OECD SEED SCHEMES

A Synthesis of International Regulatory

Aspects that Affect Seed Trade

Agriculture plays a fundamental role in meeting the world’s growing demand for food, feed and fibre. Farmers
worldwide will have to produce more food in a sustainable way and with fewer resources; and access to high quality
seed is an important factor in facing these challenges.

To strengthen the seed sector it is essential that seed producers adhere to policies that guarantee quality standards
and appropriate regulatory features. A functioning regulatory framework helps to promote competitive seed markets
and lowers trade barriers, thereby providing a better choice of quality seed for farmers.

This document reviews regulatory aspects related to the seed trade and the role of international organisations in
trade harmonisation and the establishment of international standards. Special attention is paid to the OECD Seed
Schemes and their contribution to the development of an international seed certification framework. The document
discusses seed certification, seed testing and phytosanitary measures. It also sheds light on plant variety protection,
capacity building at the international level and international rules for seed trade and arbitration.

September 2012

www.oecd.org/tad/seed
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................................2

I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................3
II. SEED CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................4
The OECD Seed Schemes: A globally recognized seed certification system ..........................................4
Other seed certification systems ...............................................................................................................5
III. SEED TESTING ....................................................................................................................................6
The International Seed Testing Association .............................................................................................6
Other seed testing organisations ...............................................................................................................7
IV. PHYTOSANITARY MEASURES .......................................................................................................8
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS) ..........................................................................................8
Harmonization of phytosanitary regulations ............................................................................................8
V. PLANT VARIETY PROTECTION .......................................................................................................9
Plant Variety Protection (PVP) and UPOV ..............................................................................................9
Exchange of germplasm and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture .............................................................................................................................................10
VI. CAPACITY BUILDING AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL .......................................................11
VII. INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR TRADE AND ARBITRATION .................................................12
VIII. CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................................................13
ANNEX 1 ......................................................................................................................................................14
ANNEX 2 ......................................................................................................................................................15

1
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AOSA Association of Official Seed Analysts

AOSCA Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies

CEMAC Communaute Economique et Monetaire de l’Afrique Centrale

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States

EU European Union

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

GIPB Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building

GPA Global Plan of Action

IP Identity Preserved

IPPC International Plant Protection Convention

ISF International Seed Federation

ISTA International Seed Testing Association

MLS Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-Sharing

NDA National Designated Authority

OAPI Organisation africaine de la propriété intellectuelle

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OIC Orange International Seed Lot Certificate

PGRFA Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

QA Quality Assurance

QDS Quality Declared Seed

RPPO Regional Plant Protection Organization

SADC Southern African Development Community

SMTA Standard Material Transfer Agreement

SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary

TRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

UPOV International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants

WTO World Trade Organization

2
I. INTRODUCTION

1. World population will increase from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 9.3 billion people in 2050; and
agriculture will play a fundamental role in meeting the world‟s growing demand for food, feed and fibre. In
order to feed the world population in 2050, agricultural production will have to almost double, and most of
the incremental output will have to come from increases in yields (FAO, 2009).1

2. High-quality seed is a pre-requisite to achieve maximum outputs and good returns for farmers. In
many countries crop production and seed trade are also important sources of rural employment and foreign
income. In 2011, the commercial world seed market was valued at US$ 42 billion, and the value of
internationally traded seed was estimated at US$ 8.2 billion in 2010 (ISF, 2011).2

3. To strengthen the seed sector, it is crucial that seed growers and companies adhere to policies that
guarantee quality standards and appropriate regulatory features. Many countries have adopted seed laws.
Standards differ, but considerable efforts have been – and continue to be – made to harmonize national
seed laws and seed trade regulations.

4. A number of international organisations, conventions and treaties deal with the regulation of seed
trade, ranging from access to delivery of quality seeds to growers. Together they provide an international
regulatory framework by overseeing the interests of breeders, producers and consumers. Among these
organisations are the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), whose Seed
Schemes are globally recognized for the certification of seed moving in international trade. The
International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) developed globally recognised standard procedures for seed
sampling and testing. The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV)
provides breeders of new plant varieties with an intellectual property protection. The International Seed
Federation (ISF) provides seed companies with trade and arbitration rules. Besides, there are the
international conventions and treaties hosted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) that provide the international regulatory framework for related aspects of seed trade,
including plant health and phytosanitary measures, access and benefit-sharing for plant germplasm and use
of pesticides. Annex 1 provides a schematic overview of the different regulatory systems and actors in the
seed supply chain.

