Essentials of MIS, 11e

Laudon & Laudon

Lecture Notes

Chapter 6 Foundations of Business Intelligence: Database and Information

Management
Information is becoming as important a business resource as money, material, and people. Just because a
company collects millions of pieces of data, doesn’t mean it can produce information that is of any use to its
employees, suppliers, and customers. Successful businesses realize the competitive advantage they gain by
producing useful information, not just data.

6.1 The Database Approach to Data Management

Why should you learn about organizing data? Because it’s almost inevitable that someday you will establish or
at least work with a database of some kind. Digital databases make it easy, fast, and efficient to relate pieces of
data together to compile useful information.

As with anything else, understanding the lingo is the first step to understanding the whole concept of managing
and maintaining information.

Entities and Attributes

An entity is basically any person, place, thing, or event on which we maintain information. Each characteristic
or quality describing an entity is called an attribute. In the table below, each column describes a characteristic
(attribute) of John Jones’ (who is the entity) address.

First Name Last Name Street City State Zip Telephone

John Jones 111 Main St Center City Ohio 22334 555-123-6666

Organizing Data in a Relational Database

A relational database stores data in tables. The data are then extracted and combined into whatever form or
format the user needs. The tables are sometimes called files, although that is actually a misnomer, because you
can have multiple tables in one file.

Data in each table are broken down into fields. A field, or column, contains a single attribute for an entity. A
group of fields is stored in a record or tuple (the technical term for record). Figure 6.1 shows the composition
of a relational database table.

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Figure 6.1: A Relational Database Table

Each record requires a key field, or unique identifier. The best example of this is your social security number:
there is only one per person. That explains in part why so many companies and organizations ask for your social
security number when you do business with them.

In a relational database, each table contains a primary key, a unique identifier for each record. To make sure
the tables relate to one another, the primary key from one table is stored in a related table as a foreign key. For
instance, in the customer table below the primary key is the unique customer ID. That primary key is then
stored in the order table as the foreign key so that the two tables have a direct relationship.

Customer Table Order Table

Field Name Description Field Name Description
Customer Name Self-Explanatory Order Number Primary Key
Customer Address Self-Explanatory Order Item Self-Explanatory
Customer ID Primary Key Number of Items Ordered Self-Explanatory
Order Number Foreign Key Customer ID Foreign Key

Suppose you decide to create a database for your newspaper delivery business. In order to succeed, you need to
keep accurate, useful information for each of your customers. You set up a database to maintain the
information. For each customer, you create a record. Within each record you have the following fields:
customer name, address, ID number, date last paid. Smith, Jones, and Brooks are the records within a file you
decide to call Paper Delivery. The entities then are Smith, Jones, and Brooks, the people about whom you are
maintaining information. The attributes are customer name, address, ID number, and date last paid. The key
field in this file is the ID number; perhaps you’ll use the customer’s phone number because it will be unique for
each record. This is a very simplistic example of a database table, but it should help you understand the
terminology.

There are two important points you should remember about creating and maintaining relational database tables.
First, you should ensure that attributes for a particular entity apply only to that entity. That is, you would not
include fields in the customer record that apply to products the customer orders. Fields relating to products
would be in a separate table. Second, you want to create the smallest possible fields for each record. For
instance, you would create separate fields for a customer’s first name and last name rather than a single field for
the entire name. It makes it easier to sort and manipulate the records later when you are creating reports.

Wrong way:

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Name Address Telephone number
John L. Jones 111 Main St Center City Ohio 22334 555-123-6666

Right way:

First Name Middle Initial Last Name Street City State Zip Telephone
John L. Jones 111 Main St Center City Ohio 22334 555-123-6666

Establishing Relationships

Determine the relationships between each data element that you currently have using an entity-relationship
diagram. The data don’t necessarily have to be in a computer for you to consider the impact. Determine which
data elements work best together and how you will organize them in tables. Break your groups of data into as
small a unit as possible. Even when you think it’s as small as it can get, go back through it again just to make
sure. Decide what the key identifier will be for each record.

There are three possible types of entity relationships:

1. One-to-one: each record in one table has only one related record in another table.
2. One-to-many: each record in one table can relate to multiple records in other tables.
3. Many-to-many: multiple records in one table can relate to multiple records in other tables.

If you use a many-to-many relationship you’ll need to create a join table or intersection relation to bring the
tables together in an orderly fashion. That is, you’ll take a single field from one table, a single field from
another table, and create a third table that joins the first two fields together.

