UNIT 4

AC/DC POWER

Text 1 AC/DC power

Text 2 Dangers and Liabilities
Grammar Revision: Conditional sentences

LEAD-IN

1. What is the difference between DC and AC?

2. Where can AC and DC be applied?

READING

3. Read the text below and decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. There are no practical advantages of Ac power over dc power.
2. One major drawback of the single-phase circuit is the oscillatory nature of
the instantaneous power flow.
3. A three-phase circuit, under balanced conditions has no constant,
nonpulsating (time invariant), instantaneous power.
4. Almost all bulk electric power generation and consumption take place in
three-phase systems.
5. The majority of three-phase systems are four-wire, wye-connected sys-
tems.
6. The cost of a neutral conductor is substantially more than that of a phase
conductor.

AC/DC POWER
AC power has significant practical advantages over DC power in generation,
transmission, and distribution. One major drawback of the single- phase circuit
is the oscillatory nature of the instantaneous power flow p(t). The consequent
shaft vibration and noise in single-phase machinery are rather undesirable. A
three-phase circuit, on the other hand, under balanced conditions has constant,
nonpulsating (time invariant), instantaneous power, the pulsating strain on
generating and load equipment is eliminated. Also for power transmission, a
balanced three-phase system delivers more watts per kilogram of conductor
than an equivalent single-phase system. For these rea-

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sons, almost all bulk electric power generation and consumption take place in
three-phase systems.
The majority of three-phase systems are four-wire, wye-connected systems, in
which a grounded neutral conductor is used. Some three-phase systems such as
delta-connected and three wire wye-connected systems do not have a neutral
conductor. Because the neutral current is nearly zero under normal operating
conditions, neutral conductors for transmission lines are typically smaller in
size and current-carrying capacity than the phase conductors. Thus, the cost of
a neutral conductor is substantially less than that of a phase conductor. The
capital and operating costs of three-phase transmission and distribution
systems, with or without neutral conductors, are comparatively much less than
those of separate single-phase systems.
Ratings of three-phase equipment, such as generators, motors, trans- formers,
and transmission lines, are usually given as total three-phase real power in
MW, or as total three-phase apparent power in MVA, and as line- to-line
voltage in kV.

4. Answer the questions.

1. What are the major drawbacks of the single-phase circuit?
2. Why do almost all bulk electric power generation and consumption take
place in three-phase systems?
3. How are three-phased systems constructed?
4. What is the cost of a neutral conductor in comparison with phase conduc-
tor?
5. Why do any systems have no neutral conductor?
6. Compare the capital and operating costs of three-phase transmission and
distribution systems.

5. Read the text below and choose the right option (A–C) for every question
(1–5).
1. Faulty wiring can subject an individual to ……
A. electric shock
B. cancer
C. thousands of dollars
2. Stray …… affects farm animals, especially dairy cattle.
A. atoms
B. voltage
C. regulations

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 3. When cattle drink from electric feeding troughs or are attached to electric
milking machines, small................pass through the cattle.
A. electric shocks
B. electromagnetic fields
C. high voltages
4. Some juries have awarded …. to farmers whose cattle have been damaged.
A. electric milking machines
B. farmer's equipment
C. thousands of dollars
5. Electromagnetic …... are created whenever current moves through power
lines.
A. power lines
B. voltage
C. fields

DANGERS AND LIABILITIES

Electricity, especially at high voltages or high currents, is a dangerous
commodity. Faulty wiring, power lines that are close to trees and buildings,
and inadequate warning signs and fences around transformer stations and
over buried electrical cables can subject an individual to electric shock or even
electrocution. Because of the ultrahazardous nature of providing electric
power, states have many statutes and regulations in place to protect the public
from electric shock.
Other dangers from electricity include stray voltage and electromagnetic field
radiation. Stray voltage affects farm animals, especially dairy cattle. On dairy
farms, it occurs when cattle drink from electric feeding troughs or are attached
to electric milking machines, and small electric shocks pass through the cattle,
through their hooves, and into the ground. Repeated shocks can in- hibit or
destroy the milk-producing capability of dairy cattle. Liability for stray voltage
on farms can be attributed to public utilities when wiring is faulty or
negligently connected to a farmer's equipment. Some juries have awarded
thousands of dollars to farmers whose cattle have been damaged by this
phenomenon.
Electromagnetic fields are created whenever current moves through power
lines. The strength of these fields drops off exponentially as the dis- tance from
the power lines increases. Individuals whose homes or businesses are close to
power wires must live and work in these fields. Some individuals who live or
work near high-voltage power lines have developed brain cancer and leukemia,
and blame their condition on the constant exposure to electro- magnetic field
radiation. Studies have shown a correlation between electro-

63
magnetic fields and cancer, but many of the studies have been challenged as
methodologically flawed. By the mid-1990s, no conclusive scientific evidence
proved an epidemiological relationship between cancer and the
electromagnetic fields produced by high-voltage power lines.