5. An appropriate regulatory framework helps to promote competitive seed markets and lowers
barriers to trade. This paper discusses regulatory aspects related to seed trade and the role of international
organisations in trade harmonisation and the establishment of international standards. Special attention is
paid to the OECD Seed Schemes and their contribution to the development of an international seed
certification framework as well as their links to other international organisations.

6. This paper corresponds to the strategic plan of the OECD Seed Schemes. The plan aims to further
strengthen the work of the Schemes and its value to Member countries. To achieve this goal, five key
strategic areas are defined. Strategic area C, for example, is to enhance policy awareness through better
linkages to seed related issues. Within each strategic area, different objectives are defined to achieve the
strategic goal. This paper contributes to the objective of “providing a better understanding of the impacts of
the harmonisation of seed standards and regulations on international trade through specific research
studies”, within strategic area C.

1
FAO (2009), High-Level Expert Forum on How to Feed the World in 2050, Rome, 12-13 October.
2
ISF (2011), Seed Statistics. Available at: http://www.worldseed.org/isf/seed_statistics.html

3
7. This document is intended as an information document for policy-makers in Member countries of
the OECD Seed Schemes and in countries interested in joining the Schemes. Additionally, it could serve as
an educational tool for new participants in the Schemes.

8. The paper proceeds as follows: Section II provides an overview on seed certification; Section III
discusses aspects of seed testing, and section IV reviews phytosanitary measures. Section V sheds light on
plant variety protection. Section VI discusses capacity building at the international level, while section VII
looks at international rules for trade and arbitration. Section VIII concludes.

II. SEED CERTIFICATION

9. Seed certification is a quality assurance process. Seed intended for domestic or international
markets is controlled and inspected by official sources in order to guarantee consistent high quality for
consumers. This is done by i) controlling the seed in previous generations; ii) carrying out field inspections
during the multiplication process to ensure there is little contamination and that the variety is true to type;
iii) growing samples in control plots of the known seed to ensure that the progeny conform to the
characteristics of the variety and iv) seed quality testing in laboratories.

10. Of all the regulatory standards relating to seed laws, certification probably varies the most
between different countries and parts of the world. Almost all countries developed their own certification
standards (some have accepted the OECD Seed Schemes Rules as their national standards). In some
countries certification is obligatory and in others optional. Some certification schemes focus on the genetic
characteristics; in others, varietal certification is complemented by tests carried out in order to check
laboratory standards, such as minimum germination, minimum analytical purity and seed health.

The OECD Seed Schemes: A globally recognized seed certification system

11. The OECD Seed Schemes provide an international framework for the certification of seed. They
aim to facilitate seed trade by reducing technical barriers, improving transparency and lowering
transactions costs. The OECD Seed Schemes were set up in 1958 with the objective to encourage the use
of seed of consistently high quality in participating countries. There are currently 58 Members of one or
more of the OECD Seed Schemes worldwide.

12. The Seed Schemes authorise the use of labels and certificates for seed produced and processed
for international trade according to agreed principles. One of the main principles is that OECD certification
is applied only to those varieties that are officially recognised as distinct and having an acceptable value in
at least one participating country. Further, certified seed must be related directly through one or more
generations to authentic Basic Seed of a variety. In addition, satisfactory conditions for the production and
processing of Basic and Certified Seed must be ensured and verified by field inspection and post-control
tests.

13. An OECD list of varieties eligible for seed certification is regularly published and available
online and in hard copy. For a country to use the OECD labels, it is required to register the species and
varieties in the OECD list of varieties. The list contains most internationally traded varieties, and it has
grown progressively over the last 30 years. There are currently 49 899 varieties and 200 species listed.

