SYSTEM IN MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
 Unit No: I

Introduction of Energy Sources & its conversion

INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY :

In everyday life, energy is needed in one form or the other to produce motion of particles or objects.
Thus, the energy can be defined as its capability to produce motion. alternately, energy can be defined as its
capacity to do Work.

Units of energy are Joule (J): kilojoule (kJ) in S.I. system of units. kCal is the unit of energy in MKS system
Where, 1 kcal = 4.187 kJ

The rate of doing the work is called power.

Power is produced in various power plants in the form of mechanical or electric power.
Units of power are J/s or W, kJ/s or kW, MW (1 MW = 1000 kWN) 1.1.1 Forms of Energy:
Forms of Energy:

There are various forms of energy which can

be converted into from one form or the other. The main
forms of energy, other than light energy, sound energy,
magnetic energy etc. are as follows
1. Thermal Energy :
Thermal energy is the energy of a system or the
substance which is related to temperature i.e. the energy
of moving or vibrating molecules.
2. Chemical Energy:
Chemical energy is a energy stored in a
substance which is related to chemical reaction, usually
in the form of heat e.g. on burning of solid, liquid or
gaseous fuels in presence of air, it produces heat.
3. Electrical Energy :
Electrical energy is the energy which is carried by moving electrons in an electrical conductor.
4. Mechanical energy:
Mechanical energy is the energy of the system due to its motion e.g. machines use the
mechanical energy supplied to do the useful work.
5. Nuclear Energy :
Nuclear energy also called atomic energy is the energy trapped inside an atom. This energy can
either be produced by splitting the atom 5. called fission process or by combining atom called fusion
process.
Uranium is the most important material for producing nuclear energy.
6. Gravitation energy:
Gravitation energy is the energy 6. held by an object at height in a gravitational field e.gg the
energy of water flowing down a water fall, energy stored in a dam or reservoir which 1S usedto run a
turbine to produce hydro power etc.
Grades of Energy :

1. High grade form of energy :

An energy source is called high grade form of energy like work or electrical energy which can be
easily converted in all forms of energy e.g. electrical energy can be converted into heat energy by using an
electrical heater.
2. Low grade form of energy:
An energy like thermal or heat energy which can not be completely converted into work or
electrical energy is called low grade form of energy.
Low grade energy has a conversion efficiency of about 28% to 40% depending on the system.
Conventional or Non-Renewable Sources of Energy and Non-Conventional or Renewable
Energy Sources :

Conventional or Non-renewable energy sources:

These energy sources are found or stored in nature. The various conventional energy sources
available are: coal, water, petroleum products, natural gas and nuclear energy.

Non-conventional or renewable energy sources:

These are obtained from sources those are essentially inexhaustible. The various non-
conventional energy sources which are under development are: solar, wind, ocean, thermal, tidal and
geothermal energy.
Thermal (Steam)Power Plants:
Generally, a thermal power plant is one which is used to produce electrical power on a large
scale. Usually, the steam power plants are used in which the chemical energy of a fuel is utilized to
generate high pressure, high temperature steam in a boiler. This steam is used in a turbine to produce
mechanical power which is finally converted into electrical energy by an alternator. This is represented by
a simplified block diagram in Figure. The fuel used may be coal, oil or natural gas.
 In a steam power plant, various heat recovery systems like air preheater, economizer are used to
improve the thermal efficiency of the steam power plant. Components of a Steam Power Plant Various
components of a steam power plant with their function are explained below:
(i) Blower:
The function of the blower is to draw the surrounding air needed for combustion of fuel. The air
drawn by blower is supplied to air preheater.

(ii) Air preheater:

It is a heat transfer device in which the air drawn from surroundings is heated with the help of
hot flue gases before discharged to atmosphere through the chimney. The heated air is supplied to the
furnace. It improves the combustion efficiency of the fuel.

(iii) Furnace:
Heated air from air preheater is supplied to the furnace where fuel is burnt. The products of
combustion of fuel and air are called flue gases.

(iv) Economiser:
The feed water before supplied to the boiler tubes is heated with the help of flue gases. It reduces
the energy needed for formation of steam.
(v) Boiler:
It consists of boiler shell, water, tubes and super heater. Feed water supplied from the economiser is
first converted into wet steam in water tubes and then into superheated steam in the super heater due to the heat
supplied by the hot flue gases. Steam is generated at high pressures in the boiler.

