1.

4 Exponential functions
1. number system bÕ
2. exponent Nb ab
3. exponential function NbÉb f (x) = ax
4. number e rÖb

0.1 Number system N ⇢ Z ⇢ Q ⇢ R(⇢ C)

x
11 12 1 32 34
54 35 2 53 45
p e ⇡
3 2 1 0 1 2 2 3
N: Natural number AÕb, positive integer £cb: 1, 2, 3, . . ..
Z: Integer cb, Zahlen[,]“number”: 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
⌥: Die ganzen Zahlen hat der liebe Gott gemacht,
alles andere ist Menschenwerk.
God made the integers, all else is the work of man.
cbˇ®, wÏA— — L. Kronecker
Q: Rational number ‹b, Quoziente[2]“quotient”: pq , p, q(6= 0) 2 Z.
(÷øb 3.14 = 314
100
D =¸b 0.9̄ = 0.999 · · · = 1 )
R: Real number
p ıb, }A‹bDËb (irrational numbers)
(Ëb÷ 2, ⇡, e, · · · , . p=¸b )
2 Hippasus Pythagoras
⌥: ✏¯üßU 500 B.C.: Ëb “ — 0ÿg v.s. HÆÎÖg
⌥: ıb¢™}AHb (algebraic) b/
p (transcendental) b:
u/¥—c[b÷· Ì; ‹b pq , 2 2 Hbb; ⇡, e 2  b
⌥ C: Complex
p number µb, ıb [ ôb (b 6= 0): a + bi, a, b 2 R,
i := 1 imaginary unit ôb¿P
⌥: |N| = |Z| = |Q| ⌧ |R|, OÊ Ã§÷Ì‹bV°ÉLSıb
3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, 3.14159, 3.141592, 3.1415926, . . ., ⇡.
⌥: ÃÃ◊ (infinity, 1) Ì⇣ — Ø⁄ (Aleph) b @0 < @1 < @2 < ...
@0 (aleph-naught/zero/null[,]): (|¸Ì) ™b (countable) ÃÃ◊, |N| = @0 .
@1 (aleph-one): ✏˘¸ÌÃÃ◊
©/$cq (Continuum hypothesis): @1 = 2@0 () |R| = @1 .

1
0.2 Exponent

Define: ab a Ì b üj (“a to the (power of) b”, “a to the b-th power”,

or “the b-th power of a”), a —⌫b (base), b —Nb (exponent) 2~
(b _ a Ûã (+) ⇣k a J b (a ⇥ b); b _ a Û (⇥) ⇣k a Ì b üj (ab ) )
n n
z }| { z }| {
n
2⇥n 2 + ... + 2 2 2 ⇥ ... ⇥ 2
N 2⇥3 2+2+2=6 N 2 3
2⇥2⇥2=8
0
2⇥0 0(ã ≥ã¯ö) 2 1( ≥ ¯ö)
Z Z
2 ⇥ ( 3) 0 2 2 2 = 6 2 3
1 ÷ 2 ÷ 2 ÷ 2 = 18 = 213
1 p
Q 2⇥p 1
3
2
3
= 2/3 Q 2p3 3
2
R 2⇥ 3 ⇡ 2 ⇥ 1.732 = 3.464 R 2 3
⇡ 21.732 ⇡ 3.322
3.1415926 < ⇡ < 3.1415927 23.1415926 < 2⇡ < 23.1415927
(Ê Ã§÷Ì‹bV° ⇡ =) ç÷Ì 2‹b V° 2⇡ )

⌥: Story of ⇡: ò⇡: ⇡ ⇡ 3.14 —⇡0; É∆5: 3.1415926 < ⇡ <

22 355
3.141927; J —⇢0, ⇡ 3.1415929 —Ú0, —É0
7 113
p p p p p3
Note: 2 ⇥ 3 = 6 ⇡ 2.449, 2 ⇡ 1.4141.732 ⇡ 1.823.p
3 2
1
13
1
12
p 3 p p2
(Check by yourself: which is large: 2 v.s. 3 ? 2 v.s. 3 ? 2 v.s. 3 ?)

Law of exponents Nb : (a > 0, b, c 2 R)

1. ã: ab+c = ab ⇥ ac . 2. ¡: ab c
= ab ÷ ac .
pc p
3. : abc = (ab )c . 4. Œ: ab/c = ab = ( c a)b . 5. }∫: (ab)c = ac bc .
6. …: a0 := 1 , 0b := 0 , 7. 00 : undetermined(ÑÏ).
Ex: 23+5 = 23 ⇥ 25 = 28 , 23 5 = 23 ÷ 25 = 2 2 = 212 ,
p5
p 3
23⇥5 = (23 )5 = 215 , 23/5 = 23 = 5 2 ,
(2 ⇥ 3)5 = 25 ⇥ 35 = 25 · 35 = 25 35 . 20 = 1, 03 = 0.
p p
p Note: (j;∞∂) a(= 2 a): ap Ì◆j; (“square root of a”);
3
a: a Ì j; (“cube root of a”); n a: a Ì n üj; ⇢ n(“the n-th root of a”).
a if n is even;
Extend: For 0 < a 2 R and n 2 Z, ( a)n =
an if n is odd.
Ex: ( 1)0 = ( 1)2 = 1, ( 1)1 = ( 1) 1 = 1.

2
0.3 Exponential function
p
f (x) = xn , n 2 N power function 4üÉb (x1/2 =? x 2 =? xx =?)
Define: The exponential function of base a(> 0) NbÉb (J a —⌫)

f (x) = ax âb Nb
⌫b◊k…

Question: Why a >p0?

Answer: ( 1)1/2 = 1 := i, 0 1
undefined, ) …5?£⌫b (a > 0)

Question: How to define ax ?

n y f (x) = 2x ,
z }| {
1. x = n 2 N, an := a ⇥ . . . ⇥ a. x2Q
2. x = 0, a0 := 1. 1
1
3. x = n, a n
:= . x
an 0
p p p
4. x = 2 Q, ap/q := q ap = ( q a)p . y f (x) = 2x
q
5. x 2 R \ Q, x ⇡ r 2 Q, ax :⇡ ar .
1
6. Domain Ï2 : ( 1, 1) = R.
Range M : (0, 1). x
0
1 p
(Practice by yourself: find f (x) = 2x for x = 3, 0, 3, , 3.)
3
Note: Intervals ñ»[˝:
⇣ ⌘ ⇣ i
a, b = {x : a < x < b}, a, b = {x : a < x  b},
h ⌘ h i
a, b = {x : a  x < b}, a, b = {x : a  x  b},

“(,)”.÷´ı‡¸éU (parentheses), “[,]”®÷´ı‡2éU

⌘ (brackets)
⇣
1( 1): ÃÃ◊ (¸) .u™¸ÏÌb, .‡¸éU “..., 1 ” & “ 1, ...”

ñ»Ì:’ (union) [ D>’ (intersection) : \

(a, b) [ (c, d) = {x : a < x < b or c < x < d}, ( 1, 0) [ (0, 1) = {x 6= 0}.
(a, b) \ (c, d) = {x : a < x < b and c < x < d}, ( 1, 0) \ (0, 1) = ;.

3
 Three types of exponential functions:
y y y

1 1 1
x x x
0 0 0
f (x) = ax , a > 1 f (x) = ax , a = 1 f (x) = ax , 0 < a < 1

✓ ◆x 1 1
1 1 x 2x 10x y 10x 2x
Note: = =a ,
a ax
x
y=a D y = ax J x = 0 (y-W) ˙ .
1x
x
0 1
Example 0.1 Range of f (x) = 3 2x =? y
y=3
2 : R ! (0, 1)
x
(F£b)
2x : R ! ( 1, 0) (Fäb) Range
Domain
3 2x : R ! ( 1, 3) (F™ 3 ¸Ìb)
Range: ( 1, 3) (or {x 2 R : x < 3}). ⌅ x
0 y=3 2x
Example 0.2 How many intersection of 2x y
y = 2x y = x2
& x2 ?
16 •
24 = 16 = 42 , 22 = 4 = 22 .
(…?*«ı|✏˙ı)
Three: x = 4, x = 2, x ⇡ 0.7666. ⌅ 4 •
• x
(Try yourself: 5Ûzp≥✏˚ı?) 0 2 4
Application: Estimate population of human(A®), bacterial( n), ra-
diometric dating([¶4Ï) C14(C12:5730yr), U235(Pb207) or U238(Pb206).
C14 1 C14 + C12
radiometric dating: (C14) ö´Ç t: = ( )x/t , x = t lg ;
C14 + C12 2 C14
t t t C14

C14 ! C12 C14 ! C12C14 ! C12

population: ñÄ N _, © t v»âA a I (”ã a 1 I): P (x) = N ax/t .

4
0.4 Number e
Define: Euler’s number rÖb
x
e
⇡ 2.718281828,
uy=a x = 0 ~(È0 (slope) ⇣k 1 Ì⌫b a M
In 1727 Leonhard Eular named “e” for “exponential”.

Let ma be the slope of the tangent line of ax at x = 0.

a 1 2 e 3
ma 0 0.693... 1 1.098...
y ex
3x 2x
m3 = ln 3 ⇡ 1.098
me = 1
m2 = ln 2 ⇡ 0.693
h
1
d
h x
m= 0 1
d

Note: vÉ e BÛflT? y = erx (0, 1) Ì~(È0ˇu r

Define: The natural exponential function AÕNbÉb

(“e to the (power of) x”, or “natural exponential of x”)

f (x) = ex
1 x
Example 0.3 Draw y = e 1. (Domain? Range?)
2
y y y y
1
1 2
1 1 2 0
x
x x x 1 y= 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
y = ex y=e x y = 12 e x y = 12 e x
1

(Domain: ( 1, 1) = R; range: ( 1, 1).) ⌅