14. The rules of the Seed Schemes cover seven groups of species, constituting seven distinct and
independent Schemes. In response to the needs of Member countries, the rules are regularly amended. In
the past years, the Seed Schemes faced a number of challenges, including the authorisation of companies to
perform some seed certification activities, seed multiplication abroad and the move to large-scale seed
production facilities. Some of these challenges reflect the shifting roles and responsibilities of the public

4
and private sector. Scientific and technical developments also resulted in further adaptation of the rules of
the Schemes.

15. In order for a country to participate in the OECD Seed Schemes, several criteria must be met:
The country must provide a description of the national seed certification scheme and a copy of the national
rules and procedures governing variety registration and seed certification. Particular attention is paid to the
country‟s national rules regarding previous cropping, isolation, verification of varietal identity and varietal
purity standards. The country must also prove that it has a national list of varieties which includes only
those varieties that are – according to international guidelines – distinct, uniform and stable. In the case of
agricultural species, varieties must have an acceptable value for cultivation and use. These criteria ensure a
harmonization of seed certification standards. Once a country has been accepted into the OECD Seed
Schemes, its certification standards are considered equivalent to all other Member countries within the
same Scheme.

16. The success of international seed certification also depends upon close co-operation between
maintainers, seed producers, traders and the designated authority (appointed by the government) in each
participating country. Frequent meetings between authorities of participating countries allow for the
exchange of information, discussion of concerns and preparation of new rules and updates of the Seed
Schemes. The body in charge of seed quality control in most countries is the National Designated
Authority (NDA), which is responsible to ensure that seeds meet all required standards for certification.

Other seed certification systems

17. Besides the OECD Seed Schemes, there are also a number of other seed certification systems.
They are discussed in the following. In the United States, for example, seed certification is not mandatory.
Some of the commercial seed is certified by independent certifying agencies, such as those which are
members of the Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA), and this is done on a
voluntary basis. AOSCA promotes and facilitates the movement of seed in local, national and international
markets through the co-ordination of official seed certification agencies acting to evaluate, document and
verify that a seed meets certain accepted standards.3 AOSCA has a number of certifying agencies located
in North and South America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

18. AOSCA also offers a quality assurance (QA) program for varieties, hybrids, brands or blends that
are generally not marketed as certified seed. Seed conforming to these program standards may be identified
by the AOSCA QA trademark. The guidelines are very similar to the certification scheme. In addition,
AOSCA offers Identity Preserved (IP) programs that may be used to address transgenic crops to assure that
certain products meet tolerance levels of genetic material derived from biotechnology. Shipments meeting
the IP program criteria may be identified by the AOSCA IP trademark

19. In the European Union (EU) “marketing of seed (including seed potatoes) is regulated by
Directives agreed and implemented by all 27 Member states”4. The Directives are based on two main
pillars: i) a registration of varieties and ii) the certification of seed. This system is compulsory for the listed
species covered by EU Directives. Marketing is limited to certified seed of registered varieties for field
crops species regulated at EU level. For vegetable crops, seed can be commercialised as standard seeds.

20. Registration of varieties in the EU Common Catalogues is a precondition for marketing seed of
agricultural and vegetable crops in the EU. For a variety to be registered, it needs to be distinct, uniform

3
See www.aosca.org
4
See European Commission, Directorate-General Health and Consumers:
http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_propagation_material/index_en.htm

5
and stable. It also needs to be tested according to national protocols or protocols of the Community Variety
Rights Office or UPOV. Moreover, varieties of agricultural species need to meet the criteria for value of
cultivation and use. Technical examinations are conducted by official authorities in EU Member states. In
the certification process, the requirements concerning e.g. varietal identity and purity, specific purity,
germination capacity and freedom from harmful organisms are checked by the authorities (official
certification) or by the operators (certification under official supervision). Fixed rules exist for field
inspections, seed sampling and analyses by laboratories. The responsibilities of breeders, maintainers,
producers and suppliers of seed are subject to rules. In order to import seed and forest reproductive
material in the EU from third countries, national provisions governing seed production and control and
variety maintenance in the third countries are checked and considered by the EU as equivalent in order to
afford the same assurances as regards seed produced and controlled within the EU. The EU rules are
aligned with international standards.