We mentioned before that you want to create the smallest fields possible. You also want to avoid redundancy
between tables. You do not want to have two tables storing a customer’s name. That makes it more difficult to
keep data properly organized and updated. What would happen if you changed the customer’s name in one table
and forgot to change it in the second table? Minimizing redundancy and increasing the stability and flexibility
of databases is called normalization.

Your goals for creating a good data model are:

 Including all entities and the relationships among them

 Organizing data to minimize redundancy
 Maximizing data accuracy
 Making data easily accessible

Whichever relationship type you use, you need to make sure the relationship remains consistent by enforcing
referential integrity. That is, if you create a table that points to another table, you must add corresponding
records to both tables.

Bottom Line: Creating relational databases that meet users’ needs is extremely important to help ensure
a business’s success. Relational databases provide a business with an easy way to manage its data.
Managers and workers must know and understand how databases are constructed so they know how to
use the information resource to their advantage.

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5.2 Database Management Systems
You’ve heard the old saying, “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.” When it comes to data, just the opposite is
true. You want to put all your corporate data in one system that will serve the organization as a whole. Doing so
makes it easier, cheaper, and more efficient to use the data across the entire organization. Consolidated
databases make it easier to use the data in applications and make data available through many different delivery
methods.

A database management system (DBMS) is basically a software program such as Microsoft Access for
desktop computing or Oracle Database built for larger computing systems. The software permits an
organization to centralize data, manage them efficiently, and provide easy access to the stored data by
authorized users.

Physical views of data are often different from the logical views of the same data. Physical views describe how
the data are actually arranged on storage media and are important to programmers who must manipulate the
data as they are physically stored in the database.

Logical views describe how end users see and use the data. For instance, assume you store tablets of paper in
your lower-right desk drawer. You store your pencils in the upper-left drawer. When it comes time to write your
request for a pay raise, you pull out the paper and pencil and put them together on your desktop. It isn’t
important to the task at hand where the items were stored physically; you are concerned with the logical idea of
the two items coming together to help you accomplish the task.

Operations of a Relational DBMS

Use these three basic operations to extract data from a relational database:

 Select: create a subset of records meeting the stated criteria

 Join: combine related tables to provide more information than individual tables
 Project: create a new table from subsets of previous tables

Capabilities of Database Management Systems

A DBMS has three components, all of them important for the long-term success of a system.

Data definition capability. Marketing looks at customer addresses differently from shipping, so you must
make sure that all database users are speaking the same language. Think of it this way: marketing is speaking
French, production is speaking German, and human resources is speaking Japanese. They are all saying the
same thing, but it’s very difficult for them to understand one another. Creating the data definition language
itself sometimes gets shortchanged. The programmers who are creating the language sometimes say “Hey, an
address is an address, so what.” That’s when it becomes critical to involve users in the development of the data
definition language.

Data dictionary. Each data element or field should be carefully analyzed when the database is first built or as
elements are later added. Determine what each element will be used for, who will be the primary user, and how
it fits into the overall scheme of things. Then write it all down and make it easily available to all users. This is
one of the most important steps in creating a good database.

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Why is it so important to document the data dictionary? Let’s say Suzy, who was in on the initial design and
building of the database, moves on and Joe takes her place. It may not be so apparent to him what all the data
elements really mean, and he can easily make mistakes from not knowing or understanding the correct use of
the data. He will apply his own interpretation, which may or may not be correct.

Users and programmers should consult the data dictionary to determine what data elements are available before
they create new ones that are the same or similar to those already in the data dictionary. This can eliminate data
redundancy and inconsistency.

Querying and Reporting

A data manipulation language is a formal language used to add, delete, change, and extract data in a database.
Data manipulation languages are getting easier to use and more prevalent. SQL (Structured Query Language)
is the most prominent language and is now embedded in desktop applications such as Microsoft Access.

In addition to SQL, database management systems include report generators. These tools help users create
more structured data displays than simple queries. For instance, if you run a query to determine how many
customers on your paper route pay on time, you’ll find out that 15 percent of them do. A report generator helps
you display the results in context to the query you ran.

The biggest problem with databases is the misconception that every data element should be stored in the same
table. In fact, each data element should be analyzed in relation to other data elements, with the goal of making
the tables as small in size as possible. The ideal relational database will have many small tables, not one big
one. On the surface that may seem like extra work and effort, but by keeping tables small, they can serve a
wider audience because they are more flexible. This setup is especially helpful in reducing redundancy and
increasing the usefulness of data.

