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M113

CALCULUS 1

DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS
POLYNOMIAL CURVES

• TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO PLANE

CURVES
The equation of a line of slope m through the point 𝒙𝟏, 𝒚𝟏 , is
𝟏 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
POINT SLOPE FORM from ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The NORMAL to the curve at the point 𝒙𝟏, 𝒚𝟏 is defined to be

the line through that point and perpendicular to the tangent line there.

The equation of the normal is found from that of the tangent by

recalling that if two lines are perpendicular, the slope of one is the
negative reciprocal of the slope of the other.

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• TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO PLANE

CURVES
The equation of a line of slope m through the point 𝒙𝟏, 𝒚𝟏 , is
𝟏 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
POINT SLOPE FORM

1. TANGENT LINE
𝒎𝑻𝑳 = 𝒚′
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

2. NORMAL LINE
𝟏
𝒎𝑵𝑳 = −
𝒎𝑻𝑳
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

• TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO PLANE

CURVES

𝒚 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐄
𝐁

𝐂
𝐀
𝐃 𝟎 𝒙

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• TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO CIRCULAR

GRAPHS
𝒚

𝐀
𝑪(𝒙, 𝒚)
𝒙
𝟎 𝐁

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated.
𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑦=3 1 2 − 2(1) + 1 • Equation of the tangent line
𝒚=𝟐 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚TL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 𝟐 = 𝟒(𝑥 − 𝟏)
𝑦 − 2 = 4𝑥 − 4
𝑦′ = 3(𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 ) − 2𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 + 0 ∴ 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟐
𝒚′ = 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐
• Equation of the normal line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚NL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑚 = 𝑦′ = 6(1) − 2 𝟏
𝑦 − 𝟐 = − (𝑥 − 𝟏)
𝟒
∴ 𝒎 = 𝟒 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 1 1
(4) 𝑦 − 2 = − 𝑥 + (4)
𝑚𝑁𝐿 = 𝑁𝐸𝐺𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐶𝐴𝐿 4 4
4(𝑦 − 2) = −𝑥 + 1
𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝑆𝐿𝑂𝑃𝐸
4𝑦 − 8 = −𝑥 + 1
𝟏 ∴ 𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝟗
∴ 𝒎𝑵𝑳 = −
𝟒

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Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated.
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒕 (𝟎, 𝟎)
𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 + 𝟐𝑦 𝟐−𝟏 𝒚′ − 6 + 2𝒚′ = 0
2𝑦𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 ′ = −2𝑥 + 6 • Equation of the tangent line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚TL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2𝑦 ′ (𝑦 + 1) = −2𝑥 + 6 𝑦 − 𝟎 = 𝟑(𝑥 − 𝟎)
2(𝑦 + 1) 𝑦 = 3𝑥
∴ 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟎
−2𝑥 + 6
𝑦′ =
2(𝑦 + 1)
• Equation of the normal line
−2(0) + 6 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚NL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑚 = 𝑦′ = 𝟏
2(0 + 1) 𝑦 − 𝟎 = − (𝑥 − 𝟎)
𝟑
∴ 𝒎 = 𝟑 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 1
(3) 𝑦 = − 𝑥 (3)
3
𝑚𝑁𝐿 = 𝑁𝐸𝐺𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐶𝐴𝐿
3𝑦 = −𝑥
𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝑆𝐿𝑂𝑃𝐸
∴ 𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟎
𝟏
∴ 𝒎𝑵𝑳 = −
𝟑
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Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated.
𝒚 = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 1)3
𝑦 = 2(1) − 1 3
• Equation of the tangent line
𝒚=𝟏 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚TL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 𝟏 = 𝟔(𝑥 − 𝟏)
𝑦 − 1 = 6𝑥 − 6
𝑦′ = 𝟑(2𝑥 − 1)𝟑−𝟏 𝟐 ∴ 𝟔𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟓

𝒚′ = 𝟔(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 • Equation of the normal line

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚NL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2
𝟏
𝑚 = 𝑦′ = 6 2(1) − 1 𝑦 − 𝟏 = − (𝑥 − 𝟏)
𝟔
∴ 𝒎 = 𝟔 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 1 1
(6) 𝑦 − 1 = − 𝑥 + (6)
6 6
𝑚𝑁𝐿 = 𝑁𝐸𝐺𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐶𝐴𝐿
6(𝑦 − 1) = −𝑥 + 1
𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝑆𝐿𝑂𝑃𝐸 6𝑦 − 6 = −𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝒙 + 𝟔𝒚 = 𝟕
𝟏
∴ 𝒎𝑵𝑳 = −
𝟔
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Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated.
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = −𝟐
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡; 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 • Equation of the tangent line
(−2)2 −(−2)𝑦 + 2𝑦 − 2 = 0 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝐓𝐋 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝟏 𝟏 𝟕
𝒚=− 𝑦− − = (𝑥 − (−𝟐))
𝟐 𝟐 𝟖
𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 − (𝑥𝒚′ + 𝑦) + 2𝒚′ − 0 = 0 1 7 14
𝑦+ = 𝑥+
2 8 8
2𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 𝑦 + 2𝑦′ = 0 1 7 14
(8) 𝑦 + = 𝑥 + (8)
−𝑥𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 ′ = −2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 8 8
𝑦 ′ (−𝑥 + 2) = −2𝑥 + 𝑦 ∴ 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟖𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎
(−𝑥 + 2) • Equation of the normal line
−𝟐𝒙 +𝒚
𝒚′ = 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝐍𝐋 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
−𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟏 𝟖
𝑦− − = − (𝑥 − (−𝟐))
𝟏 𝟐 𝟕
−𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 −𝟐(−𝟐) + − 𝟐 1
𝑦+ =− 𝑥−
8 16
𝑚= = 2 7 7
−𝒙 + 𝟐 − −𝟐 + 𝟐
1 8 16
14 𝑦 + = − 𝑥 − (14)
𝟕 𝟖 2 7 7
∴ 𝒎= = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 ; 𝒎𝑵𝑳 = − ∴ 𝟏𝟔𝒙 + 𝟏𝟒𝒚 = −𝟑𝟗
𝟖 𝟕
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𝐒𝐓𝐄𝐏𝐒 𝐈𝐍 𝐒𝐎𝐋𝐔𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐈𝐍 𝐅𝐈𝐍𝐃𝐈𝐍𝐆 𝐄𝐐𝐍 𝐎𝐅 𝐓𝐋 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐍𝐋

𝐀𝐓 𝐀 𝐏𝐎𝐈𝐍𝐓 𝐈𝐍𝐃𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐃 𝒚

1. Define Point of Intersection 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 for the TL, NL

and the given curve
2. Solve 𝒎𝑻𝑳 by differentiating the given eqn of the curve
or
Solve 𝒎𝑻𝑳 by Point Slope Form of the TL 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟐
𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑻 𝑳𝑰𝑵𝑬
or
Solve 𝒎𝑻𝑳 by the negative reciprocal of NL by
Point Slope Form of the NL
3. Solve the eqn of TL by Point Slope form 𝒎𝑻𝑳 = 𝟒

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 ) 𝟏, 𝟐
−𝟏
𝒎𝑵𝑳 =
4. Solve the eqn of NL by Point Slope form 𝟒

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝑵𝑳 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 ) 𝒙

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟑, 𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟏)

1. Establish equations for the unknown 3. Establish point of intersection of

coefficients of the parabola line and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 :
@ (3,13)
13 = 𝑎(3)2 +𝑏(3) + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝟗𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏𝟑 − 𝟏 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃

@ (2,1) 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ′ = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 :

1 = 𝑎(2)2 +𝑏(2) + 𝑐 8 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝟒𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 − 𝟐
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
2. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎, (𝟐, 𝟏)
8𝑥 − 𝑦 = 15 8 = 2𝑎(2) + 𝑏
−𝑦 = −8𝑥 + 15 𝟒𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟖 − 𝟑
−1
𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 15
∴ 𝒎𝐓𝐋 = 𝟖

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟑, 𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟏)

𝟗𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏𝟑 −𝟏
𝟒𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 −𝟐
𝟒𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟖 −𝟑

𝒂=𝟒
𝒃 = −𝟖
𝒄=𝟏

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
∴ 𝒚 = 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟑, 𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟏)
𝟗𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏𝟑 −𝟏
𝟒𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 −𝟐
𝟒𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟖 −𝟑
𝐁𝐘 𝐄𝐋𝐈𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐒𝐔𝐁𝐒𝐓𝐈𝐓𝐔𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍:
𝟏 − 𝟐: Substitute a and 𝐛 in 𝟏 or 𝟐:
9𝑎 +3𝑏 +𝑐 = 13 9(4) + 3(−8) + 𝑐 = 13 → 𝑐 = 13 − 36 + 24
−) 4𝑎 +2𝑏 +𝑐 = 1 𝒄=𝟏
5𝑎 +𝑏 = 12 −𝟒 4(4) + 2(−8) + 𝑐 = 1 → 𝑐 = 1 − 16 + 16
𝟒 − 𝟑: 𝒄=𝟏

5𝑎 +𝑏 = 12
−) 4𝑎 +𝑏 =8 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
𝒂 =𝟒 ∴ 𝒚 = 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏
Substitute a in 𝟑 or 𝟒:
4 4 + 𝑏 = 8 → 𝑏 = 8 − 16
𝒃 = −𝟖
5 4 + 𝑏 = 12 → 𝑏 = 12 − 20
𝒃 = −𝟖

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟐, 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒂𝒕 (𝟏, 𝟔)

1. Establish equations for the unknown 3. Establish point of intersection of

coefficients of the parabola line and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 :
@ (2,1)

@ (1,6) 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎, 𝟏, 𝟔

2. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 :

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟐, 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒂𝒕 (𝟏, 𝟔)

1. Establish equations for the unknown 3. Establish point of intersection of

coefficients of the parabola line and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 :
@ (2,1)
1 = 𝑎(2)2 +𝑏(2) + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝟒𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 − 𝟏 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃

@ (1,6) 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ′ = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 :

6 = 𝑎(1)2 +𝑏(1) + 𝑐 2 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄=𝟔 −𝟐
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
2. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎, (𝟏, 𝟔)
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4 2 = 2𝑎(1) + 𝑏
∴ 𝒎𝐓𝐋 = 𝟐 𝟐𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟐 − 𝟑

15

𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟑, 𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟏)
𝟒𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 −𝟏
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄=𝟔 −𝟐
𝟐𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟐 −𝟑
𝐁𝐘 𝐄𝐋𝐈𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐒𝐔𝐁𝐒𝐓𝐈𝐓𝐔𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍:

16

8
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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟑, 𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟏)
𝟒𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 −𝟏
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄=𝟔 −𝟐
𝟐𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟐 −𝟑
𝐁𝐘 𝐄𝐋𝐈𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐒𝐔𝐁𝐒𝐓𝐈𝐓𝐔𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍:
𝟏 − 𝟐: Substitute a and 𝐛 in 𝟏 or 𝟐:
4𝑎 +2𝑏 +𝑐 = 1 4 −7 + 2 16 + 𝑐 = 1 → 𝑐 = 1 + 28 − 32
−) 𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐 = 6 𝒄 = −𝟑
3𝑎 +𝑏 = −5 −𝟒 −7 + 16 + 𝑐 = 6 → 𝑐 = 6 + 7 − 16
𝟒 − 𝟑: 𝒄 = −𝟑

3𝑎 +𝑏 = −5
−) 2𝑎 +𝑏 =2 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
𝒂 = −𝟕 ∴ 𝒚 = −𝟕𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝒙 − 𝟑
Substitute a in 𝟑 or 𝟒:
2 −7 + 𝑏 = 2 → 𝑏 = 2 + 14
𝒃 = 𝟏𝟔
3 −7 + 𝑏 = −5 → 𝑏 = −5 + 21
𝒃 = 𝟏𝟔

17

𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟑, 𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟏)
𝟒𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 −𝟏
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄=𝟔 −𝟐
𝟐𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟐 −𝟑

𝒂 = −𝟕
𝒃 = 𝟏𝟔
𝒄 = −𝟑

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
𝒚 = (−𝟕)𝒙𝟐 + (𝟏𝟔)𝒙 + (−𝟑)
∴ 𝒚 = −𝟕𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝒙 − 𝟑

18

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟎, −𝟔 , 𝟏, −𝟐

𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟔 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟎)

1. Establish equations for the unknown 3. Establish point of intersection of

coefficients of the cubic line and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 :
@ (0, −6)

@ (1, −2)

@ (2,0) 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎, 𝟐, 𝟎

2. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 :

19

𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟎, −𝟔 , 𝟏, −𝟐

𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟔 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟎)

1. Establish equations for the unknown 3. Establish point of intersection of

coefficients of the cubic line and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 :
@ (0, −6)
−6 = 𝑎(0)3 +𝑏(0)2 +𝑐(0) + 𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
𝒅 = −𝟔 𝒚′ = 𝟑𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