21. In Latin America, seed laws vary considerably between nations, but the number of seed laws has
increased in the past decade. “During 2000, in Latin America in general, governments pushed to update
plant variety legislation that included seed certification and variety registration, and in many cases, as a
compulsory system. At the same time, government seed agencies encouraged participation from the seed
industry by delegating some of the official activities related to seed certification”5. Many Latin American
countries established seed certification mechanisms.

22. On the African continent, a regional harmonization of seed rules and regulations has been
undertaken in various regional economic communities of Africa including the Southern African
Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the
Communaute Economique et Monetaire de l‟Afrique Centrale (CEMAC). ECOWAS, for example,
introduced a new regulation on the harmonisation of rules governing quality control, certification and
marketing of plant seeds and agricultural plants in 2008. The purpose of this regulation is to: i) develop the
West African Catalogue of Plant Species and Varieties that lists the varieties whose seed may be marketed
in Member countries without restrictions; (ii) facilitate local production of quality seeds; (iii) facilitate seed
trade amongst ECOWAS Member States; (iv) facilitate timely and convenient access by farmers to quality
seeds; (v) create a positive investment climate for the private seed industry; and (vi) promote public-private
partnerships.6

III. SEED TESTING

23. Seed tests provide farmers, seed traders and regulators with information on the quality of seed
before it is sown. Seed quality can be described as the overall value of the seed, resulting from genetic
characteristics and from all other factors affecting the development, maturation and storability of the seed.
Seed testing laboratories evaluate these characteristics. Quality attributes tested in seed test laboratories
include minimum physical purity and limits on seeds of other crops and weed species; minimum
germination; limits on moisture contents and limits on seed-borne diseases. Other quality aspects evaluated
by a laboratory may include seed size and weight, seed vigour, seed viability and varietal quality
assessment, which may include the detection of genetically modified organisms.

The International Seed Testing Association

24. The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) was founded in 1924. Its primary purpose is
to develop and issue standard procedures for seed sampling and testing and to promote a uniform
application of these procedures for the evaluation of seed intended for the market. This is accomplished

5
Seed Association of the Americas (2009), Seed Movement in the Americas. Available at www.saaseed.org
6
See www.ecowas.int

6
through the publication of International Rules for Seed Testing, a laboratory accreditation system, the
ISTA international certificates and the dissemination of knowledge in seed science and technology.7 In
2011, ISTA Members represented 72 countries and 201 analytical or research laboratories in the public and
private sector.

25. The ISTA Rules describe principles and definitions and lay down detailed standardised methods,
techniques and procedures for seed sampling, testing and reporting results. The pillars of seed quality
control tests developed by ISTA are: sampling; analytical purity; other seed determination; germination;
moisture content; seed viability; diagnostic seed health and varietal tests. More recently, the ISTA Rules
have been extended to include the detection of genetically modified organisms in seeds. Thus, the methods
in the ISTA Rules aim to either meet regulatory needs or to satisfy technical and commercial evaluation
objectives regarding the potential of seeds.

26. ISTA‟s programme of laboratory accreditation, established in 1995 and specifically designed for
seed testing, aims to strengthen the system of validated standard testing methods and standard methods of
communicating results. In 2011, ISTA had 120 accredited public and private laboratories from 56 countries
all over the world. To be accredited a laboratory must establish a quality assurance system, pass audits and
obtain satisfactory results in the ISTA proficiency test programme. Therefore, the ISTA accreditation
system ensures the competence of laboratories, their independence and impartiality and their uniform
operation according to common standards.

27. ISTA international certificates can only be issued by ISTA accredited laboratories. They
guarantee: the identity of the seed lot with a single reference; the traceability of the analysis; the
competence of the laboratory that did the analysis; the use of validated methods and standard units and the
use of standard reporting languages. Today, the ISTA Orange International Seed Lot Certificate (OIC) is
widely used for international trade. The ISTA Rules and the OIC are referred to, or often embedded, in
national laws or regulation schemes.