6. Answer the questions.

1. What can subject an individual to electric shock?
2. How do states protect the public from electric shock?
3. What can inhibit or destroy the milk-producing capability of dairy cattle?
4. What is created whenever current moves through power lines?
5. Why is it dangerous to live or work near high-voltage power lines?

USE OF ENGLISH

7. Match the words to their definitions.

1 apparent A the parts of a machine or a collection of machines
2 generate B a part of a project or process
3 instantaneous C size; quantity; volume
4 machinery D done immediately without any time going by
5 neutral E electrical energy
6 eliminate F exchanges or sacrifices made in order to obtain
something else
7 bulk G not having a strong position, opinion or favourite
8 phase H obvious; easy to understand
9 voltage I get rid of
10 cost J to create, make or produce

8. Fill in the gaps with the words from the exercise 7.

1. The radio ended when the battery died.
2. The old house doesn't have enough for a big
air conditioner.
3. The box wasn't heavy but it was expensive to mail because of its
.
4. Catching prey by running it down energy.
5. In the first of life, babies are totally depend-
ent on their mothers.
6. The article a lot of letters to the editor.
7. It will take time to get in shape; the results will be slow, not
.

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8. The company revenue by leasing cars.
9. The empty bottles and dirty dishes make it
that there was a party here.
10. After cars became common, horses were
from many cities.

9. Fill in the blanks with the necessary forms of the words from the right.

1 the solar heat concentrators, photovoltaic 1. LIKE

panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Al-
though sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity
is still usually more expensive to produce than large-
scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of
the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells
2 in cost and multifunction cells with close to 30 % DECREASE
conversion efficiency are now 3 avail- able. Over 40 COMMERCE
% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental
systems. Until recently, photovoltaics were most
commonly used in remote sites where there is no
access to a commercial power grid, or as a
supplemental electricity source for individual homes MANUFACTURE
and businesses. Recent advances in4 effi- ciency and
photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies ENVIRONMENT
driven by5 concerns, have dramati- cally accelerated
the deployment of solar panels. INSTALL
6 capacity is growing by 40 % per year led by increases
in Germany, Japan, California and New Jer- sey.

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GRAMMAR REVISION

1. Fill in the gaps with if or unless.

1. a metal has small grains, it will be harder than one with coarse
grains.
2. Metals cannot be bent without fracture they are not malleable.
3. small amounts of other metals are added to a pure metal, this
is called alloying.
4. we add small amounts of other metals to a pure metal, it won’t
change its properties.
5. Metals can be formed we draw, roll and hammer them.
6. metals are subject to metal fatigue, it causes deformation.
7. The engineers won’t be a success when designing they take into
account these important effects.
8. the engineers don’t know the properties of metals, they won’t be
able to work with a metal.
9. there are special conditions, the metals won’t react with air.
10. It will cause failure metals are subject to slow increase in length
under stress.

12. Put the verbs in brackets into the proper tense. (Type 1, 2, 3 Condi-
tionals)
1. If it were not for their properties, metals widely (not to use) in in-
dustry.
2. Most metals wouldn’t be dense if the separation between the atoms in them
(not to be) small.
3. Unless this basic relationship is understood, difficulties (experi-
ence) in the machine shop.

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 4. If we (increase) strength, it will imply reduced machinability.
5. If metals are subject to metal fatigue, it (cause) deformation.
6. Engineers would employ ceramics if materials withstanding high tempera-
tures (need).
7. If rate of loading (increase) greatly, mechanical properties of the
material will vary significantly.
8. If casting processes had been based on more mechanized machines, it
(give) reduced waste.
9. These new methods _ (allow) savings to be made if they were used
for assembly.
10. If a new materials technology were not rapidly emerging, there
(not to be) any opportunities for more efficient manufacture.

13. Complete the sentences.

1. If you work with new materials, .
2. If a metal is with small grains, .
3. An engineer would be a good specialist if he .
4. If high-tech field of nanotechnology hadn’t emerged, .
5. If a mechanical engineer does not know about new materials, .
6. If there were a close partnership between industry and higher educa-
tion, .
7. The production would be impossible if .
8. If I had been involved in the design earlier, .
9. If I ran my own business, .
10. They would have achieved high productivity if .

SPEAKING

14. Use the words and phrases below to make sentences.

AC power, DC power, power transistors, single-phase circuit, neutral con-
ductor, operating costs, transmission, practical advantages, electric power
generation.

15. Work in pairs. Think of some questions to review the contents of the
text about the conductance, resistance and superconductivity and
ask each other.