@ (1, −2) 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ′ = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 :

−2 = 𝑎 1 3 + 𝑏 1 2 + 𝑐(1) + (−𝟔) 3 = 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝟒 = 𝒂+𝒃+𝒄 −𝟏
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
@ (2,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎, (𝟐, 𝟎)
0 = 𝑎 2 3 + 𝑏 2 2 + 𝑐(2) + (−𝟔) 3 = 3𝑎(2)2 +2𝑏(2) + 𝑐
𝟔 = 𝟖𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄 − 𝟐 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝒄 − 𝟑

2. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 :
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 6
−𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 6
→ 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 6
−1
∴ 𝒎𝐓𝐋 = 𝟑
20

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟎, −𝟔 , 𝟏, −𝟐

𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟔 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟎)
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄=𝟒 −𝟏
𝟖𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄 = 𝟔 −𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟑 −𝟑
𝐁𝐘 𝐄𝐋𝐈𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐒𝐔𝐁𝐒𝐓𝐈𝐓𝐔𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍:

21

𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟎, −𝟔 , 𝟏, −𝟐

𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟔 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟎)
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄=𝟒 −𝟏
𝟖𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄 = 𝟔 −𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟑 −𝟑
𝐁𝐘 𝐄𝐋𝐈𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐒𝐔𝐁𝐒𝐓𝐈𝐓𝐔𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍:
𝟏𝒙𝟖 − 𝟐: Substitute c in either 𝟒 or 𝟓:
8𝑎 +8𝑏 +8𝑐 = 32 4𝑏 + 6 7 = 26 → 4𝑏 = 26 − 42
−) 8𝑎 +4𝑏 +2𝑐 =6 𝒃 = −𝟒
4𝑏 +6𝑐 = 26 −𝟒 Substitute b and 𝐜 in any from 𝟏 , 𝟐 and 𝟑:
𝟐𝒙𝟏. 𝟓 − 𝟑: 𝑎 + −4 + 7 = 4 → 𝑎 = 4 + 4 − 7
12𝑎 +6𝑏 +3𝑐 = 9 𝒂=𝟏

−) 12𝑎 +4𝑏 +𝑐 =3 𝒅 = −𝟔
2𝑏 +2𝑐 = 6 −𝟓
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅
𝟒 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐:
4𝑏 +6𝑐 = 26 ∴ 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟔
−) 4𝑏 +4𝑐 = 12
2𝑐 = 14
𝒄 =𝟕
22

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𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝟎, −𝟔 , 𝟏, −𝟐

𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟔 𝒂𝒕 (𝟐, 𝟎)

𝒂+𝒃+𝒄=𝟒 −𝟏
𝟖𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄 = 𝟔 −𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝒂 + 𝟒𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟑 −𝟑

𝒂=𝟏
𝒃 = −𝟒
𝒄=𝟕

𝒅 = −𝟔

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅
𝒚 = (𝟏)𝒙𝟑 + (−𝟒)𝒙𝟐 + (𝟕)𝒙 + (−𝟔)
∴ 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟔

23

𝐒𝐓𝐄𝐏𝐒 𝐈𝐍 𝐒𝐎𝐋𝐔𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐈𝐍 𝐅𝐈𝐍𝐃𝐈𝐍𝐆 𝐄𝐐𝐍 𝐎𝐅 𝐓𝐋 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐍𝐋

1. Solve 𝒎𝑻𝑳 by differentiating the given eqn of the curve

or
Solve 𝒎𝑻𝑳 by Point Slope Form of the TL
or
Solve 𝒎𝑻𝑳 by the negative reciprocal of NL by
Point Slope Form of the NL
2. Define Point of Intersection 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 for the TL, NL
and the given curve by appropriate solution
3. Solve the eqn of TL by Point Slope form
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
4. Solve the eqn of NL by Point Slope form
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝑵𝑳 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

24

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Find the tangent lines as indicated.

𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟖 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒚 = 𝒙.

1. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 2.1 Solve the roots using applicable

solution

2. Establish point of intersection of line

and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 :

2.2 Substitute the roots in the given

equation of the curve.

25

Find the tangent lines as indicated.

𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟖 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒚 = 𝒙.

1. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 2.1 Solve the roots using applicable

∴ 𝒎𝐓𝐋 = 𝟏 solution
BY ALGEBRA
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0
2. Establish point of intersection of line
and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 : (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 + 3 = 0 → 𝒙 = −𝟑
𝑦′ = 𝟑𝑥 𝟑−𝟏 + 6(𝟐)𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 + 10𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 + 0 𝑥 + 1 = 0 → 𝒙 = −𝟏
𝟐
𝒚′ = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎
2.2 Substitute the roots in the given
′
𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 : equation of the curve.
2
1 = 3𝑥 + 12𝑥 + 10 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = −𝟑;
𝑦 = (−3) 3 +6(−3)2 +10(−3) + 8
3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 9 = 0 𝒚=𝟓
∴ 𝒙 𝟏 , 𝒚 𝟏 = (−𝟑, 𝟓)
3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 9 = 0
3 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = −𝟏;
2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑦 = (−1)3 +6(−1)2 +10(−1) + 8
𝒚=𝟑
∴ 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 = (−𝟏, 𝟑)
26

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 22/11/2022

Find the tangent lines as indicated.

𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟖 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒚 = 𝒙.

3. Solve the equation of the tangent lines

27

Find the tangent lines as indicated.

𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟖 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒚 = 𝒙.

3. Solve the equation of the tangent lines

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝐓𝐋 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 @ (−𝟑, 𝟓)
𝑦 − (5) = 1(𝑥 − (−3))
𝑦−5=𝑥+3
∴ 𝒙−𝒚−𝟖 = 𝟎

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒎𝐓𝐋 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 @ (−𝟏, 𝟑)
𝑦 − (3) = 1(𝑥 − (−1))
𝑦−3=𝑥+1
∴ 𝒙−𝒚−𝟒 = 𝟎

28

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Find the normal lines as indicated.

𝟏
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟕
𝟐

1. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 2.1 Solve the roots using applicable solution

2. Establish point of intersection of line

and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 : 2.2 Substitute the roots in the given equation
of the curve.

29

Find the normal lines as indicated.