(vi) Steam Turbine and Generator:

High pressure, superheated steam of the boiler expands in the turbine and produces the mechanical
work. This work is utilized to drive a generator which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

(vii) Condenser and condensate extraction pump:

Steam from steam turbine is exhausted to the condenser where the steam is condensed by rejecting
heat to circulated cooling water. The condensed steam is called the condensate which is drawn with the help of
condensate extraction pump and supplied to hot-well.

(viii) Feed pump:

The condensate collected in the hot well with makeup water is fed back with the help of feed pump at
boiler pressure to the economizer.
(ix) Cooling tower:
Cooling water from cooling tower is circulated into the condenser and absorbs heat from the exhaust
steam of the steam turbine. The resultant heated water from condenser is supplied at the top of cooling tower.
This heated water falls through the nozzles. It gets cooled by the cool air passed from the bottom of cooling
tower. The heated air is discharged to the surroundings from the top of cooling tower.
(x) Condenser water circulating pump:
This pump circulates the cooling water from the cooling tower to the condenser and the heated water
from the condenser back to the cooling tower.

Let:
𝑚𝑓 = Mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s)

C.V. = Calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg)

Input power = 𝑚𝑓 X C.V. (kJ/s or kW)

Overall efficiency of plants:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ( 𝐾𝑊)
𝜂=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ( 𝐾𝑊)
Advantages of Thermal (Steam) Power Disadvantages of Thermal (Steam) Power
Plants: Plants:

 Fuel used is cheaper  Operation and maintenance cost is high.

 They can respond quickly with changes in  Time needed for errection of plant is high
load on the plant. before it is put to operation
 Space required is less compared to hydro  Large quantity of water is needed.
power plants.  Coal and ash handling poses a serious
 A portion of steam can be used as process problem.
steam for various industries.  The part load efficiency is low.
 Cost of electric power generation and its  Pollution causes health problems to workers
initial cost is less compared to diesel plants. and habitants near the thermal power plant.
 Can be located near the load center
conveniently thus reduces the transmission
line cost and loss of energy in transmission
lines.
HYDRO POWER ENERGY :
Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electrical power. This is
called hydropower or hydroelectric power.
Hydro-electric power plants utilize the potential energy of water to move hydraulic turbines
which are coupled to electric generators.
T here fore, these plants have to be located where the water resources are available in abundance
at sufficient head.
Principle of Operation of Hydro Power Plants :
 In hydro- electric power plants the energy of water is utilized to move the hydraulic turbines which in
turn runs an electric generator to convert the mechanical energy of turbine into electric energy
 The rain water that flows on the earth's surface has potential energy relative to the ocean towards
which it flows.
 In hydro-electric power plants, the water is collected and artificially stored by constructing dams
across the flowing streams.
 This potential energy of water is converted into mechanical work and ultimately into electrical energy.
 The power developed by the hydraulic turbine depends on the quantity of water and the head of water
available.
 Input power to a hydraulic turbine is given by the equation.

𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑚 𝑁𝑚
𝑃 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝑄 × 𝐻( 3 × 2 × ×𝑚 = 2
× = 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 )
𝑚 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑄. 𝐻
𝑝= 𝑘𝑊
1000