Non-Relational Databases and Databases in the Cloud

Relational databases will serve your company well if all your data can be neatly tucked into rows and columns.
Unfortunately, much of the data a business wants to access aren’t structured like that. Data are now stored in
text messages, social media postings, maps, and the like. Non-relational database management systems are
better at managing large data set on distributed computing networks. They can easily be scaled up or down
depending on the particular needs of your business at a particular time.

Cloud Databases

Cloud computing service companies provide a way for you to manage your company’s data through Internet
access using a Web browser. At the present time you may not be able to create a sophisticated relational
database management system but it won’t be long before it’s a standard service for organizations of all sizes.
Pricing for cloud-based database services are predicated upon:

 Usage—small databases cost less than larger ones

 Volume of data stored
 Number of input-output requests
 Amount of data written to the database
 Amount of data read from the database

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Small- and medium-size businesses can benefit from using cloud-based databases by not having to maintain
the information technology infrastructure needed to establish a local database. Large businesses can benefit
from the services by using it as an adjunct to their onsite database and moving peak usage to the cloud.

Bottom Line: Database management systems (DBMS) have three critical components: the data definition
language, the data manipulation language, and the data dictionary. Managers should ensure that all
three receive attention and that end users are fully involved in developing organizational databases.

6.3 Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making

Corporations and businesses go to great lengths to collect and store information on their suppliers and
customers. What they haven’t done a good job of in the past is fully using the data to take advantage of new
products or markets. They’re trying, though, as we see in this section.

The Challenge of Big Data

Just a bit ago, we talked about how much of the data businesses want to collect, store, process, and use are no
longer sorted neatly and easily into rows, columns, and tables. Email messages, text messages, tweets, and even
output from large mainframe computers that process huge amounts of data, now contain information companies
and managers are looking for. Postings to Facebook and LinkedIn contain data that can be useful to businesses
if they are able to turn it into useful information.

The term big data is used to describe those kinds of data that cannot be stored and process in typical database
management systems. Although the term isn’t meant to describe the quantity of data, it does reach into the
exabyte and petabyte range. Companies want and need to capture, store, process, and generate information from
big data because it shows patterns in business transactions and processes that may be useful to executives and
managers.

Business Intelligence Infrastructure

Businesses collect millions of pieces of data. Using the right tools, a business can use its data to develop
effective competitive strategies that we discussed in previous chapters. Rather than guessing about which
products or services are your best sellers, business intelligence provides concrete methods of analyzing exactly
what customers want and how best to supply them.

Three benefits of using business intelligence include:

 Capability to amass information

 Develop knowledge about customers, competitors, and internal operations
 Change decision-making behavior to achieve higher profitability

Many times businesses store data in separate systems even though they’ve made great strides in migrating
everything into one large database. In some cases the data are structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
Somehow, all that has to come together at some point using appropriate tools and technologies. How to do that
effectively and efficiently is what we’ll look at now.

Data Warehouses and Data Marts

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As organizations want and need more information about their company, their products, and their customers,
the concept of data warehousing has become very popular. Remember those islands of information we keep
talking about? Unfortunately, too many of them have proliferated over the years and now companies are trying
to rein them in by using data warehousing.

No, data warehouses are not great big buildings with shelves and shelves of bits and bytes stored on them. They
are huge computer files that store old and new data about anything and everything that a company wants to
maintain information on. Data come from a variety of sources, both internal and external to the organization.
They are then stored together in a data warehouse from which they can be accessed and analyzed to fit the
user’s needs.

Since a data warehouse can be cumbersome because of its size and sheer volume of data, a company can break
the information into smaller groups called data marts. It’s easier and cheaper to sort through data marts that
tend to be more focused on a particular subject. It’s still useful to have a huge data warehouse, though, so that
information is available to everyone who wants or needs it. You can let the user determine how the data will be
manipulated and used.

Using data warehouses and data marts correctly can give management a tremendous amount of information that
can be used to trim costs, reduce inventory, put products in the right stores at the right time, attract new
customers, or keep old customers happy.

Hadoop

For the kinds of data we discussed earlier that don’t fit neatly into rows, columns, and tables, a new technology
called Hadoop is better for handling unstructured and semi-structured big data. Hadoop is an open-source
software framework that uses distributed parallel processing across a network of small computers.