Other seed testing organisations

28. The Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA) is an organisation of laboratories representing
the United States and Canada. Its membership is extended to allied laboratories, affiliate members and
honorary members. AOSA was formed to ensure uniformity and accuracy in methods, results and reports
in response to the development of seed laws by individual states. AOSA rules for seed testing are adopted
by most states and ensure that the testing methods and competence levels of analysts are standardized
between laboratories. AOSA‟s role is also to influence and assist in the enforcement of appropriate seed
legislation at state and federal levels.8

29. Another organisation, similar to AOSA, is the Society of Commercial Seed Technologists, which
is comprised of commercial, independent and government seed technologists. Established in 1922, the
Society functions as a liaison between AOSA and the American Seed Trade Association.9 The Society of
Commercial Seed Technologists has developed over the years into an organisation that trains and provides
accreditation of seed technologists, researches and develops rule changes and publishes training materials.

30. ISTA and AOSA provide the seed industry with standardized uniform seed evaluation methods
for seed law enforcement and testing of seed. They also provide a monitored system for training and

7
See www.seedtest.org
8
See www.aosaseed.com
9
See www.seedtechnology.net

7
educating seed technologists to the required standards. To reduce complications with the interpretation of
seed testing rules, both organisations work together to harmonize seed testing rules.

IV. PHYTOSANITARY MEASURES

31. Phytosanitary measures are government legislations, regulations and procedures that regulate,
restrict or prevent the import and marketing of certain plant species or plant products. These measures aim
to prevent the introduction and spread of plant pests across international boundaries or to limit the
economic impact of regulated non-quarantine pests. This is undertaken in a way that does not limit trade
while making trade in plants and plant products safe.

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS)

32. The movement of seed in international trade is based on the principles laid down by the
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO-SPS Agreement) of the
World Trade Organization (WTO), agreed in January 1995. The agreement allows countries to set their
own phytosanitary measures, but these must have a sound scientific basis. It is a requirement that “they
should be applied only to the extent necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health. And they
should not arbitrarily or unjustifiably discriminate between countries where identical or similar conditions
prevail”10.

33. The WTO-SPS agreement “restricts the use of unjustified sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS)
measures for the purpose of trade protection. The aim of the agreement is to maintain the sovereign right of
any government to provide the level of health protection it deems appropriate, but to ensure that these
sovereign rights are not misused and do not result in unnecessary barriers to international trade”11.

34. The WTO-SPS agreement also “encourages governments to establish national SPS measures
consistent with international standards, guidelines and recommendations”12. International standards can be
higher than the national standards of some countries, but the SPS Agreement allows governments to decide
whether they use national or international standards.

Harmonization of phytosanitary regulations

35. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is currently recognized by the WTO-SPS
Agreement as the only international standard setting body for plant health. These standards are used to
harmonise phytosanitary measures worldwide with the aim to prevent the introduction and spread of pests
of plants, plant products and other regulated articles and to promote appropriate measures for their control.
The framework for the development of national phytosanitary measures is established by the IPPC. The
Convention is governed by the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures, which adopts international
standards for phytosanitary measures. Currently 177 governments adhere to the IPPC.

36. There are three primary areas of activity under the IPPC relevant to seed trade: i) development
and implementation of international standards for phytosanitary measures; ii) exchange of official
phytosanitary information to facilitate trade and iii) a substantial capacity development programme to
assist developing countries in building their national capacities to meet their international phytosanitary
obligations.

10
See World Trade Organization, Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures website, Available at:
www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_e.htm
11
Ibid
12
Ibid

8
37. Currently there are nine Regional Plant Protection Organizations (RPPOs) worldwide that
facilitate the international harmonization of national phytosanitary measures and collaborate with the IPPC
Secretariat in fulfilment of the IPPC objectives.13 In the 27 Member States of the EU, one main plant health
Directive sets out the measures against the introduction of organisms harmful to plants or plant products
and against their spread within the EU. The objective of the EU plant health legislation is to protect the EU
territory against organisms which would endanger agriculture and forestry, public and private green,
natural environment and food security. In addition, various EU Directives on the marketing of seed and
plant propagating material include certain plant health requirements.

V. PLANT VARIETY PROTECTION

38. New varieties of plants with improved characteristics – such as increased yield potential or
disease and drought tolerance – improve and diversify agricultural production. There are various ways to
protect new varieties, including plant variety protection and patents. The WTO's Agreement on Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) obliges its signatories to implement a system for
the protection of plant varieties through patents, an effective sui generis system or a combination of both.14

Plant Variety Protection (PVP) and UPOV

39. The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) is an
intergovernmental organisation, which was established in 1961 by the International Convention for the
Protection of New Varieties of Plants (the “UPOV Convention”). The mission of UPOV is to provide and
promote an effective system of plant variety protection with the aim of encouraging the development of
new varieties of plants for the benefit of society.