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WRITING
16. Read the text and write an abstract. The length of the abstract is
100–120 words.
Power transistors are used in applications ranging from a few to several
hundred kilowatts and switching frequencies up to about 10 kHz. Power tran
sistors used in power conversion applications are generally npn type. The
power transistor is turned on by supplying sufficient base current, and this base
drive has to be maintained throughout its conduction period. It is turned off by
removing the base drive and making the base voltage slightly negative (within
AVBE (max)). The saturation voltage of the device is normally 0.5 to
2.5 V and increases as the current increases. Hence, the on-state losses in-
crease more than proportionately with current. The transistor off-state losses
are much lower than the on-state losses because the leakage current of the
device is of the order of a few milliamperes. Because of relatively larger
switching times, the switching loss significantly increases with switching
frequency. Power transistors can block only forward voltages. The reverse
peak voltage rating of these devices is as low as 5 to 10 V.
Power transistors do not have to withstand capability. In other words, they can
absorb only very little energy before breakdown. Therefore, they cannot be
protected by semiconductor fuses, and thus an electronic protection method has
to be used. To eliminate high base current requirements, Darling- ton
configurations are commonly used. They are available in monolithic or in
isolated packages. The Darlington configuration presents a specific advantage
in that: it can considerably increase the current switched by the transistor for a
given base drive. The VCE (sat) for the Darlington is generally more than that
of a single transistor of similar rating with corresponding increase in on- state
power loss. During switching, the reverse-biased collector junction may show
hot-spot breakdown effects that are specified by reverse-bias safe operating
area (RBSOA) and forward-bias safe operating area (FBSOA). Modern
devices with highly interdigited emitter base geometry force more uniform
current distribution and therefore considerably improve secondary break- down
effects. Normally, a well-designed switching aid network constrains the
device operation well within the SOA.

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TEXT 2

2. Read the text about «Superconductivity» and choose the right option
(A–C) for every question (1–5).

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and
expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below
a characteristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral
lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenome- non. It is
characterized by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of mag- netic field
lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the
superconducting state.
The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot
be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical
physics. The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually
as temperature is lowered. In ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver,
this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute
zero, a real sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a
superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is

70
cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of
superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.
In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have
a critical temperature above 90 K (−183 °C). Such a high transition tem
perature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor, leading
the materials to be termed high-temperature superconductors. Liquid nitrogen
boils at 77 K, facilitating many experiments and applications that are less prac
tical at lower temperatures. In conventional superconductors, electrons are held
together in pairs by an attraction mediated by lattice phonons.
The best available model of high-temperature superconductivity is still
somewhat crude. There is a hypothesis that electron pairing in high-
temperature superconductors is mediated by short-range spin waves known as
paramagnons.

1. Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical …… and ex-

pulsion of magnetic fields.
A. conductivity
B. resistance
C. semi-conductivity
2. Superconductivity occurs in certain materials when ….. below a character-
istic critical temperature.
A. cooled
B. heated
C. frozen
3. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of a …..conductor shows some re-
sistance.
A. super
B. semi-
C. normal
4. An electric … flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indef-
initely with no power source.
A. current
B. circuit
C. device
5. In conventional superconductors, ..….. are held together in pairs by an at-
traction mediated by lattice phonons.
A. electrons
B. atoms
C. phonons

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VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR EXCERCISE
3. Choose the right option (A–C) for every question (1–10).
1. The unit for measuring current was named in honor of A.M. Ampere, the
French ….. .
A. politician
B. physicist
C. psychologist
2. current is the current that changes direction periodically.
A. alternating
B. moving
C. rotating
3. Materials that occupy a place between the conductors of the electric cur-
rent and the non-conductors are called …… .
A. ultraconductors
B. introconductors
C. semiconductors
4. The electromotive force is the very force that moves the electrons from
one point in an electric …… towards another.
A. circuit
B. place
C. space
5. Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with
the study and …… of electricity.
A. apply
B. application
C. applied
6. Electrical engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in
….. engineering.
A. electrical
B. mathematical
C. computer
7. From the Global Positioning System to electric power generation, electri-
cal........have contributed to the development of a wide range of technolo-
gies.
A. plumbers
B. students
C. engineers

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8. If you touch a socket with wet hands, you ….. an electric shock.
A. will get
B. would get
C. would have got
9. They ….. let you on the plane unless you have a valid passport.
A. had
B. will
C. won’t
10. If I ….. noticed Nick, I would have stopped him.
A. –
B. would have
C. had

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WRITING
5. Read the text and write an abstract. The length of the abstract is
100–120 words.