Where, 𝜌 = Density, Q = Discharge H = Available head of Water

The quantity of water available at the selected site depends upon the rainfall and run-off in that
area. Presently, India generates about 14% of hydro power out of total power generation from all sources.
Schematic Layout of Hydro-Electric Power Plant:
 A large amount of water is collected during rainy
season in a reservoir behind a dam. In case the rainfall is low in
a particular year the low head of the reservoir will not be able
to meet the maximum load, therefore, the present trend is to use
hydro-electric power plant with steam power plant in an
interconnected system.
The main components of the hydro-electric power
plant and their functions are as follows:
1. Reservoir:
A reservoir is provided to store water during rainy
season and supplies the same in dry season. The water from the
reservoir is used to run the hydraulic turbine.
2. Dam:
A dam is structure of considerable height built across
the river. Its function is to provide working head of water for
power plant and to increase the storage-capacity of reservoir.
3. Trash rack:
These are made up of steel bars. Trash rack is provided to prevent entry of debris into the intakes
from dam or from the forebay. Any debris into the intake water pipe may damage the turbine runners or choke
the nozzles of an impulse turbine.
4. Gate:
The gate is provided for controlling of flow of water from reservoir to hydraulic turbine through
penstock. It is closed when maintenance of system is required.
5. Forebays:
It is small water reservoir at the end of water passage from the reservoir and before the water is fed
to the turbine to the penstock.
It acts as a temporary regulating reservoir. It stores water when the load on the plant reduces and the
same water is supplied to the turbine at the time of increasing load in the initial stages It helps in absorbing the
flow variations.
6. Surge tank:
The function of surge tank is to protect the penstock due to sudden variation of flow or the velocity of water.
It is located near the power house on high ground.
7. Penstock:
A pipe which carries water from reservoir to turbine house is called penstock. It is a large pipe of 1 m
to 2 m in diameter made up of concrete to withstand high pressures.
8. Anchors :
These are concrete blocks to support penstock.
9. Power house:
A power house consists of hydraulic and electric equipment's where the water energy is converted
into electrical energy. Usually the power house is located underground whenever possible e.g. as in case of
Koyana power house in Maharashtra state.
10. Hydraulic turbines :
These are used to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy.
11. Draft tube:
A draft tube is a passage which connects the exit from the turbine runner down to tail race water
level. It supplements the action of runner of the reaction turbine by utilizing the remainder K.E. of the water at
discharge end of the runner
12. Tail race:
A tail race is a water way to lead the
water discharged from the turbine to the river.
Operation of Hydro-Electric Power Plant :
Water from reservoir flows through
penstocks to hydraulic turbine and during the
passage its potential energy (water head) is
converted into kinetic energy. This high
velocity jet of water strikes the hydraulic
turbine vanes where its K.E. is converted into
mechanical energy.
A generator coupled to hydraulic
turbine converts the available mechanical
energy into electrical energy
Advantages of Hydro – electric power plant : Disadvantages of Hydro – electric power plant :
 Low operational and generation cost.  Power developed depends on availability of
 Reliability. water.
 Starting and stopping of plant takes short-time  Since located away from load centers, have high
compared to thermal and nuclear plants. cost of transmission lines and its losses.
 No ash disposal problem  Time required for development of plants is high.
 Non-polluting.
 High Life expectancy of 50 years.
 Highly efficient over wide range of loads.
 Can be used both as base an peak load plant.
 Additionally can be used for irrigation and flood
control.
Nuclear Energy From Nuclear Fuels
Nuclear energy has a bright future. Nuclear fuels used1 for power generation are uranium and
thorium and artificially produced plutonium (Pu 239)
Estimated global reserves of Uranium -235 ( U235 ) is 76,40,000 tonnes. India has a reserve of
1,70,000 tonnes of U-235 and Ten lac tons of thorium in the monazite beach sand of Kerala.
In atomic fission, the heavy nucleus like uranium is split into two or more lighter nuclei having a
combined mass less than the parent nucleus.
The reduced mass is converted into enormous energy in accordance with Einstein mass energy
equation given by
𝐸 = ∆𝑚 × 𝐶 2
where
E = energy released in Joules
∆𝑚 = mass defect in kg
C = velocity of light = 3x 108 m/s
 It is estimated that complete fission of 1 gm of U235 can produce 948 kW per day.
Fission is carried out by bombarding slow moving neutrons on the atom of fuel used in a nuclear
reactor. Energy so released can be used to produce steam which can be used to generate power in
conventional power plants.
Advantages of Nuclear Energy:
 Reduces demand on fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas.
 Transportation and storage of fuel is easy compared to conventional fuels.
 It produces larger power. 4. Plants are non-polluting.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy :

 High cost.
 Has problem of radioactive waste disposal.
 High safety is needed from nuclear radiations.
 Cost of power generation is high
Nuclear Power Plants :
Nuclear power plants utilize the energy
produced by nuclear fission reactions for
generating steam. This steam is further utilized in
a conventional thermal (steam) power plant for
running a steam turbine and an electric generator.
In nuclear power plant, nuclear energy of
fuel is converted into heat energy of steam by
nuclear reactor and heat exchanger. The heat
energy of steam is then converted into mechanical
work by the turbine, which is finally converted
into electrical energy by generator.
Various Component of a nuclear power plant with their functions, are explain below:
1. Nuclear reactor:
In nuclear reactor, energy is produced by the fission reaction of nuclear fuel. The nuclear fuels used
in nuclear reactor are unstable radioactive materials such as: thorium ( Th232 ), uranium ( U235 ), or plutonium
( Pu239 ).
In nuclear fission, the slow moving neutrons are bombarded on the atoms of nuclear fuel. The heavy
nucleus of nuclear fuel like uranium is a split into two or more lighter nuclei having a combined mass less
than the parent nucleus. The reduced mass is converted into enormous energy.
This energy released is taken away by primary coolant. The primary coolants may be a gas like: carbon
dioxide, helium or liquid metals like: sodium, potassium and their alloys.
There are three main components of nuclear reactor:
(i )moderator; (ii) control rods; and (iii) external shield.

Parts of nuclear reactor :

Moderator :
The fission of nuclear fuel produces fast moving neutrons. These neutrons are slowed down to right
speed by moderators so as to increase the effectiveness of fission of nuclear fuel.
Control rods:
The rate of energy released by chain reaction due to fission of nuclear fuel is very high. If the rate of
heat energy is not controlled properly, it may melt the entire core and the surrounding structures. The rate of
heat energy released is controlled by adjustable rods called control rods, made of material1 like cadmium or
boron. The control rods regulate the energy release by absorbing neutrons. Note that the moderator reduces
the speed of neutrons the without absorbing them, while the control rods energy release by absorbing
regulate the neutrons.
External shield:
An external shield is provided for the physical safety of persons operating the nuclear reactor, from
harmful effects of radiation.
2. Heat Exchanger :
The heat absorbed by primary coolant in the nuclear reactor is transferred to water in heat
exchanger. The water is converted into high pressure steam. Therefore the heat exchanger acts like a boiler of
a thermal (steam) power plant.
3. Steam Turbine:
The high pressure steam from the heat exchanger expands in turbine and produces the mechanical work.
4. Generator :
The turbine shaft is coupled with the generator shaft. The generator converts the mechanical work of
turbine shaft into electrical energy.
5. Condenser :
Steam from steam turbine is exhausted to the condenser where the steam is condensed by rejecting heat
to the cooling water circulated in condenser. The condensed steam is called the condensate.
6. Feed pump:
The condensate is extracted from condenser and is fed back to the heat exchanger with the help of feed
pump.
7. Cooling tower :
Cooling water from cooling tower is circulated into the condenser and absorbs heat from the exhaust
steam of the steam turbine in condenser. The heated cooling water from condenser is cooled in cooling tower.
8. Condenser Water Circulating Pump:
This pump circulates the cooling water from the cooling tower to the condenser and the heated water
from the condenser back to the cooling tower.
Advantages of Nuclear power plant : Disadvantages Nuclear power plant :
 Large quantity of energy is released by very small  It's capital cost is high.
amount of fuel compared to conventional fuels  It needs trained man power.
used in thermal (steam) power plants. )  It has problem of radioactive waste disposal.
 Problem of large amount of fuel transportation and  High degree of safety is needed for persons
its storage facility is not needed. working on these plants against the nuclear
 It does not cause air pollution. radiations.
 Reduces the demand on depleting resources and  Cost of power generation is high.
rising cost of fuels like: coal, oil and gas.
 It needs less space compared to conventional
thermal power plants.
 Performance of these plants is high.
Solar Energy:
The basic source of energy produced by the sun is through nuclear fusion. In this reaction, two atom of
deutorium (heavy hydrogen) combines to form one atom of helium and during the process it release large
quantum of energy which reaches the earth's surface through electromagnetic radiation.
Thus, the sun releases the enormous amount of energy due to continuous fusion reaction taking place
in the sun.
The sun sends out the energy in the form of radiations at the rate of 3.7 X 10 20 MW. However, the
energy intercepted by the earth is about 1.85 x 1011 MW. This energy available is several times more than all
the energy produced and consumed in the world today.
Limitation of use of solar energy:
 Although the earth receives large quantity of solar energy but its commercial exploitation is difficult for the
following reasons
 This energy is dilute and spread out. The average power obtainable is only 1 kW/m of area in hottest
regions. Therefore, large collection area is required.
 The intensity of radiation is weather dependent. On a cloudy day, the intensity of radiation is very low
which is further affected by the dust, fog and smoke.
 It is intermittent source of energy since it is not available at night.
 Seasonal variations affects the intensity of radiation.
 The requirement of energy storage devices are heavy in 6 order to cater the energy during the hours of non-
availability of solar energy.
 Standby power arrangements are necessary during unexpected long periods of non-sunshine hours.
Advantages of Solar Energy: Disadvantages of Solar Energy :