𝟏
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟕
𝟐

1. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 2.1 Solve the roots using applicable solution

−1 BY ALGEBRA
𝑚TL = 3𝑥 2 − 12 = 0
𝑚NL
3𝑥 2 = 12
∴ 𝒎𝐓𝐋 = 𝟐
3
2. Establish point of intersection of line 𝑥2 = 4
and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 : 𝒙 = ±𝟐
2.2 Substitute the roots in the given equation
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 − 7 of the curve.
𝒚′ = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = +𝟐;
𝑦 = (2)3 −10 2 − 7
𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ′ = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 : 𝒚 = −𝟏𝟗
2 = 3𝑥 2 − 10 ∴ 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 = (𝟐, −𝟏𝟗)
𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = −𝟐;
𝑦 = (−2)3 −10(−2) − 7
𝒚=𝟓
∴ 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 = (−𝟐, 𝟓)
30

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Find the normal lines as indicated.

𝟏
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟕
𝟐

3. Solve the equation of the normal lines

31

Find the normal lines as indicated.

𝟏
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟕
𝟐

3. Solve the equation of the normal lines

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝐍𝐋 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 @ (𝟐, −𝟏𝟗)
1
𝑦 − (−19) = − (𝑥 − 2)
2
1
𝑦 + 19 = − 𝑥 + 1 (2)
2
2𝑦 + 38 = −𝑥 + 2
∴ 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟑𝟔 = 𝟎

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒎𝐍𝐋 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 @ (−𝟐, 𝟓)
1
𝑦 − (5) = − (𝑥 − (−2))
2
1
𝑦 − 5 = − 𝑥 − 1 (2)
2
2𝑦 − 10 = −𝑥 − 2
∴ 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟖 = 𝟎
32

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Find the tangent line as indicated.

𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒙 + 𝟖𝒚 = 𝟕

1. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 2.1 Solve the roots using applicable solution

SYNTHETIC DIVISION
1. Write down the coefficients of the
dividend (insert dummy terms if
necessary). For simpler solution, make the
coefficient of the highest bearing degree
equal to “1”.
2. Change the sign of the constant in the
2. Establish point of intersection of divisor. This is your 1st root of the
line and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 : equation.
3. Bring down the 1st coefficient of the
dividend.
4. Multiply, add, repeat.
𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ′ = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 : 5. The answer is the sequence of the
coefficients of the new polynomial but one
degree less than the original polynomial.
6. The last term is the remainder, put that
over the divisor, if any.
33

Find the tangent line as indicated.

𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒙 + 𝟖𝒚 = 𝟕

1. Establish 𝒎𝐓𝐋 : 2.1 Solve the roots using applicable solution

𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 7 SYNTHETIC DIVISION
8𝑦 = −𝑥 + 7 1. Write down the coefficients of the
8 dividend (insert dummy terms if
−𝟏 7 −1 necessary). For simpler solution, make the
𝑦= 𝑥 + ; 𝑚NL =
𝟖 8 8 coefficient of the highest bearing degree
∴ 𝒎𝐓𝐋 = 𝟖 equal to “1”.
2. Change the sign of the constant in the
2. Establish point of intersection of divisor. This is your 1st root of the
line and the given curve, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 : equation.
3. Bring down the 1st coefficient of the
𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 15 dividend.
𝒚′ = 𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟒 4. Multiply, add, repeat.
5. The answer is the sequence of the
𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ′ = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 : coefficients of the new polynomial but one
8 = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 degree less than the original polynomial.
0 = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12 6. The last term is the remainder, put that
over the divisor, if any.
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2.1 Solve the roots using applicable formula

SYNTHETIC DIVISION
1. Write down the coefficients of the dividend (insert dummy terms if necessary). For
simpler solution, make the coefficient of the highest bearing degree equal to “1”.

2. Change the sign of the constant in the divisor. This is your 1st root of the equation.

3. Bring down the 1st coefficient of the dividend.

𝑥=
+

4. Multiply, add, repeat.

𝑥=
+

35

2.1 Solve the roots using applicable formula

SYNTHETIC DIVISION
1. Write down the coefficients of the dividend (insert dummy terms if necessary). For
simpler solution, make the coefficient of the highest bearing degree equal to “1”.
4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12 = 0
4
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0

2. Change the sign of the constant in the divisor. This is your 1st root of the equation.
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 ‫ 𝑥ہ‬− 𝟑 = 0; 𝑥 = 𝟑

3. Bring down the 1st coefficient of the dividend.

1 −3 1 −3 𝑥 = 𝟑
+
1
4. Multiply, add, repeat.
1 −3 1 −3 𝑥 = 𝟑
+ 3 0 3
1 0 1 0

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2.1 Solve the roots using applicable formula

SYNTHETIC DIVISION

4. Multiply, add, repeat.

1 −3 1 −3 𝑥 = 𝟑
+ 3 0 3
1 0 1 0
5. The answer is the sequence of the coefficients of the new polynomial but one
degree less than the original polynomial.

5. The last term is the remainder, put that over the divisor, if any.
1 −3 1 −3 𝑥 = 𝟑
+ 3 0 3
1 0 1 𝟎 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

37

2.1 Solve the roots using applicable formula

SYNTHETIC DIVISION

4. Multiply, add, repeat.

1 −3 1 −3 𝑥 = 𝟑
+ 3 0 3
1 0 1 0
5. The answer is the sequence of the coefficients of the new polynomial but one
degree less than the original polynomial.
1𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟎

6. The last term is the remainder, put that over the divisor, if any.
1 −3 1 −3 𝑥 = 𝟑
+ 3 0 3
1 0 1 𝟎 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

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2.2 Substitute the roots in the given equation of the curve.

𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑥−3=0
𝒙=𝟑 − 𝟏𝐬𝐭 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭
𝑥2 + 1 = 0
𝒙=± 𝟏 − 𝟐𝐧𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟑𝐫𝐝 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭

𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 15
𝑦 = (3)4 −4 3 3 + 2 3 2 − 4(3) + 15
𝒚 = −𝟔

𝑥1 , 𝑦1 = (𝟑, −𝟔)

3. Solve the equation of the tangent line

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝐓𝐋 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝑦 − (−6) = 8(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 + 6 = 8𝑥 − 24
∴ 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒚 − 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎

39

• INCREASING AND DECREASING

FUNCTIONS
Consider the given function, 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) which has a continuous
derivative on some range of x values.