DYNAMOS
The term «dynamo» is applied to machines which convert either mechanical
energy into electrical energy or electrical energy into mechanical energy by
utilizing the principle of electromagnetic induction. A dynamo is called a
generator when mechanical energy supplied in the form of rotation is
converted into electrical energy. When the energy conversion takes place in the
reverse order the dynamo is called a motor. Thus a dynamo is a reversible
machine capable of operation as a generator or motor as desired.
A generator does not create electricity, but generates or produces an induced
electromotive force, which causes a current to flow through a properly
insulated system of electrical conductors external to it. The amount of
electricity obtainable from such a generator is dependent upon the mechanical
energy supplied. In the circuit external to a generator the e. m. f. causes the
electricity to flow from a higher or positive potential to a lower or negative
potential. In the internal circuit of a generator the e. m. f. causes the current
to flow from a lower potential to a higher potential. The action of a generator is
based upon the principles of electromagnetic induction.
The dynamo consists essentially of two parts: a magnetic field, produced by
electromagnets, and a number of loops or coils of wire wound upon an iron
core, forming the armature. These parts are arranged so that the number of the
magnetic lines of force of the field threading through the armature, coils will
be constantly varied, thereby producing a steady e. m. f. in the generator or a
constant torque in the motor.

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READING

Text 1

1. Read the text, and match the questions (A–F) to the numbered spaces
(1–6).
A. What is the conductor material?
B. Why isn’t copper used for overhead transmission?
C. What allows increasing capacity and modernizing transmission circuits?
D. Why are thicker wires not effective?
E. What is transmission level voltage today?
F. What rules are necessary to be kept to maintain safety in overhead trans-
mission wires?

1. Thicker wires would lead to a relatively small increase in capacity

due to the skin effect that causes most of the current to flow close to the sur-
face of the wire. Because of this current limitation, multiple parallel cables
(called bundle conductors) are used when higher capacity is needed.
2. High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The
conductor material is nearly always an aluminium alloy, made into several
strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands.
3. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly used to allow
increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Conductor sizes
range from 12 mm2 (#6 American wire gauge) to 750 mm2 (1,590,000 circu-
lar mils area), with varying resistance and current-carrying capacity.
4. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission but aluminium
is lighter, yields only marginally reduced performance, and costs much less.
Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by several companies
worldwide.
5. Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, de-
sign of these lines requires minimum clearances to be observed to maintain
safety. Adverse weather conditions of high wind and low temperatures can
lead to power outages.
6. Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be
110 kV and above. Lower voltages such as 66 kV and 33 kV are usually con-
sidered subtransmission voltages but are occasionally used on long lines with

76
light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Volt-
ages above 230 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different
designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.

Text 2

2. Read the text below and decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. The symbol for current is I.
2. The electric current can flow only through liquids.
3. The current can be of two types: direct current and alternating current.
4. Electrolytes don’t change greatly when current passes through them.
5. The alternating current flows in one direction.
6. A battery is the simplest source of power for the direct current.
7. One of the great advantages of alternating current is the ease with which
voltage can be changed.
8. Direct current finds wider application than alternating current.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
The electric current is a quantity of electrons flowing in a circuit per second of
time. The unit of measure for current is ampere. If one coulomb passes a point
in a circuit per second then the current strength is 1 ampere. The symbol for
current is I.
The current which flows along wires consists of moving electrons. The
electrons move along the circuit because the e .m. f. drives them. The current is
directly proportional to the e. m. f. In addition to traveling through solids,
however, the electric current can flow through liquids as well and even through
gases. In both cases it produces some most important effects to meet industrial
requirements.
Some liquids, such as melted metals for example, conduct current with- out
any change to themselves. Others, called electrolytes, are found to change
greatly when the current passes through them.
When the electrons flow in one direction only, the current is known to be
d.c., that is, direct current. The simplest source of power for the direct cur- rent
is a battery, for a battery pushes the electrons in the same direction all the
time (i.e., from the negatively charged terminal to the positively charged
terminal).
The letters a. c. stand for alternating current. The current under consideration
flows first in one direction and then in the opposite one. The a. c. used for
power and lighting purposes is assumed to go through 50 cycles in one second.

77
One of the great advantages of a. c. is the ease with which power at low
voltage can be changed into an almost similar amount of power at high volt-
age and vice versa. Hence, on the one hand alternating voltage is increased
when it is necessary for long-distance transmission and, on the other hand, one
can decrease it to meet industrial requirements as well as to operate various
devices at home.
Although there are numerous cases when d. c. is required, at least 90 percent of
electrical energy to be generated at present is a. c. In fact, it finds wide
application for lighting, heating, industrial, and some other purposes.

VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR EXERCISE

3. Choose the right option (A–C) for every question (1–10).

When the load power factor is unity, corresponding to a purely 1
load, both wattmeters 2 the same wattage. In fact, both of them
should read positive; if one of the wattmeters has a below-zero 3 in
the laboratory, an upscale deflection 4 obtained by simply 5
the loads of either the current or the potential coil of the wattmeter. The sum of
the wattmeter readings 6 the total power absorbed by the load. At
zero power factor, corresponding to a purely reaction load, both wattmeters
7 again have the same wattage indication but with the opposite signs,
so that their 8 sum will yield zero power absorbed, as it should. The
9 from a negative to a positive value occurs when the load power
factor is 0.5 (i.e., φ is equal to 60°). At this power factor, one wattmeter reads
zero while the other one reads the total real power 10 to the load.

1. a. resist b. resistant c. resistivity

2. a. will indicate b. is indicated c. did indicate
3. a. indicate b. indication c. indicative
4. a. would b. could c. can be
5. a. reverse b. reversing c. be reversed
6. a. gives b. give c. given
7. a. will b. be c. is
8. a. algebraically b. algebra c. algebraic
9. a. transitory b. transition c. transitive
10. a. delivered b. deliver c. delivery

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WRITING

5. Read the text and write an abstract. The length of the abstract is
100–120 words.

LIMITATIONS
The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line is limited. The
origins of the limits vary depending on the length of the line. For a short line,
the heating of conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much
current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors
and equipment may be damaged by overheating. For intermediate- length lines
on the order of 100 km (62 mi), the limit is set by the voltage drop in the line.
For longer AC lines, system stability sets the limit to the power that can be
transferred. Approximately, the power flowing over an AC line is proportional
to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and current at the receiving and
transmitting ends. Since this angle varies depending on

79
system loading and generation, it is undesirable for the angle to approach 90
degrees.
Very approximately, the allowable product of line length and maximum load is
proportional to the square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or phase-
shifting transformers are used on long lines to improve stability. High- voltage
direct current lines are restricted only by thermal and voltage drop limits, since
the phase angle is not material to their operation.
Up to now, it has been almost impossible to foresee the temperature
distribution along the cable route, so that the maximum applicable current load
was usually set as a compromise between understanding of operation
conditions and risk minimization. The availability of industrial Distributed
Temperature Sensing (DTS) systems that measure in real time temperatures all
along the cable is a first step in monitoring the transmission system capacity.
This monitoring solution is based on using passive optical fibers as
temperature sensors, either integrated directly inside a high voltage cable or
mounted externally on the cable insulation.
A solution for overhead lines is also available. In this case the optical fiber is
integrated into the core of a phase wire of overhead transmission lines (OPPC).
The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR) or also called Real Time
Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution enables not only to continuously monitor the
temperature of a high voltage cable circuit in real time, but to safely utilize the
existing network capacity to its maximum. Furthermore it provides the ability
to the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system upon major
changes made to its initial operating conditions.

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READING
Text 1
1. Read the text, and match the questions (A–F) to the numbered spaces
(1–6).
A. What are the transmission networks designed for?
B. Who administrates the transmission networks?
C. What does the transmission efficiency depend on?
D. How is the change in voltage usually achieved?
E. What is a transmission grid?
F. What is the most cost-effective number of wires?

1. These networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit

breakers, switches and transformers. The transmission network is usually
administered on a regional basis by an entity such as a regional transmission
organization or transmission system operator.
2. A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission cir-
cuits, and substations. Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with three-
phase AC. Single phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it
is not usable for large polyphase induction motors.
3. Engineers design transmission networks to transport the energy as ef-
ficiently as feasible, while at the same time taking into account economic fac-
tors, network safety and redundancy.
4. In the 19th century, two-phase transmission was used but required ei-
ther three wires with unequal currents or four wires. Higher order phase sys-
tems require more than three wires, but deliver marginal benefits.
5. Transmission efficiency is hugely improved by devices that increase
the voltage, and proportionately reduce the current in the conductors, thus
keeping the power transmitted nearly equal to the power input. The reduced
current flowing through the line reduces the losses in the conductors. Accord-
ing to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of the
current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of 2 will lower the energy lost
to conductor resistance by a factor of 4.
6. This change in voltage is usually achieved in AC circuits using a
step- up transformer. HVDC systems require relatively costly conversion
equip- ment which may be economically justified for particular projects, but
are less common currently.

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Text 2

2. Read the text and decide whether the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. The capital cost of electric power stations is not very high.
2. Electricity is usually produced locally.
3. The power can flow even if some links are inoperative.
4. Base load is the unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of
the electric demand.
5. Base load is generally served best by large facilities.
6. Renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and
tidal are also considered «base load».
7. The remaining power demand, if any, is supplied by peaking power plants.
8. Power plants are typically bigger, faster-responding, and higher cost
sources, such as combined cycle or combustion turbine plants fuelled by
natural gas.