The software takes huge data set problems into smaller subsets, sends the subsets to the smaller computers for
processing, and then gathers the results back into a data set that is analyzed. There are two main components of
the system:

 Hadoop Distributed File Sytem used for data storage

 MapReduce for high-performance parallel data processing

In-Memory Computing

Typically, database management systems rely on disk-based storage. When it comes times to process the data,
they are accessed from the disk storage, brought into the computer’s main memory (RAM), and then moved
back again. Not only does it take a long time to move the data back and forth and process it, bottlenecks often
occur in the system.

In-memory computing eliminates the bottlenecks and the data movement time by moving all the data at once
into the computer’s main RAM memory and processes it all at once. That’s only possible because of the
advances in chip technology, multicore processing, and lower prices for main memory.

Analytic Platforms

Preconfigured hardware-software systems specifically designed for query processing and analytics are now
available for both relational and non-relational datasets. These analytic platforms include in-memory systems

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and non-relational database management systems. They are just one part of the overall business intelligence
infrastructure shown in Figure 6.12 below

Figure 6.12 Contemporary Business Intelligence Infrastructure

Analytical Tools: Relationships, Patterns, Trends

Once all the data are captured, stored, and processed, hopefully a business will do something with it. The
technologies in the following sections will tell you how to turn it into useful information.

Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)

As technology improves, so does our ability to manipulate information maintained in databases. Have you ever
played with a Rubiks Cube—one of those little multicolored puzzle boxes you can twist around and around to
come up with various color combinations? That’s a close analogy to how multidimensional data analysis or
online analytical processing (OLAP) works. In theory, it’s easy to change data around to fit your needs.

Figure 6.13: Multidimensional Data Model

Data Mining

Data mining technology allows a digital firm to get more information than ever before from its data. One
danger in data mining is the problem of getting information that on the surface may seem meaningful, but when
put into context of the organization’s needs, simply doesn’t provide any useful information.

For instance, data mining can tell you that on a hot summer day in the middle of Texas, more bottled water is
sold in convenience stores than in grocery stores. That’s information managers can use to make sure more stock
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is targeted to convenience stores. Data mining could also reveal that when customers purchase white socks,
they also purchase bottled water 62 percent of the time. We seriously doubt there is any correlation between the
two purchases. The point is that you need to beware of using data mining as a sole source of decision-making
and make sure your requests are as focused as possible.

These are the five types of information managers can obtain from data mining:

 Associations: determine occurrences linked to a single event

 Sequences: determine events that are linked over time
 Classification: discover characteristics of customers and make predictions about their behavior
 Clustering: discover groups within data
 Forecasting: use existing values to forecast what other values will be

Many companies collect lots of data about their business and customers. The most difficult part has been to turn
that data into useful information. Firms are using better data mining techniques to target customers and
suppliers with just the right information at the right time.

For instance, based on past purchases, Chadwick’s clothing retailer determines that a customer is more likely to
purchase casual clothing than formal wear at certain times of the year. Based on its predictive analysis, the
retailer then tailors its sales offers to meet that expected behavior.

Interactive Session: Organizations: Business Intelligence Helps the Cincinnati Zoo Know Its Customers
(see p. 204 of the text) describes how an organization can use BI tools to better understand its customers
and in turn maximize profits and effectively use its resources.

Text Mining and Web Mining

Much of the data created that might be useful to businesses is stored not in databases but in text-based
documents. Word files, emails, call center transcripts, and services reports contain valuable data that managers
can use to assess operations and help make better decisions about the organization. Unfortunately, there has not
been an easy way to mine those documents until recently. Text mining tools help scrub text files to find data or
to discern patterns and relationships.

It’s quite possible you’ve read comments left by others on Facebook pages, at the end of news stories, and even
entire Web sites dedicated to specific causes. Sometimes those comments and postings are favorable to a
business and sometimes they aren’t. Either way, companies want to know how their customers feel about them
and they can through sentiment analysis. Smart companies use the analysis to improve customer interfaces or
solve problems they otherwise wouldn’t have known exist.