𝐼𝑓 𝑦 ′ > 0, 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝒚 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐼𝑓 𝑦 ′ < 0, 𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐅

𝐁 𝐄

𝐂
𝐀
𝐃 𝟎 𝒙

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• MAXIMA AND MINIMA

MAXIMA – maximum value of coordinate / uppermost
coordinate, example: point B

MINIMA – bottommost coordinate , example: point D

𝒚 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐁 𝐄

𝐂
𝐀
𝐃 𝟎 𝒙

41

• MAXIMA AND MINIMA

NEITHER MINIMA or MAXIMA – at such point where the
𝒚′ = 𝟎, example: point F

MINIMUM POINT – bottommost coordinate , example: point D

𝒚 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐁 𝐄

𝐂
𝐀
𝐃 𝟎 𝒙

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• TO DETERMINE THE MAXIMA AND

MINIMA
𝒃𝒚 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓:
At a point where y ′ = 0;
1. if y′ changes from + to − , y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
2. if y′ changes from − to + , y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
3. if y′ does 𝐧𝐨𝐭 change sign , y coordinate is a 𝐧𝐞𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫
maximum or minimum

The points at which y′ = 0 are called 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔.

Maxima and minima collectively are known 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆.

43

Locate the critical points and determine the maxima and minima.
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗𝒙 + 𝟐𝟎
1. Differentiate
5. Determine the maxima and minima
by 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute a lower and higher neighbor
2. Set 𝒚′ = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒚
value to the x-coordinate of CP.

@ 𝑪𝑷𝟏
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 =
3. Solve the roots using applicable
solution

@ 𝑪𝑷𝟐 −𝟏, 𝟐𝟓
4. Solve for the Critical Points. 𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 =
Substitute the roots in the function.

44

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Locate the critical points and determine the maxima and minima.
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗𝒙 + 𝟐𝟎
1. Differentiate
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 9 5. Determine the maxima and minima
by 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute a lower and higher neighbor
2. Set 𝒚′ = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒚
value to the x-coordinate of CP.
0 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 9
3 @ 𝑪𝑷𝟏 𝟑, −𝟕
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟒
3. Solve the roots using applicable 𝑦 ′ = 3(2)2 − 6 2 − 9 = −9
solution 𝑦 ′ = 3(4)2 − 6 4 − 9 = 15
𝑥−3 𝑥+1 =0 if y ′ changes from − to + ,
𝑥 − 3 = 0; 𝒙 = 𝟑 y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐚
𝑥 + 1 = 0; 𝒙 = −𝟏
@ 𝑪𝑷𝟐 −𝟏, 𝟐𝟓
4. Solve for the Critical Points. 𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = −𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎
Substitute the roots in the function. 𝑦 ′ = 3(−2)2 − 6 −2 − 9 = 15
𝑦 = (3)3 −3 3 2 − 9 3 + 20 = −𝟕 𝑦 ′ = 3(0)2 − 6 0 − 9 = −9
𝑦 = (−1)3 −3 −1 2 − 9 −1 + 20 = 𝟐𝟓 if y ′ changes from + to − ,
𝑪𝑷𝟏 𝟑, −𝟕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑪𝑷𝟐 −𝟏, 𝟐𝟓 y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐚

45

Locate the critical points and determine the maxima and minima.
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
1. Differentiate 4. Solve for the Critical Points.
𝑦′ = 𝑥2 𝟐 𝑥 − 2 𝟐−𝟏 + (𝑥 − 2)2 𝟐𝑥 Substitute the roots in the function.
𝒖
𝒅𝒗
𝒗
𝒅𝒖 𝑦 = 02 (0 − 2)2 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑦 = 22 (2 − 2)2 = 𝟎
𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 2 𝑥 − 2 + 2𝑥(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑦 = 12 (1 − 2)2= 𝟏
𝑦 ′ = 𝟐𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝑥 + (𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 ′ = 𝟐𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟐) 2𝑥 − 2 𝑪𝑷𝟏 𝟎, 𝟎 , 𝑪𝑷𝟐 𝟐, 𝟎 𝑪𝑷𝟑 𝟏, 𝟏
𝒚′ = 𝟒𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝒙−𝟏
5. Determine the maxima and minima
2. Set 𝒚′ = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒚 by 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
4𝑥(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 = 0 Substitute a lower and higher neighbor
value to the x-coordinate of CP.
3. Solve the roots using applicable
solution @ 𝑪𝑷𝟏 𝟎, 𝟎
4𝑥(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 = 0 𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = −𝟏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟓
4𝑥 = 0; 𝒙=𝟎 𝑦 ′ = 4 −1 −1 − 2 −1 − 1 = −24
𝑥 − 2 = 0; 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝑦 ′ = 4 0.5 0.5 − 2 0.5 − 1 = 1.5
𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝒙 = 𝟏 if y ′ changes from − to + ,
y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐚

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Locate the critical points and determine the maxima and minima.
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐
@ 𝑪𝑷𝟐 𝟐, 𝟎
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟑
𝑦 ′ = 4 1.5 1.5 − 2 1.5 − 1 = −1.5
𝑦 ′ = 4 3 3 − 2 3 − 1 = 24
if y ′ changes from − to + ,
y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐚

@ 𝑪𝑷𝟑 𝟏, 𝟏
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑦 ′ = 4 0.5 0.5 − 2 0.5 − 1 = 1.5
𝑦 ′ = 4 1.5 1.5 − 2 1.5 − 1 = −1.5
if y ′ changes from + to − ,
y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐚

47

• CONCAVITY
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 relates to the rate of change of a function′ s derivative.

The 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 is the rate of change of the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.

𝒃𝒚 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓:

At a point where y ′ = 0;
1. if y′′ < 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
The curve is 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝.
2. if y′′ > 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦.
The curve is 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐮𝐩𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝.
′′
3. if y = 0 , the test fails
It says nothing about the concavity.

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• POINTS OF INFLECTION
A 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 is a point at which the curve changes from
curve concave upward to concave downward, or vice versa.
example: point C, E, F

𝒚 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐁 𝐄

𝐂
𝐀
𝐃 𝟎 𝒙

49

• SKETCHING POLYNOMIAL CURVES

𝐃𝐄𝐅𝐈𝐍𝐈𝐓𝐄 𝐒𝐄𝐐𝐔𝐄𝐍𝐂𝐄 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐓𝐄𝐏𝐒

1. Find the points of intersection with the axes.

2. Determine the behavior of 𝒚 for large values of 𝒙.
3. Locate the points where 𝒚′ = 𝟎 and determine the maxima and
minima.
4. Locate the points where 𝒚′′ = 𝟎 (𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠) and draw the tangent at each of those points.
5. If necessary, plot a few additional points.