The capital cost of electric power stations is so high, and electric de-mand is
so variable, that it is often cheaper to import some portion of the needed power
than to generate it locally. Because nearby loads are often correlated (hot
weather in the Southwest portion of the US might cause many people to use air
conditioners), electricity often comes from distant sources. Because of the
economics of load balancing, wide area transmission grids now span across
countries and even large portions of continents. The web of interconnections
between power producers and consumers ensures that power can flow, even if
a few links are inoperative.
The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric
demand is known as the base load and is generally served best by large
facilities (which are therefore efficient due to economies of scale) with low
variable costs for fuel and operations. Such facilities might be nuclear or coal-
fired power stations, or hydroelectric, while other renewable energy sources
such as concentrated solar thermal and geothermal powers have the potential to
provide base load power. Renewable energy sources such as solar
photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal are, due to their intermittency, not
considered «base load» but can still add power to the grid. The remaining
power demand, if any, is supplied by peaking power plants, which are typically
smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as combined cycle
or combustion turbine plants fuelled by natural gas.

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GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY EXERCISE
3. Choose the right option (A–C) for every question (1–10).

FARADAY’S LAW
MICHEL FARADAY was a great British physicist, the founder of the
1 of electron field, a member of the London Royal Society. He
2 born in London in the family of a smith. Spending a few years in the primary
school, he continued his studies all by himself, reading books and listening
public 3. Greatly impressed by lectures of a well-known English
4 H. Davy, he sent him a letter asking for a job at the Royal Institute.
In 1813 Davy 5 him a job of a laboratory assistant. Thanks to the bril-
liant talent of an 6, Faraday soon made himself known. All his
future
7 work was carried out in the Royal Institute laboratories.
Faraday's law 8 formulated as follows:
(a) the induced E.M.F. in a 9 is proportional to the rate at
which the conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force;
(b) The induced E.M.F. in a circuit is 10 to the rate of change
of the rate of change of the number of lines of force threading the circuit.

1. a. theory b. theoretical c. theoretic

2. a. be b. was c. been
3. a. course books b. lectures c. libraries
4. a. chemistry b. chemical c. chemist
5. a. gave b. given c. giving
6. a. experience b. experiment c. experimenter
7. a. scientific b. science c. scientifically
8. a. have b. is c. are
9. a. conductor b. conduct c. conducting
10. a. proportion b. portion c. proportional

WRITING

5. Read the text and write an abstract. The length of the abstract is
100–120 words.

LOAD BALANCING
The transmission system provides for base load and peak load capability, with
safety and fault tolerance margins. The peak load times vary by region largely
due to the industry mix. In very hot and very cold climates home air
conditioning and heating loads have an effect on the overall load. They are
typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-
mornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. This makes the
power requirements vary by the season and the time of day. Distri bution
system designs always take the base load and the peak load into consideration.
The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to
match the loads with the generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to
the load, to prevent overloading failures of the generation equipment.
Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and
they must be controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized
power generation, only local control of generation is necessary, and it involves
synchronization of the generation units, to prevent large transients and
overload conditions.
In distributed power generation the generators are geographically distributed
and the process to bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled.
The load control signals can either be sent on separate lines or on the power
lines themselves. To load balance the voltage and frequency can be used as a
signaling mechanism.
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READING

Text 1

1. Read the text, and match the questions (A–F) to the numbered spaces
(1–6).
A. What is the average loss of transmitting electricity?
B. What happens to the losses if the conductor size is reduced?
C. What is the voltage of overhead lines?
D. What measures are taken to reduce corona losses?
E. How are losses estimated?
F. What is the longest cost-effective distance between DC?

LOSSES
1. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current
by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the I2R losses by a factor of
100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the
conductor size (cross-sectional area) is reduced 10-fold to match the lower
current the I2R losses are still reduced 10-fold.
2. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between energy
produced (as reported by power plants) and energy sold to end customers; the
difference between what is produced and what is consumed constitutes
transmission and distribution losses.
3. Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy
lost to resistance, which averages around 7 %. For a given amount of power,
a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive losses in the con-
ductor.
4. The longest cost-effective distance for DC electricity was determined
to be 7 km (4,300 mi). For AC it was 4,000 km (2,500 mi), though all trans-
mission lines in use today are substantially shorter.
5. Long distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at
voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At extremely high voltages, more than 2,000 kV
between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they
can offset the lower resistance loss in the line conductors.
6. Measures to reduce corona losses include conductors having large di-
ameter; often hollow to save weight, or bundles of two or more conductors.