Because so much business is taking place over the Web, businesses are trying to mine data from it also. There
are three categories of Web mining processes:

 Web content mining: extract knowledge from the content of Web pages—text, images, audio, and
video
 Web structure mining: data related to the structure of a Web site—links between documents
 Web usage mining: user interaction data recorded by Web servers—user behavior on a Web site

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One Web site, Gilt.com, sells designer clothes and other high-end items online to “members only.” It
showcases overstocked inventory from major brands at 60 to 70 percent discounts. Here’s what the CEO, Susan
Lyne says about the company’s Web mining efforts:

We have an enormous amount of data about our customers. We know not only what you buy, we
know every sale you visited, every item you clicked on, anything you tried to add to your cart,
anything you wait-listed. We give all this information to the brands. And we use it, too, of
course. We say, “We want more of that.” We take the brands’ excess, yes. But they also make
more [of what we request] or they make specific items for us. (BusinessWeek, “Facetime: Susan
Lyne on Gilt.com’s Pleasures and Pressures,” Berfield, Susan, Dec 14, 2009)

Databases and the Web

Web browsers are far easier to use than most of the query languages associated with the other programs on
mainframe computer systems. Companies realize how easy it is to provide employees, customers, and suppliers
with Web-based access to databases rather than creating proprietary systems. It’s also proving cheaper to create
“front-end” browser applications that can more easily link information from disparate systems than to try to
combine all the systems on the “back-end”. That is, you link internal databases to the Web through software
programs that provide a connection to the database without major reconfigurations. A database server, which
is a special dedicated computer, maintains the DBMS. A software program, called an application server,
processes the transactions and offers data access. A user making an inquiry through the Web server can connect
to the organization’s database and receive information in the form of a Web page.

Figure 6.14 shows how servers provide the interface between the database and the Web.

Figure 6.14: Linking Internal Databases to the Web

The benefits of using a Web browser to access a database include:

 Ease-of-use
 Less training for users
 No changes to the internal database
 Allows a business to keep its old legacy system instead of replacing it
 Cheaper than building a new system from scratch
 Creating new efficiencies and opportunities
 Provide employees with integrated firm-wide views of information

Bottom Line: There are many ways to manipulate databases so that an organization can save money and
still have useful information. With technological improvements companies don’t have to continually start
from scratch but can blend the old with the new when they want to update their systems. The Web is the
perfect delivery vehicle for databases and is cheaper than building proprietary systems.
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6.4 Managing Data Resources

At the beginning we said that as many users as possible should be brought together to plan the database. We
believed it so much then that we’ll say it again here. By excluding groups of users in the planning stages, no
matter how insignificant that group may seem, a company courts trouble.

Establishing an Information Policy

No one part of the organization should feel that it owns information to the exclusivity of other departments or
people in the organization. A certain department may have the primary responsibility for updating and
maintaining the data, but that department still has to share the information across the whole company. Well-
written information policies outline the rules for using this important resource, including how it will be shared,
maintained, distributed, and updated.

Ask any manager what her resources are and she’s likely to list people, equipment, buildings, and money. Very
few managers will include information on the list, yet it can be more valuable than some of the others. A data
administration function, reporting to senior management, emphasizes the importance of this resource. This
function helps define and structure the information requirements for the entire organization to ensure it receives
the attention it deserves.

Data administration is responsible for:

 Developing information policies

 Planning for data
 Overseeing logical database design
 Developing data dictionaries
 Monitoring the usage of data by techies and non-techies

Change isn’t just something you experience by chance; in all likelihood, it will be required throughout the
corporate structure. You need to get the non-techies talking and working with the techies, preferably together in
a group that is responsible for database administration. Users will take on more responsibility for accessing
data on their own through query languages if they understand the structure of the database. Users need to
understand the role they play in treating information as an important corporate resource. Not only will they
require a user-friendly structure for the database, but they will also need lots of training and hand-holding up
front. It will pay off in the long run.

Ensuring Data Quality

Let’s bring the problem of poor data quality close to home. What if the person updating your college records
fails to record your grade correctly for this course and gives you a D instead of a B or an A? What if your
completion of this course isn’t even recorded? Because of the bad data, you could lose your financial aid or
perhaps get a rather nasty email from Mom and Dad. Think of the time and difficulty getting the data corrected.

We’ve spoken about “islands of information” before. Building and maintaining databases is where this situation
is most evident and most troublesome. Usually it begins in all innocence, but it can quickly grow to monstrous
proportions.

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For instance, after you move and change addresses, you notify everyone of your new address including your
bank. Everything is going smoothly with your monthly statements. All of a sudden, at the end of the year, the
bank sends a Christmas card to your old address. Why? Because your new address was changed in one
database, but the bank maintains a separate database for its Christmas card list and your address was never
changed in it.

If you received two Christmas cards, you’re probably a victim of data redundancy. That is, your information is
now in two separate databases with duplicate records. In this instance, each database file has different data on
the same record. That can be a nightmare on Main Street!