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Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated. Sketch
the curve
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝒚= 𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕 ,
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟐
• Equation of the tangent line
1 1
𝑦′ = (𝟑𝑥 𝟑−𝟏) − (𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 ) − 2𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 + 0 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚TL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
3 2 𝟏𝟏 −𝟗 𝟏
𝑦− = 𝑥−
𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
11 −9 9
2 𝑦− = 𝑥 + (𝟐𝟒) 𝑳𝑪𝑫
1 1 12 4 8
𝑚 = 𝑦′ = − −2
2 2 24𝑦 − 22 = −54𝑥 + 27
∴ 𝟓𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐𝟒𝒚 − 𝟒𝟗 = 𝟎
−𝟗
∴𝒎= = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 • Equation of the normal line
𝟒 𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥 )
1 NL 1
𝑚𝑁𝐿 = 𝑁𝐸𝐺𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝟏𝟏 𝟒 𝟏
𝑦− = 𝑥−
𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝑆𝐿𝑂𝑃𝐸 𝟏𝟐 𝟗 𝟐
11 4 4
𝑦− = 𝑥− (𝟏𝟎𝟖) 𝑳𝑪𝑫
𝟒 12 9 18
∴ 𝒎𝑵𝑳 =
𝟗 108𝑦 − 99 = 48𝑥 − 24
∴ 𝟒𝟖𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒚 + 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟎
51

Sketch the curve.

𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝒚= 𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐
1. Find the points of intersection with the axes.
1.1 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒚 = 𝟎)
𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒

1.2 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = 𝟎)

1 1
𝑦 = (0)3 − 0 2 − 2 0 + 2 = 𝟐
3 2
𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 (𝟎, 𝟐)

2. Determine the behavior of 𝒚 for large values of 𝒙.

1 1
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 → +∞ 𝑠𝑎𝑦 1,000; 𝑦 = (1000)3− 1000 2 − 2 1000 + 2
3 2
𝒚 → +∞
1 1
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 → −∞ 𝑠𝑎𝑦 − 1,000; 𝑦 = (−1000)3 − −1000 2 − 2 −1000 + 2
3 2
𝒚 → −∞

∴ +∞, +∞ 𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐃𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐓 𝐈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 −∞, −∞ 𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐃𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐓 𝐈𝐈𝐈

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Sketch the curve.

𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝒚= 𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐
3. Locate the points where 𝒚′ = 𝟎 and determine the maxima and minima.
3.1 Differentiate
1 1
𝑦′ = (𝟑𝑥 𝟑−𝟏 ) − (𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏) − 2𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 + 0
3 2
𝒚′ = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐
3.2 Set 𝑦 ′ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦
𝟎 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐
3.3 Solve the roots using applicable solution
𝑥+1 𝑥−2 =0
𝑥 + 1 = 0; 𝒙 = −𝟏
𝑥 − 2 = 0; 𝒙 = 𝟐
3.4 Solve for the Critical Points, CP. Substitute the roots in the given function.
1 1 𝟏𝟗 𝟏𝟗
𝑦 = (−1)3 − −1 2 − 2 −1 + 2 = ; 𝑪𝑷𝟏 −𝟏,
3 2 𝟔 𝟔
1 1 −𝟒 −𝟒
𝑦 = (2)3 − 2 2 − 2 2 + 2 = ; 𝑪𝑷𝟐 𝟐,
3 2 𝟑 𝟑
53

3. Locate the points where 𝒚′ = 𝟎 and determine the maxima and minima.
3.5 Determine the maxima and minima
by 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute a lower and higher neighbor value to the x-coordinate of CP.

𝟏𝟗
@𝑪𝑷𝟏 −𝟏,
𝟔
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = −𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎
𝑦 ′ = −2 2 − −2 − 2 = +4
𝑦 ′ = 0 2 − 0 − 2 = −2
if y ′ changes from + to − ,
y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐚

−𝟒
@ 𝑪𝑷𝟐 𝟐,
𝟑
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟑
𝑦 ′ = 1 2 − 1 − 2 = −2
𝑦 ′ = 3 2 − 3 − 2 = +4
if y ′ changes from − to + ,
y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐚

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4. Locate the points where 𝒚′′ = 𝟎 (𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔) and
draw the tangent at each of those points.
4.1 Differentiate
𝑦′ = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑦′′ = 𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 − 𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 − 0
𝒚′′ = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏

4.2 Set 𝑦 ′′ = 0
𝟎 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏
4.3 Solve the roots using applicable solution
0 = 2𝑥 − 1
1
𝑥=
2

4.4 Solve for the Points of Inflection. Substitute the roots in the given function.
3 2
1 1 1 1 1 𝟏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝑦= − −2 +2= ; 𝑷𝑶𝑰 ,
3 2 2 2 2 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟐

55

4.5 Concavity
by 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute CP in𝑦′′.

𝟏𝟗
@𝑪𝑷𝟏 −𝟏,
𝟔
′′
𝑦 = 2 −1 − 1 = −3
if y ′′ < 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
The curve is 𝐂𝐎𝐍𝐂𝐀𝐕𝐄 𝐃𝐎𝐖𝐍𝐖𝐀𝐑𝐃.

−𝟒
@ 𝑪𝑷𝟐 𝟐,
𝟑
𝑦 ′′ = 2 2 − 1 = 3
if y ′′ > 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
The curve is 𝐂𝐎𝐍𝐂𝐀𝐕𝐄 𝐔𝐏𝐖𝐀𝐑𝐃.

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5. If necessary, plot a few additional points.

𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝒚= 𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐

𝒚𝒊 𝑪𝑷𝟏 𝑪𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝑶𝑰 𝑨𝑫𝑫𝑰𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑨𝑳 𝑷𝑶𝑰𝑵𝑻𝑺

1
𝒙 0 −1 2 1 −2 −2.75 2.75
2
19 −4 11 −1 4
𝒚 2 −3.21 −0.35
6 3 12 6 3

57

𝟏𝟗 𝒚 𝑹𝑬𝑴𝑬𝑴𝑩𝑬𝑹:
𝑪𝑷𝟏 −𝟏, 𝐴𝑇 𝑎 𝑝𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒚′ = 𝟎,
𝟔
if y ′′ < 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐌𝐀𝐗𝐈𝐌𝐀 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
The curve is 𝐂𝐎𝐍𝐂𝐀𝐕𝐄 𝐃𝐎𝐖𝐍𝐖𝐀𝐑𝐃.
𝟓𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐𝟒𝒚 − 𝟒𝟗 = 𝟎
𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑻 𝑳𝑰𝑵𝑬
(+∞, +∞)
(𝟎, 𝟐)
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟐
𝟒 𝐲 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭
−𝟐, 𝟒
𝟑 𝒎𝑵𝑳 =
𝟗 𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝐚𝐝𝐝′ 𝐥 𝐩𝐭 , (𝟑, 𝟎. 𝟓)
𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝐏𝐎𝐈 𝐚𝐝𝐝′ 𝐥 𝐩𝐭 𝒙
−𝟗 (𝟐. 𝟕𝟓, 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓)
𝒎𝑻𝑳 =
𝟒 𝐚𝐝𝐝′ 𝐥 𝐩𝐭

−𝟒
𝑪𝑷𝟐 𝟐,
𝟑
𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐈𝐌𝐀
if y ′′ > 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
(−𝟐. 𝟕𝟓, −𝟑. 𝟐𝟏) The curve is 𝐂𝐎𝐍𝐂𝐀𝐕𝐄 𝐔𝐏𝐖𝐀𝐑𝐃.
𝐚𝐝𝐝′ 𝐥 𝐩𝐭

(−∞, −∞)
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟐 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒: 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑥 𝑖𝑠 0.5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡.
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Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated. Sketch
the curve
𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
• Equation of the tangent line
𝑦=3 1 2 − 2(1) + 1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚TL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 𝟐 = 𝟒(𝑥 − 𝟏)
𝒚=𝟐
𝑦 − 2 = 4𝑥 − 4

𝑦′ = 3(𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 ) − 2𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 + 0

∴ 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟐
𝒚′ = 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐
• Equation of the normal line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚NL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑚 = 𝑦′ = 6(1) − 2 𝟏
𝑦 − 𝟐 = − (𝑥 − 𝟏)
∴ 𝒎 = 𝟒 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 𝟒
1 1
𝑚𝑁𝐿 = 𝑁𝐸𝐺𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐶𝐴𝐿 (4) 𝑦 − 2 = − 𝑥 + (4)
4 4
𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝑆𝐿𝑂𝑃𝐸 4(𝑦 − 2) = −𝑥 + 1
4𝑦 − 8 = −𝑥 + 1
𝟏 ∴ 𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝟗
∴ 𝒎𝑵𝑳 = −
𝟒

59

Sketch the curve.

𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
1. Find the points of intersection with the axes.
1.1 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒚 = 𝟎)
𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒

1.2 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = 𝟎)

𝑦 = 3(0)2 −2(0) + 1 = 1
𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 (𝟎, 𝟏)

2. Determine the behavior of 𝒚 for large values of 𝒙.

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 → +∞ 𝑠𝑎𝑦 1,000; 𝑦 = 3(1000)2 −2(1000) + 1
𝒚 → +∞
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 → −∞ 𝑠𝑎𝑦 − 1,000; 𝑦 = 3 −1000 2 − 2(−1000) + 1
𝒚 → +∞

∴ +∞, +∞ 𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐃𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐓 𝐈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 −∞, +∞ 𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐃𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐓 𝐈𝐈

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Sketch the curve.

𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
3. Locate the points where 𝒚′ = 𝟎 and determine the maxima and minima.

3.1 Differentiate
𝑦′ = 3(𝟐𝑥 𝟐−𝟏 ) − 2𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 + 0
𝒚′ = 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐

3.2 Set 𝑦 ′ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦

0 = 6𝑥 − 2
2
𝟎 = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏

3.3 Solve the roots using applicable solution

0 = 3𝑥 − 1
𝟏
3𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝒙 =
𝟑

3.4 Solve for the Critical Points, CP. Substitute the roots in the given function.
2
1 1 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑦=3 −2 + 1 = ; 𝑪𝑷 ,
3 3 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑

61

3. Locate the points where 𝒚′ = 𝟎 and determine the maxima and minima.
3.5 Determine the maxima and minima
by 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute a lower and higher neighbor value to the x-coordinate of CP.

𝟏 𝟐
@𝑪𝑷 ,
𝟑 𝟑
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏
𝑦 ′ = 6 0 − 2 = −2
𝑦 ′ = 6 1 − 2 = +4
if y ′ changes from − to + ,
y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐚

4. Locate the points where 𝒚′′ = 𝟎 (𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔) and
draw the tangent at each of those points.
4.1 Differentiate
𝑦′ = 6𝑥 − 2
𝑦′′ = 6𝑥 𝟏−𝟏 − 0
𝒚′′ = 𝟔

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4.2 Set 𝑦 ′′ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦

𝟎=𝟔

4.3 Solve the roots using applicable solution

0=6
∴ 𝑵𝒐 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕

4.4 Solve for the Points of Inflection. Substitute the roots in the given function.
∴ 𝑵𝒐 𝑷𝑶𝑰

4.5 Concavity
by 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute CP in𝑦′′.

𝟏 𝟐
@𝑪𝑷 ,
𝟑 𝟑
𝑦 ′′ = 6
∴ 𝑵𝒐 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆, 𝑵𝒐 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
if y ′′ > 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
The curve is 𝐂𝐎𝐍𝐂𝐀𝐕𝐄 𝐔𝐏𝐖𝐀𝐑𝐃.

63

5. If necessary, plot a few additional points.

𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏

𝒚𝒊 𝑪𝑷 𝑨𝑫𝑫𝑰𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑨𝑳 𝑷𝑶𝑰𝑵𝑻𝑺
1
𝒙 0 1 −1 2 −2 3 −3 1.5 −1.5
3
2
𝒚 1 2 6 9 17 22 34 4.75 10.75
3

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(−∞, +∞)
𝒚 (+∞, +∞)
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟐 𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟐
𝑹𝑬𝑴𝑬𝑴𝑩𝑬𝑹:
𝐴𝑇 𝑎 𝑝𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒚′ = 𝟎,
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆

𝐚𝐝𝐝′𝐥 𝐩𝐭 −𝟏. 𝟓, 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟓

𝟐, 𝟗 𝐚𝐝𝐝′𝐥 𝐩𝐭

𝟒𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟐
𝐚𝐝𝐝′ 𝐥 𝐩𝐭 −𝟏, 𝟔 𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑻 𝑳𝑰𝑵𝑬

𝟏. 𝟓, 𝟒. 𝟕𝟓 𝐚𝐝𝐝′𝐥 𝐩𝐭
−𝟏
𝒎𝑵𝑳 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 = 𝟒
𝟒

𝟏, 𝟐 𝐚𝐝𝐝′𝐥 𝐩𝐭
(𝟎, 𝟏)
𝐲 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭
𝒙
𝟏 𝟐
𝑪𝑷 , if y ′′ > 0, y coordinate is a 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
𝟑 𝟑 The curve is 𝐂𝐎𝐍𝐂𝐀𝐕𝐄 𝐔𝐏𝐖𝐀𝐑𝐃.
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒: 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑥 𝑖𝑠 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡. 𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐈𝐌𝐀

