GEOLOGIC
The continents appear to fit together, and
CONTINENTAL DRIFT & PLATE not just South America and Africa. If the
TECTONICS continental margins are included, the fit is
even better.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
In the early 20th century, a
scientific theory called continental drift
was proposed about this migration of the
continents. That theory was initially
ridiculed, but it paved the way for another
theory called plate tectonics that
scientists have now accepted to explain This figure shows the evolution of the
how Earth’s continents move. continents, from the super-continent
Pangaea to the way they look now.
The story begins with Alfred Wegener
(1880–1930), a German meteorologist and
geophysicist who noticed something FOSSIL
curious when he looked at a map of the
world. Wegener observed that the
continents of South America and Africa
looked like they would fit together
remarkably well—take away the Atlantic
Ocean and these two massive landforms
would lock neatly together. He also noted
that similar fossils were found on
continents separated by oceans,
additional evidence that perhaps the
landforms had once been joined. He
hypothesized that all of the modern-day
continents had previously been clumped
together in a supercontinent he called
Pangaea (from ancient Greek, meaning One type of evidence that strongly
“all lands” or “all the Earth”). Over millions supported the Theory of Continental
of years, Wegener suggested, the Drift is the fossil record. Scientists
continents had drifted apart. He did not have found fossils of similar types of
know what drove this movement, however. plants and animals in rocks of similar
Wegener first presented his idea of age. These rocks were on the shores of
continental drift in 1912, but it was widely different continents. This suggests that
ridiculed and soon, mostly, forgotten. the continents were once joined.
Wegener never lived to see his theory
accepted—he died at the age of 50 while For example, fossils of Mesosaurus,
on an expedition in Greenland. a freshwater reptile, have been found
both in Brazil and western Africa. Also,
fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus
The idea of moving landmasses seems have been found in Africa, India, and
obvious now, but Wegener’s Theory of Antarctica.
Continental Drift was not accepted for
many years. Wegener did not have a
convincing explanation for the cause of CLIMATE
the drifting. First, he suggested that the
continents were moving around due to the The climate is found in zones around
Earth’s rotation. This later turned out to the planet. Warm tropical climates are
be wrong. Secondly, he was a mostly found near the equator. Glaciers
meteorologist, not a geologist. This meant are mostly found nearer the poles.
that geologists didn’t think he knew what Wegener assumed that these things
he was talking about and did not take him were true in the ancient past.
seriously.
Grooves and rock deposits left by
ancient glaciers are found today on
different continents very close to the
equator. This would indicate that the
glaciers either formed in the middle of
the ocean and/or covered most of the
Earth. Today glaciers only form on land
and nearer the poles. Wegener thought
that the glaciers were centered over the
southern land mass close to the South
Pole and the continents moved to their
present positions later on.
Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps
are found in tropical and subtropical 1. African Plate
environments, but ancient coal seams 2. Antarctic Plate
and coral reefs are found in locations 3. Eurasian Plate
where it is much too cold today. Wegener 4. Australian Plate
suggested that these creatures were 5. North American Plate
alive in warm climate zones and that the 6. Pacific Plate
fossils and coal later drifted to new 7. South American Plate
locations on the continents.
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
PLATE TECTONICS
Ultimately, geologists established three
Tectonic plates are pieces of the basic types of plate boundaries with their
lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of respective effects. They are called
the crust and the upper mantle. These pieces Convergent, Divergent, and Transform
float on a layer of partly liquid rock called the boundaries.
asthenosphere. Tectonic plates can move
because the lithosphere is stronger and
denser than the rock below it. • In Divergent boundaries two plates
move away from each other. This
Together, these observations were causes earthquakes along the
consistent with a new theory proposed by boundaries, and magma (molten rock)
researchers who built on Wegener’s original from deep in the Earth’s mantle rises
idea of continental drift—the theory of plate to the surface, dragging minerals and
tectonics. According to this theory, Earth’s gases up to be incorporated into the
crust is broken into roughly 20 sections new crust.
called tectonic plates on which the
continents ride. When these plates press
together and then move suddenly, energy is
released in the form of earthquakes. That is
why earthquakes do not occur everywhere
on Earth—they’re clustered around the
boundaries of tectonic plates. Plate
tectonics also explains the stripes of rock on
the seafloor with alternating magnetic
properties: As buoyant, molten rock rises
from deep within Earth it emerges from the
space between spreading tectonic plates
and hardens, creating a ridge. Because • In Convergent boundaries the plates
some minerals within rocks record the move toward each other, and the
orientation of Earth’s magnetic poles and collision causes subduction zones,
this orientation flips every 100,000 years or where one plate slides under another,
so, rocks near ocean ridges exhibit dragging material down into Earth’s
alternating magnetic stripes. mantle. This causes earthquakes,
volcanoes, and the rise of mountains.
There are currently seven plates that make Subduction is important for the
up most of the continents and the Pacific circulation of minerals and gases.
Ocean. They are:
(a) Hydraulic Action
It is the mechanical loosening and
removal of the material from the
rocks due to pressure exerted by
the running water.
• In Transform boundaries or “shearing”
the plates slide past each other.
Typically, this splits apart and grinds up
rock formations. Undersea canyons are
examples of this process.
(b) Cavitations
It is a distinct and rare type of
hydraulic action performed by
running water. It is particularly
observed where river water
suddenly acquires exceptionally
high velocity such as at the
location of a waterfall.
Plate tectonics explains why Earth’s
continents are moving; the theory of
continental drift did not explain. Therefore,
the theory of plate tectonics is more
complete. It has gained widespread
acceptance among scientists. This shift from
one theory to another is an example of the
scientific process: As more observations are
made and measurements are collected,
scientists revise their theories to be more
accurate and consistent with the natural
world.