Even more troublesome is when several departments or individuals decide to set up their own islands of
information. This usually happens because they find the main system inflexible or it just doesn’t fit their needs.
So they set up their own fields, records, and files and use them in their own programs to manipulate data
according to their needs. Now each department is spending dollars and time to establish and maintain islands of
information.

Taking this problem even further, the fields and records for marketing probably don’t have the same structure
and meaning as the fields and records for accounting, or those for production. Each record describes basically
the same entity (customers or products), but it is very possible that each database file will have different
information, or attributes, in records concerning the same entity.

All of this may happen with the best of intentions. All departments began with the goal of making their part of
the organization more efficient. Eventually these good intentions can cost big dollars to bring the islands
together, resolve data conflicts, and retrain people to understand the new database structures.

Data quality audits verify data accuracy in one of three ways:

 Survey entire data files

 Survey samples from data files
 Survey end users about their perceptions of data quality

It’s better for the company or organization to uncover poor quality data than to have customers, suppliers, or
governmental agencies uncover the problems.

Whether a company creates a single data warehouse from scratch or puts a Web-front on old, disparate,
disjointed databases, it still needs to ensure data cleansing receives the attention it should. It’s too expensive,
both monetarily and customer oriented, to leave bad data hanging around.

Interactive Session: People: American Water Keeps Data Flowing (see p. 209 of the text) discusses the
importance of users owning the data in any system. Data does not belong to the information systems
department but rather to those who will define it and use it.

Bottom Line: As with any other resource, managers must administer their data, plan their uses, and
discover new opportunities for the data to serve the organization through changing technologies. If data
quality suffers, it’s a sure bet the information obtained from that data will be of poor quality also.

Discussion Questions

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1. Describe the three capabilities of database management systems: data definition, data dictionary, and data
manipulation language. Discuss the importance of creating and using a data dictionary with a large
corporate database.

2. Discuss the importance of business intelligence as it relates to databases.

3. What do you see as the benefits of using a Web-like browser to access information from a data warehouse?

4. What advantage do non-relational databases and cloud databases provide to businesses?

5. Discuss management issues associated with databases such as information policies, data administration, data
governance, and data quality?

Answers to Discussion Questions

1. A DBMS has three capabilities: 1) data definition is the capability to specify the structure of the content of
the data. It’s used to create database tables and define the characteristics of the fields in each table; 2) the
data dictionary stores definitions of data elements and their characteristics; 3) the data manipulation
language is used to add, change, delete, and retrieve data in the database. Data dictionaries are important
because they are a lasting source of information about each data element that helps ensure the credibility
and quality of data. Dictionaries for large corporate databases should include information about usage,
ownership, authorization, security, business functions, programs, and reports that use each data element.

2. The tools available for business intelligence include database query software, multidimensional data
analysis, and data mining. Business intelligence provides firms with the capability to amass information
(data warehouses), develop knowledge about customers, competitors, and internal operations (OLAP, data
mining), and change decision-making behavior to achieve higher profitability and other business goals. The
firm’s operational databases keep track of the transactions generated by running the business. These
databases feed data to the data warehouse. Managers use business intelligence tools to find patterns and
meanings in the data. Managers then act on what they have learned from analyzing the data by making more
informed and intelligent business decisions.

3. Web browsers are easier to use than most database query languages for accessing and compiling
information. An organization can build a Web-based “front-end” to the database without having to rework
the database structure itself. No special software for users, other than a browser program, is necessary for
accessing databases attached to a Web site.

4. New types of data that don’t fit neatly into rows, columns, and tables exist in many different forms. Non-
relational databases use a more flexible data model and are designed for managing large data sets across
many distributed machines. They easily scale up or down depending on the needs of the users. Cloud-based
data management services allow start-ups or small- to medium-size businesses access to sophisticated
database processing they could not afford to develop on their own. The shared hardware and software
platforms reduce the number of servers, DBMS, and storage devices necessary for one-time or occasional
data processing projects.

5. Managers should focus on four issues regarding data resources: information policies, data administration,
data governance, and data quality. Information policies are important management tools because they
specify rules for sharing, disseminating, acquiring, standardizing, classifying, and inventorying information.
Data administration is responsible for specific policies and procedures through which data can be managed
as an organizational resource. Data governance describes the importance of creating policies and processes
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for employing data in organizations; making sure data are available and usable, have integrity, and are
secure; and, promoting data privacy, security, quality, and complying with government regulations. Data
quality audits can identify problems with faulty data and help rectify errors in the database before they
create even more management problems.

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall