalaya Mountains. Earthquakes in the Himalayan region suggest
blocks, wooden, that India is still pushing against Eurasia. In this lab, you will create
2.5 cm 2.5 cm 6 cm a model to help explain how the Himalaya Mountains formed as a
bobby pins, long (5) result of the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates.
cardboard, thick,
15 cm 30 cm
napkins, paper, light- and
dark-colored 1 To assemble the continental-collision model, cut a 7 cm slit
paper, adding-machine, in the cardboard. The slit should be about 6 cm from (and
6 cm 35 cm parallel to) one of the short edges of the cardboard. Cut the
ruler, metric slit wide enough such that the adding-machine paper will
scissors feed through the slit without being loose.
tape, masking
2 Securely tape one wood block along the slit between the
slit and the near edge of the cardboard. Tape the other
Safety block across the paper strip about 6 cm from one end of
the paper. The blocks should be parallel to one another, as
shown in the illustration on the next page.
3 Cut two strips of the light-colored paper napkin that are
about 6 cm wide and 16 cm long. Cut two strips of the
dark-colored paper napkin that are about 6 cm wide and 32
Step 8 cm long. Fold all four strips in half along their width.

24 Cardboard
Wood block Paper strip
Bobby pins Wood block
 Taped to
paper strip Light Dark
only napkins napkins Tape

4 Stack the napkin strips on top of each other such that all of 4 Evaluating Models Explain
the folds are along the same side. Place the two darkcolored how the process modeled
napkins on the bottom. here differs from the way the
Himalaya Mountains formed.
5 Place the napkin strips lengthwise on the paper strip. The
Extension
nonfolded ends of the napkin strips should be butted up
against the wood block that is taped to the paper strip. 1
Analyzing Data Obtain a
world map of earthquake
6 Using the bobby pins, attach the napkins to the paper strip,
epicenters. Study the map.
as shown in the illustration above.
Describe the pattern of
7 Push the long end of the paper strip through the slit in the epicenters in the
cardboard until the first fold of the napkin rests against the Himalayan region. Does
the pattern suggest that the
fixed wood block.
Himalaya Mountains are
8 Hold the cardboard at about eye level, and pull down gently still growing?
on the paper strip. You may need a partner’s help. Observe 2
Writing from Research
what happens as the dark-colored napkins contact the fixed
Read about the breakup of
wood block and as you continue to pull down on the paper Gondwanaland and the
strip. Stop pulling when you feel resistance from the strip. movement of India toward
the Northern hemisphere.
Write about stages in
India’s movement. List the
time frame in which each
1 Evaluating Methods Explain what is represented by the dark
important event occurred.
napkins, the light napkins, and the wood blocks.

2 Analyzing Processes What plate-tectonics process is Chapter 11 Making Models Lab

represented by the motion of the paper strip in the model?
Explain your answer.

3 Applying Ideas What type of mountain would result from

the kind of collision shown by the model?

25
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