40. The UPOV Convention provides the basis for UPOV Members to encourage plant breeding by
granting breeders of new plant varieties an intellectual property right: the breeder‟s right. The Convention
specifies acts that require a breeder‟s authorization in respect of propagating material of a protected variety
and – under certain conditions – in respect of the harvested material. In brief, this means that the
authorisation of a breeder is required to propagate a protected variety for commercial purposes.

41. Under the UPOV Convention, the breeder‟s right is only granted where the variety is i) new; ii)
distinct from existing, commonly known varieties; (iii) uniform; and (iv) stable and has suitable
denomination. The breeder‟s right does not extend to acts done i) privately and for non-commercial
purposes, ii) for experimental purposes and iii) for the purpose of breeding other varieties. Like all
intellectual property rights, plant breeders‟ rights are granted for a limited period of time, at the end of
which protected varieties pass into public domain.15

42. UPOV Members signal their intention to protect plant breeders on the basis of principles that
have gained world-wide recognition and support. National plant breeders obtain the possibility of obtaining
protection in the territories of other members, and foreign breeders are provided with an incentive to invest
in plant breeding and the release of new varieties on national territory. Indeed, the UPOV report on the
impact of plant variety protection demonstrated that the introduction of the UPOV system of plant variety
protection was associated with an improved access to foreign plant varieties, enhanced domestic breeding
programmes and an increased number of new varieties.

13
See www.ippc.int/index.php?id=13310
14
See article 27.3b of the TRIPs Agreement, available at www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips_04c_e.htm
15
See www.upov.int

9
43. In order to become a UPOV Member, the advice of the UPOV Council in respect of the
conformity of the law of the future member with the provisions of the UPOV Council is required. This
leads to a high degree of harmony in those laws and thereby facilitates the co-operation between members
in the implementation of the system.

44. Cooperation between UPOV Members also includes the technical examination of plant varieties.
It is based on arrangements whereby one member can conduct tests on behalf of others or whereby one
member accepts the test results produced by others as the basis for the decision on the grant of a breeder‟s
right. Through such arrangements, members are able to minimize the cost of operating their protection
systems, and breeders are able to obtain protection in several territories at relatively low cost.

45. The effectiveness of the UPOV system is enhanced by the provision of guidance and information
materials, such as explanatory notes, information documents, guidelines and electronic databases.

46. At the regional level, the European Union, since 1995, operates a regional system that has been
established by Community legislation. The system allows intellectual property rights, valid throughout the
27 Member states, to be granted for new plant varieties. This system is in conformity with the UPOV 1991
Act, and the EU is a member of UPOV. In Africa, since 1999, a regional system has been established by
OAPI (Organisation africaine de la propriété intellectuelle) that includes 16 Member states and is as well in
conformity with the UPOV 1991 Act.

Exchange of germplasm and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture

47. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (the “International
Treaty”) is an international legally binding instrument governing access and benefit-sharing for plant
genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA).

48. The objectives of the International Treaty are the conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA and
the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of their use – in harmony with the Convention on
Biological Diversity – for sustainable agriculture and food security. It was negotiated within the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations with the main goals of facilitating the exchange of plant
genetic material for research and breeding and of balancing the interests of all involved stakeholders,
including commercial breeders and farmers. It came into force in June 2004 and currently counts 127
Contracting Parties.16

49. By agreeing to make available to each other 64 of the most important food and forage crops, the
Contracting Parties to the International Treaty established a global gene pool, namely the Multilateral
System of Access and Benefit-sharing (the MLS). Facilitated access to PGRFA in the gene pool is
accorded through a standard material transfer agreement (SMTA), adopted in 2006 and currently utilised
on a global scale.

50. The International Treaty allows for intellectual property rights on new plant varieties obtained
from material derived from the MLS in order to re-compensate plant breeders for their efforts. At the same
time it triggers the sharing of monetary and non-monetary benefits for farmers, especially those in
developing countries. In practice, any restriction to further research and breeding of a commercialised
product incorporating material derived from the MLS (typically, a new plant variety), triggers a mandatory
payment into a multilateral benefit-sharing fund. This fund is also open to voluntary contributions by the
private sector and grants by institutional donors. Resources in the benefit-sharing fund are managed by the

16
See www.planttreaty.org

10
Contracting Parties to the International Treaty to finance projects in developing countries for the
conservation and the sustainable use of crop diversity.

51. The International Treaty advocates the promotion and protection of farmers‟ rights, by setting
forth a non-exhaustive list of measures that the national governments of the Contracting Parties should
take. Those measures are: the protection of traditional knowledge of relevance to PGRFA; the right to
equitable benefit-sharing and the right to participate in national decision making related to PGRFA.

VI. CAPACITY BUILDING AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

52. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) plays a leading role in the
conservation and use of PGRFA for sustainable increases in agricultural production. It provides a forum
for dialogue and information exchange for international standard setting as well as technical assistance for
the development of national policies and legislations for implementation of international regulatory
frameworks.

53. Development and strengthening of seed sector has been part of FAO‟s programme for over thirty
years, and a key element in FAO‟s activities since the adoption of the Global Plan of Action (GPA) for the
Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of PGRFA in 1996. The GPA has provided a globally agreed
framework for countries to adopt supportive policies and programmes for optimal harnessing of plant
genetic resources. It was revised in 2011 to address the new and emerging challenges of food security and
climate change and calls for strengthening capacities and partnerships among all stakeholders. The second
Global Plan of Action was adopted in November 2011.

54. Strengthening seed systems is a priority area of the second GPA. A main activity is to support the
development of an enabling environment through the development of appropriate seed policies and
regulatory frameworks. Technical cooperation is provided to the supporting components of the
International Treaty on PGRFA through strengthening germplasm management, plant breeding and the
seed sector, including appropriate biotechnology, building capacities at national level, and increasing the
effective implementation of the GPA.

55. FAO provides assistance to its Member states in seed policy and legislation development and
capacity building in the following ways:

 National seed policy: FAO provides a technical and facilitating role in the development of
national seed policies through a participatory process involving the key stakeholders in the public
and private sector. It deals with how the following means can be best used to develop the seed
sector: seed quality assurance schemes including seed quality control and variety release
procedures; legislation; extension services; manpower development; credit and subsidies; local
seed enterprises; taxation; international cooperation etc.

 Regional harmonization of seed regulations: FAO also provides a technical and facilitating role
in the harmonization of seed regulations at regional level, which is recognized as vital for the
development of the seed sector, because it facilitates cross-border movement of seeds and
provides a broader market for seed enterprises. By facilitating cross-border seed trade, the
harmonization of seed regulations also allows countries with seed deficits to trade more easily
with neighbouring countries with seed surpluses, thereby promoting seed security.

 Seed production and quality assurance: In terms of seed production and quality assurance, FAO
provides assistance to its Member countries in developing and improving national or sub-national

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 seed programmes for seed production. Activities range from the support of early generation seed
multiplication by national research institutions to the support of small-scale seed enterprises.

 Quality Declared Seed: FAO has developed the Quality Declared Seed (QDS) system through
expert consultations with Member countries in 1993 (revised in 2006). These guidelines are
aimed at assisting small-scale farmers as well as specialists in seed production, field agronomists
and agricultural extension agents to initiate the production of quality seed. The system provides
an approach for countries that want to initiate a seed quality assurance system and is particularly
designed for countries with limited resources. The QDS system is less demanding than certified
seed quality assurance systems but guarantees a satisfactory level of seed quality.

56. FAO is collaborating with a number of regional seed associations in Africa, Asia and regional
economic communities to bring together public institutions and private companies to strengthen seed systems. It
has developed a joint initiative with ISF, ISTA, OEDC and UPOV to facilitate the development of the seed
sector. A strategic approach is adopted in order to link the formal and informal seed sector; develop local seed
enterprises; strengthen seed policies and legislation at national and regional levels and improve national and
regional information systems for seed security. FAO assists in collecting and sharing accumulated experiences,
including best practices and country case studies illustrating transitional processes in developing countries.

57. The Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building (GIPB) 17, established by
FAO, is a multi-party initiative of knowledge institutions committed to developing stronger and effective
plant breeding capacity. It has assessed national plant breeding and associated biotechnology capacity
worldwide and developed a series of in depth studies.The GIPB aims at enhancing the capacity of developing
countries to improve crops through better plant breeding and delivery systems.

VII. INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR TRADE AND ARBITRATION

58. Unlike the previous organisations, where participants were mainly governments, the International
Seed Federation (ISF) is an international organisation whose members are national seed associations and
seed companies. With members spread over 70 developed and developing countries on all continents, ISF
represents the large majority of the world seed trade and plant breeders‟ community. It serves as an
international forum where issues of interest to the seed industry are discussed.18

59. The mission of the ISF is to facilitate the international movement of seed, related know-how and
technology; to mobilize and represent the seed industry at a global level; to inform its members and to
promote the interests and the image of the seed industry. In order to fulfil its mission, the ISF promotes
strong co-operation among national and regional seed associations. It endeavours to work in partnership
with organisations responsible for international treaties, conventions and agreements and those that shape
policies that impact the seed industry.

60. To support international seed business, ISF developed a corpus of „commercial laws‟, including
trade rules and arbitration rules (procedural rules for dispute settlement in the areas of trade).

61. Trade rules clarify and standardize contractual relations between buyers and sellers at the
international level. They are developed keeping in mind international trade of seed and the production of
seed from seed-stock of the buyer. The trade rules aim at providing seed traders with guidelines and
standards for preparing a good contract and achieving mutual satisfactory trade. They are constantly
updated; following the evolution of the economy and modern technologies. The trade rules are

17
See http://km.fao.org/gipb/
18
See www.worldseed.org

12
complemented by procedural rules for mediation, conciliation and / or arbitration when resolving disputes
on trade and intellectual property issues.

VIII. CONCLUDING REMARKS

62. All the regulatory aspects discussed in this paper affect world seed trade: between which
countries trade occurs, how it takes place and the shape of the agricultural sector within the exporting and
importing countries. Despite the existence of a number of regulatory bodies, whose objectives are to
harmonize regulations and encourage regional or international seed trade, there are still considerable
differences in seed laws and regulations on a national scale. These differences mean that seed cannot
always move freely between countries. It also highlights the importance of international schemes that
require Member countries to satisfy a number of criteria, thus assuring that necessary standards for safety
and quality are met for the movement of seed throughout the world. Predictable and reliable regulatory
environments will facilitate trade between trading parties, thereby ensuring that high-quality seed can be
made available to farmers.

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 ANNEX 1

Figure 1: Overview of international organisations and other actors in the seed supply chain

14
 ANNEX 2

Further information on different regulatory aspects that affect world seed trade can be found at:

Organisation Website

Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA) www.aosaseed.com

Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA) www.aosca.org

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/en

International Seed Federation (ISF) www.worldseed.org

International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) www.seedtest.org

International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants www.upov.int

(UPOV)

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) www.oecd.org/tad/seed

World Trade Organization www.wto.org

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 OECD SEED SCHEMES

A Synthesis of International Regulatory

Aspects that Affect Seed Trade

Agriculture plays a fundamental role in meeting the world’s growing demand for food, feed and fibre. Farmers
worldwide will have to produce more food in a sustainable way and with fewer resources; and access to high quality
seed is an important factor in facing these challenges.

To strengthen the seed sector it is essential that seed producers adhere to policies that guarantee quality standards
and appropriate regulatory features. A functioning regulatory framework helps to promote competitive seed markets
and lowers trade barriers, thereby providing a better choice of quality seed for farmers.

This document reviews regulatory aspects related to the seed trade and the role of international organisations in
trade harmonisation and the establishment of international standards. Special attention is paid to the OECD Seed
Schemes and their contribution to the development of an international seed certification framework. The document
discusses seed certification, seed testing and phytosanitary measures. It also sheds light on plant variety protection,
capacity building at the international level and international rules for seed trade and arbitration.

September 2012

www.oecd.org/tad/seed