 It is available in abundance. It is renewable and  It is dilute source of energy. Maximum

inexhaustible form of energy. It will be sufficient to solar flux is about 1 kW/m of area in
sustain the human race as far as we think of our hottest region.
existence.  Availability varies widely with time of day,
 Free from pollution. month and during the year.
 It has low operating and maintenance cost.  It involves high cost of storage of energy
 No fossil fuels are needed. No elaborated arrangements during non- availability of sun shine hours.
are needed for transportation, handling and storage of  Needs very large collector area to harness
fuels as needed in conventional power plants. solar energy 4 involving high capital cost.
 It can be directly converted into electrical energy using
photo-voltaic cells.
 Many options are available for utilization of solar energy
depending on its application For example, by using solar
flat plate collectors, solar concentrators, solar stills etc.
Solar Collectors :
Solar collector is a device for collecting or absorbing the solar radiations on a surface called absorber
and transfer of a part of radiant energy to fluid like water or air in contact with it. The surface of the collector is
designed for high absorption and low emissions.
Types of Solar Collectors :
Flat Plate Collectors:

It is shown in fig.
 These collectors are used for low
temperature applications in the range
from ambient temperature up to
100°C.
 If the working fluid absorbing heat
is liquid, such collectors are also
called as liquid flat plate collectors.
 Flat plate collectors are used for low
temperature applications like solar
water heating, space heating and
cooling, drying, low temperature
power generation etc.
Concentrating type of collectors:
The cross-section such a collector is shown
in Fig. Concentrating collectors are also called as
foccussing collectors. These are used for medium to
high temperature applications. These are of two types:
1. Cylindrical parabolic collectors:
These types of solar collectors are suitable
for application in the range of 100°C to 300°C. These
collectors are used for vapour engines and turbines,
process heating in industry, refrigeration, cooking etc.
2. Parabolloid mirror arrays:
These types of solar collectors are used for
production of temperatures above 300°C. These are
suitable for thermo-electric power generation
Power Generation from Solar Energy :
Solar energy can be utilized for power generation in the following ways Solar concentrating type of
solar collector are used to produce high pressure steam. This steam is used in a conventional steam power
plant. The system is shown in Fig. by a block diagram.
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Cell Panel Power Plant:
Solar PV cells are used to convert the solar energy directly into electrical energy. Since the
power output of one solar cell is about 3 W (0.5 volt, 6 ampere current), these solar cells are connected
in series/parallel to form a photovoltaic cell array to produce large power output. This power can be
used either directly as DC power or AC power by using an inverter.
Such solar energy power devices can be used for lighting, pumping of water and other
applications in for rural electrification or for power supply in remote areas where grid is not available.
The power generation by PV cells is shown by a block diagram in Fig.
 PV cells array receives solar radiations and it directly converts into DC power. It is supplied to
battery through charge controller. DC power can be converted in AC by using an inverter to take up AC
loads.
Function of Charge Controller:
During non-sunshine hours, the current can flow from battery to charge controller but it does not
allow the current to flow back to PV cells. Therefore it avoids the damage to PV cells.
Advantages of Solar Power Plants: Disadvantages (Limitations) of Solar Power Plants:
 The solar power plant does not require fuel.  Sunlight is not available with same intensity all the time.
The source of energy is available free of Hence source of solar energy is whether dependent.
cost.  The solar energy is intermittent source because it is not
 As fossil fuels are going to decline over the available during night.
period of time, solar energy is steady,  The solar energy is dilute and spread out. Hence, large
consistent and un-exhaustible source of collection area is required.
energy.  Storage of solar energy is expensive.
 It is clean and non-polluting source of  Initial cost of solar power plant is high.
energy.
 It has low running and maintenance cost.

Applications of Solar Power Plants:

Solar energy power devices can be used for lighting, pumping of water and other applications for
power supply in remote areas where grid is not available