4.

Agricultural development
a) Agricultural systems
Candidates should be able to:
• understand how small-scale subsistence farming, cash crop farming and livestock farming operate as
systems made up of inputs, processes and outputs.
b) Crops and livestock
Candidates should be able to:
• identify on a map the main areas where cotton, rice, sugar cane and wheat are grown, and the main
areas where buffalo, cattle, goats, sheep and poultry are reared
• recognise (from photographs) fields of cotton, rice, sugar cane and wheat; recognise (from
photographs) buffalo, cattle, goats, sheep and poultry
• state the uses of the crops named above
• state the main products of the livestock named above and the uses of those products
• identify the main areas for the cultivation and growth of each of the following: apples, apricots,
bananas, dates, maize, mangoes, millet, oilseeds, oranges, pulses, tobacco and vegetables. Know
why they are grown there and state an important use of each.
c) Factors affecting production
Natural factors: topography, climate (for both kharif and rabi crops), soils, pests and diseases
Human factors: capital, labour, size of holdings, farming practices, irrigation (types and methods),
waterlogging and salinity (including solutions), governmental actions to increase production
Candidates should be able to:
• explain how natural and human factors affect production on small-scale subsistence farms,
including:
– rice grown using traditional methods of ploughing, transplanting, irrigating, harvesting and
threshing on small, fragmented holdings using family labour
– wheat grown in areas dependent upon rainfall (barani farming areas)
– dates and vegetables grown using karez irrigation in a desert oasis
• explain how natural factors, including climatic requirements, and human factors affect the production
of cotton, rice, sugar cane (kharif crops) and of wheat (a rabi crop) under the cash crop farming
system
• explain how natural and human factors affect livestock farming (poultry farming, the keeping of
buffalo and cattle, the keeping of livestock) on small-scale subsistence farms and the keeping of
cattle, goats and sheep on a nomadic or semi-nomadic basis, including transhumance
• describe the different types of irrigation and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each for
small-scale subsistence farming, and for the growing of cotton, rice, sugar cane and wheat:
– canal irrigation – karez, inundation and perennial canal
– lift irrigation – persian wheel and tubewell
– understand the roles of dams, barrages, link canals, distribution canals, field channels and bunds
• explain the causes of waterlogging and salinity, and:
– explain how land damaged by it can be restored
– evaluate how agricultural practice and water management can be improved to prevent it happening
• understand how government action has helped to increase production through land reforms, the
promotion of training and the use of machinery, chemicals, improved seeds and other means
• understand and evaluate the possibilities for and problems of the development of agriculture and its
sustainability.
 Agriculture.

Small Scale Subsistence Farming.

Growing crops for own use.
Surplus is sold in the market.
Small farm size.
Whole family works in the field e. g. women looking after animals, children grazing animals.
Most of the work is done by hands or animal power.
Usually some of the family members may have to work in cities or labourers to earn extra.
They are dependent on nature (insects, rainfall, floods etc.).
Most of the inputs are results of farming processes at the farm.
Cash Crop/ Commercial Farming.
Cash crop farming is for sale and earning profit.
The motive is to maximize yields profits by employing human inputs (machines, skilled labour,
preventive and curative measures, fertilizers, irrigation)
Use’s machines to speed up processes so he is not at the mercy of nature to an extent.
Large area no limit on size.
Support Price.
Support price is the price of cash crops fixed by the government to safe guard the farmers against the
market mechanisms of supply and demand. If the prices of the cash crops fall below the support price
government agencies like Cotton Export Corporation (CEC), Pakistan Agricultural Supply and Storage
Corporation (PASSCO) buy the produce of the farmer so that farmer is safe from loss and can reinvest
in the farming process. Government may fix the prices of cash crops (cotton, wheat, rice, sugarcane) as
incentive to farmers to increase cropped area, profits, achieve self-sufficiency.
Rabi and Kharif Crops.
The crops that are sown before the start of the winter season (October-November) and harvested in
early summers (April-May) are known as Rabi Crops. e.g. Wheat, barley, grams, oil seeds, pulses.
Kharif crops are sown in summers (April-June) and are harvested in early winters (October-November).
e.g. Cotton, rice, sugarcane.
Curative And Preventive Measures.
To increase yields we take both measures. Treating seeds before sowing is a preventive measure which
increases germination. Treating plants against viruses, insects and pests is curative measure.
Crop Rotation.
Crop rotation and green manureing is done to utilize the fertility of different depths of soil (wheat
followed by cotton) and sow such crops which add nitrogen in the soil which is used by following crop.
The crops which add nitrogen are grams, barseem and some pulses. Farmers churn/crush and bury
green crops which decompose and increase humus in the soil increasing fertility and water and
nutrient holding capacity.
 Geographical Requirements Of Major Cash Crops.

Wheat.

Temperature.
Moderate temperature of 10°C-20°C at the time of sowing and throughout the growing season. Warm
temperatures 25° C-30° C at the time of harvesting.
Rainfall.
Moderate around 250mm. Rainfall 15-20 days before harvesting swells the grain size increasing yields.
In Pakistan wheat is dependent on irrigation. In parts of Potwar Plateau and NWFP wheat is sown as
barani crop (rain fed).
Land &Soils.
Moderate stiff loamy and clayey soils. Do not grow in waterlogged soils. Well drained soils. Flat land is
required for irrigation and use of machinery in cash crop farming.
How natural factors help in the cultivation of wheat crop.
Flat land Makes ploughing, irrigation, use of machines easy.
Climate.
Rain in the months of October and November makes soil soft which makes ploughing easy. Rain
throughout the growing season from Western Depressions (reducing the cost of irrigation) and no or
less rain during ripening and harvesting. Rainfall before harvesting swells grain size increasing
production.
Temperature 10°C-20°C is available at the time of sowing, growing and 25° C-30° C at the time of
ripening and harvesting.
As it is a Rabi crop it does not require much sunlight.
Cultivation.
Ploughing and leveling the land by tractor or draft power. Sowing by seed drills or spreading seed by
subsistence farmers. After sowing fertilizer is applied and irrigation is done. When wheat crop is about
6” tall weeding is done by tractor/draft power. Irrigation may be done 3 to 4 times as the need arises
(weather). Harvesting is done by machines/human labour. Grain is separated from chaff by thrashing
(combine harvesters and draft power).

WheatCrop

Harvesting
 Thrashing

Rice.
Temperature.
At the time of sowing average temperatures of 20°C-30°C are required. A warm dry sunny period for
harvesting.
Rainfall.
About 1270mm. is needed but over 2000mm. is ideal. Needs rainfall throughout the growing period.
Since maximum amount of rainfall received is not more than 750mm. so it needs a lot of irrigation.
Land & Soils.
Level land is required to facilitate use of machinery and irrigation. Soils should be loamy or clayey and
water retentive.

Rice Transplantation Rice Plants

Cultivation.
Rice seeds are initially sown in beds in nurseries (May). When the plant is about 9” tall it is
transplanted into fields (ploughed, weeded & flooded). Rice field is flooded throughout the growing
season and a lot of fertilizer and insecticide are used. Rice fields are drained before harvesting. After
harvesting thrashing is done depending on size of farm machines or human labour is used. After
thrashing rice is taken to rice husking mills where rice husk is separated, rice is polished and packed.

Cotton.

Temperature.
The ideal temperature for cotton cultivation is 25 C-30 C. Mild 10 C-20 C temperatures during nights
are best for development of cotton bolls. During cotton picking 25 C-30 C are best with dry sunny
period. No frost.
Rainfall.
About 1000 mm. of rainfall with dry sunny period in between showers. In Pakistan it is cultivated with
help of irrigation. Rainfall at the time of harvesting spoils cotton bolls.
Soils.
Medium loam is best. Natural manure or chemical fertilizers and crop rotation are practiced to
maintain soil fertility.
Cultivation.
Land is ploughed and leveled. Soft soil helps in germination and leveled land in irrigation and use of
machinery. Cotton seeds are sown directly in the soil with the help of seed drill. After sowing, fertilizer
and irrigation is applied. When crop grows to a height of 12” weeding is done. As the need arises
fertilizers and irrigation are applied. If there is pest attack pesticides are used and insecticides are used.
When cotton is ready for picking it is picked and transported to cotton ginning mills. Where cotton and
seed are separated.