65

Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated. Sketch
the curve
𝒚 = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 1)3
• Equation of the tangent line
𝑦 = 2(1) − 1 3 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚TL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 𝟏 = 𝟔(𝑥 − 𝟏)
𝒚=𝟏
𝑦 − 1 = 6𝑥 − 6
∴ 𝟔𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟓
𝑦′ = 𝟑(2𝑥 − 1)𝟑−𝟏 𝟐
𝒚′ = 𝟔(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 • Equation of the normal line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚NL (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2 𝟏
𝑚 = 𝑦′ = 6 2(1) − 1 𝑦 − 𝟏 = − (𝑥 − 𝟏)
𝟔
∴ 𝒎 = 𝟔 = 𝒎𝑻𝑳 1 1
(6) 𝑦 − 1 = − 𝑥 + (6)
𝑚𝑁𝐿 = 𝑁𝐸𝐺𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐶𝐴𝐿 6 6
6(𝑦 − 1) = −𝑥 + 1
𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝑆𝐿𝑂𝑃𝐸 6𝑦 − 6 = −𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝒙 + 𝟔𝒚 = 𝟕
𝟏
∴ 𝒎𝑵𝑳 = −
𝟔

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Sketch the curve.

𝒚 = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
1. Find the points of intersection with the axes.
1.1 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒚 = 𝟎)
1
0 = (2𝑥 − 1)3 3
1
2𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝑥 =
2
𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 ,𝟎
𝟐
1.2 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = 𝟎)
𝑦 = (2(0) − 1)3 = −1
𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 (𝟎, −𝟏)

2. Determine the behavior of 𝒚 for large values of 𝒙.

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 → +∞ 𝑠𝑎𝑦 1,000; 𝑦 = (2(1000) − 1)3
𝒚 → +∞
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 → −∞ 𝑠𝑎𝑦 − 1,000; 𝑦 = (2(−1000) − 1)3
𝒚 → −∞

∴ +∞, +∞ 𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐃𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐓 𝐈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 −∞, −∞ 𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐃𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐓 𝐈𝐈𝐈

67

Sketch the curve.

𝒚 = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
3. Locate the points where 𝒚′ = 𝟎 and determine the maxima and minima.

3.1 Differentiate
𝑦′ = 𝟑 2𝑥 − 1 𝟑−𝟏(𝟐)
𝒚′ = 𝟔(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐

3.2 Set 𝑦 ′ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦

0 = 6(2𝑥 − 1)2 1
→ 0 = (2𝑥 − 1)2 2
6
𝟎 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏

3.3 Solve the roots using applicable solution

0 = 2𝑥 − 1
𝟏
2𝑥 = 1 = 0; 𝒙 =
𝟐

3.4 Solve for the Critical Points, CP. Substitute the roots in the given function.
3
1 𝟏
𝑦= 2 − 1 = 𝟎; 𝑪𝑷 , 𝟎
2 𝟐

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3. Locate the points where 𝒚′ = 𝟎 and determine the maxima and minima.
3.5 Determine the maxima and minima
by 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute a lower and higher neighbor value to the x-coordinate of CP.

𝟏
@𝑪𝑷 ,𝟎
𝟐
𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏
𝑦 ′ = 6 2 0 − 1 2 = +6
𝑦 ′ = 6 2 1 − 1 2 = +6
if y ′ does 𝐧𝐨𝐭 change sign ,
y coordinate is a 𝐧𝐞𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 maximum or minimum

4. Locate the points where 𝒚′′ = 𝟎 (𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔) and
draw the tangent at each of those points.
4.1 Differentiate
𝑦′ = 6(2𝑥 − 1)2
𝑦 ′′ = 6(𝟐) 2𝑥 − 1 𝟐−𝟏(𝟐)

𝒚′′ = 𝟐𝟒(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)

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4.2 Set 𝑦 ′′ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦

0 = 24(2𝑥 − 1)
→ 𝟎 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏
24
4.3 Solve the roots using applicable solution
𝟏
2𝑥 = 1; 𝒙 =
𝟐
4.4 Solve for the Points of Inflection. Substitute the roots in the given function.
3
1 𝟏
𝑦= 2 − 1 = 0; 𝑷𝑶𝑰 ,𝟎
2 𝟐

4.5 Concavity
by 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
Substitute CP in𝑦′′.

𝟏
@𝑪𝑷 ,𝟎
𝟐
1
𝑦 ′′ = 24 2 −1 = 0
2
if y ′′ = 0, , the test fails
It says 𝐧𝐨𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐠 about the concavity.

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5. If necessary, plot a few additional points.

𝒚 = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑

𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝑪𝑷 𝑷𝑶𝑰 𝑨𝑫𝑫𝑰𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑨𝑳 𝑷𝑶𝑰𝑵𝑻𝑺

1 1 1 1 5
𝒙 0 1 − 𝑜𝑟 − 0.25 𝑜𝑟 1.25
2 2 2 4 4
27 27
𝒚 0 −1 0 0 1 − 𝑜𝑟 − 3.38 𝑜𝑟 3.38
8 8

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𝑹𝑬𝑴𝑬𝑴𝑩𝑬𝑹: 𝒚 +∞, +∞ 𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟐

𝐴𝑇 𝑎 𝑝𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒚′ = 𝟎,
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝟔𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟓
𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑻 𝑳𝑰𝑵𝑬

𝟏. 𝟐𝟓, 𝟑. 𝟑𝟖 𝐚𝐝𝐝′𝐥 𝐩𝐭

𝒎𝑻𝑳 = 𝟔

𝟏 𝟏, 𝟏 𝐚𝐝𝐝′𝐥 𝐩𝐭
𝒎𝑵𝑳 = −
𝟔

𝒙
𝟏 if y ′does 𝐧𝐨𝐭 change sign ,
𝑪𝑷 , 𝟎
𝟐 y coordinate is a 𝐧𝐞𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 maximum
(𝟎, −𝟏) or minimum
𝐲 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐌𝐈𝐍𝐈𝐌𝐀
𝟏
,𝟎
𝟐
𝐱 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭
𝟏
𝐚𝐝𝐝′ 𝐥 𝐩𝐭 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓, −𝟑. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝑷𝑶𝑰 ,𝟎
𝟐
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝟐 (−∞, −∞) 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒: 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑥 𝑖𝑠 0.5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.
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