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Text 2

2. Read the text and decide whether the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. In an alternating current circuit, the inductance and capacitance of the
phase conductors is insignificant.
2. Reactive current causes extra losses in the transmission circuit.
3. The ratio of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is the
power factor.
4. As reactive current increases, the reactive power decreases and the power
factor decreases.
5. For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems
with high power factors.
6. For systems with low power factors, losses are equal to the systems with
high power factors.
7. To control reactive power flow for reduction of losses and stabilization of
system voltage, utilities add capacitor banks and other components.
8. Utilities don’t add capacitor banks and other components throughout the
system to control reactive power flow for reduction of losses and stabiliza-
tion of system voltage.
In an alternating current circuit, the inductance and capacitance of the phase
conductors can be significant. The currents that flow in these components of
the circuit impedance constitute reactive power, which transmits no energy to
the load. Reactive current causes extra losses in the transmission circuit. The
ratio of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is the power
factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and the
power factor decreases.
For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems with
high power factors. Utilities add capacitor banks and other components (such
as phase-shifting transformers; static VAR compensators; physical
transposition of the phase conductors; and flexible AC transmission systems,
FACTS) throughout the system to control reactive power flow for reduction of
losses and stabilization of system voltage.

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GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY EXERCISE
3. Choose the right option (A–C) for every question (1–10).

A HIGH-POWER ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION TOWER

Long-distance 1 of electricity (thousands of kilometers) is cheap
and 2, with costs of US$0.005–0.02/kWh (compared to annual aver-
aged large 3 costs of US$0.01–0.025/kWh, retail rates upwards of
US$0.10/kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous 4 at the
highest demand moments). Thus distant 5 can be 6 than lo-
cal sources (e.g., New York City buys a lot of 7 from Canada). Mul-
tiple local sources (even if more expensive and 8 used) can
9 the transmission grid more fault tolerant to weather and other dis-
asters that can 10 distant suppliers.

1. a. transmit b. transmitted c. transmission

2. a. efficient b. efficiency c. efficiently
3. a. production b. product c. produce
4. a. supplied b. suppliers c. suppliant
5. a. suppliers b. supply c. supplied
6. a. cheap b. cheaper c. cheapest
7. a. electrically b. electrical c. electricity
8. a. frequently b. frequent c. frequency
9. a. made b. making c. make
10. a. connection b. connect c. connected

WRITING

5. Read the text and write an abstract. The length of the abstract is 100–
120 words.
Operators of long transmission lines require reliable communications for
control of the power grid and, often, associated generation and distribution
facilities. Fault-sensing protective relays at each end of the line must com-
municate to monitor the flow of power into and out of the protected line sec-
tion so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and
the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from
short circuits and other faults is usually so critical that common carrier tele-
communications are insufficiently reliable, and in remote areas a common
carrier may not be available. Communication systems associated with a
transmission project may use:
 Microwaves;
 Power line communication;
 Optical fibers.
Rarely, and for short distances, a utility will use pilot-wires strung along the
transmission line path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred
since availability is not under control of the electric power transmission
organization.

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Transmission lines can also be used to carry data: this is called power- line
carrier, or PLC. PLC signals can be easily received with a radio for the long
wave range.
Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission
line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as optical ground
wire (OPGW). Sometimes a standalone cable is used, all-dielectric self-
supporting (ADSS) cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms.
Some jurisdictions, such as Minnesota, prohibit energy transmission
companies from selling surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a tele-
communications common carrier. Where the regulatory structure permits, the
utility can sell capacity in extra dark fibers to a common carrier, providing
another revenue stream.

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READING
Text 1

1. Read the text, and match the questions (A–F) to the numbered spaces
(1–6).

A. What is HDVC used for?

B. What current is used for long distance transmissions?
C. Why DC is more cost-effective than AC?
D. What is the maximum length when AC can be applied?
E. What is the length of submarine connect?
F. What is the relation of the power transmitted by an AC line to the phase
angle between source end voltage?
1. When electrical energy is required to be transmitted over very long
distances, it is more economical to transmit using direct current instead of al-
ternating current.
2. Many submarine cable connections – up to 600 km length – are in use
nowadays.
3. High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts
of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous
grids.
4. The power transmitted by an AC line increases as the phase angle be-
tween source end voltage and destination ends increases, but too great a
phase angle will allow the generators at either end of the line to fall out of
step. A DC link stabilizes the AC grids at either end, since power flow and
phase angle can be controlled independently.
5. For a long transmission line, the lower losses and reduced construc-
tion cost of a DC line can offset the additional cost of converter stations at
each end. Also, at high AC voltages, significant (although economically ac-
ceptable) amounts of energy are lost due to corona discharge.
6. HVDC is also used for long submarine cables because over about 30
km length AC can no longer be applied. In that case special high voltage
cables for DC are built.