Cotton Plants Sown In Lines Spraying Cotton Crop

Cotton Crop Ready For Picking Cotton Picking

Sugarcane.
Temperature.
Require 25 C – 35 C temperature during the growing period. Tolerant to frost for short period.
Rainfall.
About 1520 mm is needed but dependent on irrigation. Dependent on irrigation as the rainfall is less
than required amount.
Soils.
Loamy or clayey soils and water retentive soils. Sugarcane is a rattoon crop so a lot of fertilizer is used.
(nitrogen, phosphorous, potash)
Cultivation.
Sugarcane stalks 30 cm. long are planted in spring in March and April. A distance of 30 cm. is kept
between them. The crop is frequently irrigated and fertilizer is applied throughout the growing season.
The crop can be rattoned for two to three successive years.
Harvesting.
Sugarcane stalks are cut above the roots, the stalks are tied in bundles and loaded on trucks and
trolleys. Sugarcane is immediately transported to sugar mills as sugarcane losses its weight and sugar
content. At mills it is weighed, and then scrubbed with chalk to remove dirt and smell. It is washed and
then crushed in rollers to extract juice. The products at this stage are sugarcane juice and bagasse.
Bagasse is burnt, heat is used to produce electricity and heat sugarcane juice. Juice is boiled and
molasses is separated. It is centrifuged and sugar crystals are collected and packed and sent to market.
Molasses is a raw material for chemical industry. Bagasse is also used as a raw material in chip board
industry. Subsistence farmers may use leaves of sugarcane as fodder for animals.

Livestock Farming In Pakistan.

(Cattle, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goat, Poultry)

There are two types of livestock farming:

a) Subsistence livestock.
b) Commercial livestock.

In subsistence livestock farming animals and products (meat, milk, wool, eggs and hides) are
consumed /used by the people who are rearing them and if there is extra it is sold in the
market. Inputs/processes are mainly natural (grazing, water from ponds, no shed, women and
children as labour) (breeding for draft power/ domestic need, milking manually, slaughtering
and consuming products).
In commercial livestock farming animals (as well as their products) are reared to be sold in
market.
Input and processes are to improve production e.g. special diet for animals, shed to protect
from weather, vets, clean water, ponds) (milking machines, preservation, breeding)
Subsistence livestock farming has three types:

a) Nomadic.
Areas: Baluchistan, Thar Desert (Cholistan, Nara & Tharparkar)
Features:
Nomads move from place to place in search of grazing grounds and water. They may stay for a
few weeks to graze animals and then move. Usually sheep and goats, along with poultry and
cows, are reared, which provide them with food (milk, meat). Camels and horses are reared for
transportation purposes.

b) Transhumance.
Areas: Northern Mountains and Western Mountains.
Features:
The movement of animal and people in winters to the valleys as the grazing grounds are
covered with snow. In summers people move back to the mountains where the snow has
melted and fresh pastures are ready for grazing. Animals reared are goats, sheep and cows and
poultry. Mules and horses are reared for transportation. The produce is usually consumed by
the farmer and if there is extra it is sold in the market.
c) Settled.
Areas: Punjab and Sindh.
Features:
This is practiced by subsistence farmers who rear cattle, buffaloes and poultry besides growing
crops. Cattle is used in different farming processes.
(ploughing, threshing, transportation). Whatever extra is produced, it is sold in the market, e.g.
milk, eggs.
Inputs into subsistence farming are usually from nature (water from ponds, rivers and lakes,
grazing in fields or open pastures) besides human labour. All the processes are done by the
farmer as no machines are used. (milking, slaughtering, sheering and natural breeding) Outputs
like milk, meat, wool and eggs are consumed by farmer. Offspring are sold if not needed on
farm.

Importance Of Livestock
Draft Power used at subsistence farm. Food. Inputs for different industries
Exported. Contribution to GDP.
Problems of livestock
Availability of Vet and hospitals
Grazing grounds/ overgrazing (soil erosion, stall fed)
Conditions of animals (hygienic, health)
Availability of feed and prices in areas of demand
Problems of keeping in cities
Breeding (milk, meat)
Marketing of meat and dairy products
Less prices in rural areas, leads to low investment.
Factors affecting farming

Natural
Topography (plains, mountains, valleys)
Soils (alluvial, sandy, residual, loess)
Climate (temperature, rainfall)
Pests, Insects.

Human
Irrigation (advantages, disadvantages)
Fertilizers
Mechanization
High Yielding Varieties of seeds
Marketing
Size of farm (use of Machines, fragmented holdings, ZTBL loans, low investment on small farms,
inputs e.g. fertilizers can’t be used leading to low output)
Plant protection programmers (preventive, curative, aerial spraying, providing implements)

Land reforms
Redistribute land more equally/more fairly/ceiling on land holdings
Take land away from large landowners/landlords and give it to the tenants/poor
farmers /protect tenants from eviction

Advantages of land consolidation

Economic units
Use of machinery/modern methods
Easier to supervise
Better irrigation
Better opportunity for investment/easier to get loans
Opportunities for research
Bring more land into cultivation

Farming and the environment

Fertilizers (usage (why) and affects on water table, rivers, ponds & lakes)
Pesticides. (workers ,immune system, diseases,)
Deforestation (erosion of top soil)
Irrigation (Waterlogging & Salinity)