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Text 2

2. Read the text and decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. Adjustment of the flow of AC power with the relative phase of three elec-
trical grids is everyday occurrence in AC systems.
2. To adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between Seattle and
Boston would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two electrical
grids.
3. Adjusting the flow of AC power is an everyday occurrence in AC systems.
4. If one of AC system components fails it places sudden loads on a remain-
ing working grid system.
5. With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would convert AC in
Seattle into HVDC.
6. With an HVDC line, such an interconnection would not convert the HVDC
to locally synchronized AC in Boston
7. Such a system would be less prone to cascade failures if part of it were
suddenly shut down.
8. There is no prominent example of such a transmission line in the Western
United States.

AC POWER
To adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between Seattle and
Boston would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two electrical
grids. This is an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can
occasionally fail when AC system components fail and place sudden loads on a
remaining working grid system.
With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would convert AC in
Seattle into HVDC, use HVDC for the three thousand miles of cross country
transmission then convert the HVDC to locally synchronized AC in Boston, and
optionally in other cooperating cities along the transmission route. Such a system
would be less prone to cascade failures if part of it were suddenly shut down.
One prominent example of such a transmission line is the Pacific DC Intertie
located in the Western United States.

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GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY EXERCISE
3. Choose the right option (A–C) for every question (1–10).

MAIN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A D. C. MACHINE

A direct-current machine consists of two main parts, a stationary part, usually
called the stator, designed mainly for producing a magnetic flux, and a
rotating part, called the armature or the rotor. The stationary and rotating parts
should 1 separated from each other by an air-gap. The station-
ary part of a d.c. machine 2 of main poles, designed to create the
main magnetic flux; commutating poles interposed between the main poles;
and a frame. It should be noted here that sparkless 3 of the machine
would be impossible without the commutating poles. Thus, they should en-
sure sparkless operation of the brushes at the 4.
The main pole consists of a laminated core the end of which facing the
armature carries a pole shoe and a field coil through which direct current
5. The armature is a cylindrical body rotating in the 6 be-
tween the poles and comprising a slotted armature core, a winding inserted in
the armature slots, a commutator, and a brush gear.
The 7 is the stationary part of the machine to which are fixed the
main and commutating poles and by means of which the machine is bolted to
its bedplate. The ring shaped portion which 8 as the path for the main
and commutating pole fluxes is called the yoke. End-shields or frame-heads
which carry the bearings are also 9 to the frame.
Of these main structural elements of the machine the yoke, the pole cores, the
armature core and the air-gap between the armature core and the pole core are
known to form the magnetic circuit while the pole coils, the ar- mature
windings, the commutator and brushes should 10 the electric
circuit of the machine.

1. a. be b. can c. been
2. a. consists b. contain c. includes
3. a. operating b. operate c. operation
4. a. commute b. commuter c. commutator
5. a. pass b. passes c. passed
6. a. space b. spacious c. spacing
7. a. frameless b. frame c. framed
8. a. serves b. serve c. server
9. a. attach b. attachment c. attached
10. a. formed b. form c. formation

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WRITING
5. Read the text and write an abstract. The length of the abstract is
100–120 words.

GENERATORS
The powerful, highly efficient generators and alternators that are in use today
operate on the same principle as the dynamo invented by the great Eng lish
scientist Faraday in 1831.
Dynamo-electric machines are used to supply light, heat and power on a large
scale. These are the machines that produce more than 99.99 per cent of the
entire world's electric power.
There are two types of dynamos – the generator and the alternator. The former
supplies d. c. which is similar to the current from a battery and the latter
provides a. c. To generate electricity both of them must be continuously
provided with energy from some outside source of mechanical energy such as
steam engines, steam turbines or water turbines.
A generator is an electric machine, which converts mechanical energy into
electric energy. There are direct-current (d. c.) generators and alternating-
current (a. c.) generators. Their construction is much alike. A d. c. generator
consists of stationary and rotating elements. The stationary elements are: the
yoke or the frame and the field structure. The yoke forms the closed circuit for
the magnetic flux. The function of the magnetic structure is to pro- duce the
magnetic field.
The rotating elements are: true armature and the commutator. They are on the
same shaft. The armature consists of the core and the winding. The winding is
connected to the commutator. With the help of the brushes on the commutator
that conduct the electric current to the line the winding is connected to the
external circuit. The stationary element of an a. c. generator is called a stator.
The rotating element is called a rotor.
The essential difference between a d. c. generator and a. c. generator is that the
former has a commutator by means of which the generated e. m. f. is made
continuous, i. e. the commutator mechanically rectifies the alternating
e.m. f. so that it is always of the same polarity.
D. c. generators are used for electrolytic processes such as electroplating.
Large d. c. generators are employed in such manufacturing processes as steel
making. The d. c. generator of small capacities is used for various special
purposes such as arc welding, automobile generators, train lighting systems,
etc. It also finds rather extensive use in connection with communication
systems.

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