(c) Abrasion
It is the principal method of stream
erosion and involves wearing away
EARTH PROCESSES WEATHERING: of the bedrocks and rocks along the
banks of a stream or river by the
running water with the help of sand
METHODS OF RIVER grains, pebbles and gravels and all
EROSION such particles that are being carried
By erosion is meant disintegration by it as load. Abrasion is, in fact, a
and decomposition of the rocks and sort of impact and scour method
soil material by a natural agent involving loosening, disintegrating,
through mechanical, chemical, and rubbing, grinding and polishing
other physio- chemical processes action of tools on the rocks of the
accompanied by removal of the channel.
disintegrated or decomposed
product to far off places by the
same agent.
(d) Attrition Saltation
Term is used for wear and tear of the It happens when free materials are
load sediments being transported by eliminated from a bed and conveyed by
a moving natural agency through the the liquid, prior to being moved back to
process of mutual impacts and the surface.
collusions which they suffer during
their transport.
GEOLOGICAL WORK OF WIND
(e) Corrosion Atmosphere is composed mainly of
gases that are collectively known as
The slow but steady chemical air. Air in motion is called wind.
(especially solvent) action of
the stream water on the rocks is In general it may be said that winds
expressed by the term are born mainly due to non-uniform
corrosion. heating of the surface of the earth at
different places causing differences
in atmospheric pressure.
Wind Erosion
Wind performs work of erosion by at
least three different methods:
deflation, abrasion and attrition.
(a) Deflation
By itself, wind possesses not much
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY RIVERS erosive power over rocks or over the
ground covered with vegetation.
This process of removal of particles
of dust and sand by strong winds is
called deflation. It is the main
process of wind erosion in desert
regions.
Suspension
Suspension is a method of
transporting very fine sediment in a
river. The sediment is presumably
dissolved from bigger shakes
upstream and is then conveyed in
the water. (b) Wind Abrasion
Wind becomes a powerful agent for
Traction rubbing and abrading the rock
surfaces when naturally loaded
Traction is the geologic process
with sand and dust particles. This
whereby a current transports larger,
load is acquired by the strong
heavier rocks by rolling or sliding them
winds quite easily when blowing
along the bottom.
over sand dunes in deserts and
over the dry ploughed fields.
The Sea Waves
These may be described as undulatory
disturbance on the surface of the
seawater due to strong rushing wind,
earthquakes, attraction of sea water by
the sun and the moon.
Currents
These are layers of the sea water that
are actually pushed forward in any
particular direction. In most case, sea
currents are the results of dissipation
of extra volume of water thrust on the
shore by advancing wanes. Following
are two type of currents are more
important in the geological work of the
(c) Attrition by wind Sea. Littoral Currents and Rip
Currents.
The sand grins and other particles
lifted by the wind from different place
a. Littoral Currents - These are
are carried away to considerable
bodies of sea water of considerable
distances. It is termed attrition and is
volume moving along and parallel to
primarily responsible for reduction in
the shore.
size of the load particles during their
transport.
b. Rip Currents - These are bodies
of sea water moving backward to
sea after having reached and struck
the seashore.
The work of erosion is accomplished in
three ways: Hydraulic action, abrasion
and corrosion.
Hydraulic Action
This is the process of erosion by
water involving breaking, loosening
and removing out of rock from their
original place by the strong forces
created by the impact of the sea
GEOLOGICAL WORK OF SEA wave and currents.
A sea is an broadly developed continuous
body of salt water having extension or
embayment. Depth of sea is generally less
than 4 km.
Marine Abrasion River sand is called natural sand as it
is usually available near the river
The involving rubbing and grinding action
banks and streams.
of sea water
Due to its fine texture, River Sand is
used for plastering, RCC (Reinforced
Cement Concrete), and other block
works. Another thing to check in River
Sand is, River Sand tends to have a
high Silica content, before using it in
construction the River Sand should be
checked for the percentage of silica
present in the sand. The silica present
in the sand should be less than 5%.
The advantage of using the River sand
is since the river sand has more
moisture content, the water
requirement will be less. Its moisture
on the rock of the shore with help of sand absorption is prized for improving
particles and other small fragments that are structural integrity. This should not be
hurled up again and again against these confused with beach sand, as that
rocks. material is deemed inferior compared
to most types of sand in terms of
durability.
Corrosion
It is solvent action of sea water, which
particularly strong in environments where
the shore rock is of a vulnerable chemical EARTHQUAKE GROUNDWATER
composition.
EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE
Why weathering is important?
Weathering is a very important process
because it breaks down rocks and
minerals, which helps to create soil. Soil is
necessary for the growth of plants, which
provide food and oxygen for animals and
humans. Weathering also creates land
forms such as mountains, valleys,
canyons, and plateaus.
And in the case for our course, BSCE, one
of the most important thing that we need An earthquake is caused by a sudden
when building infrastructure is sand. Sand slip on a fault. The tectonic plates are
is a non-renewable resource over human always slowly moving, but they get
timescales, and sand suitable for making stuck at their edges due to friction.
concrete is in high demand. Non- When the stress on the edge
renewable in a sense that it is a natural overcomes the friction it releases
resource that cannot be readily replaced energy in waves that travel through the
by natural means at a pace quick enough earth's crust and cause the shaking
to keep up with consumption. that we feel.
River Sand • seismic wave train arrives
(coseismic)
River sand is one of the most widely used • wave train passes (postseismic)
sand & is most sought for construction • water-level changes before an
due to its texture. The texture of the sand earthquake (preseismic)
is so fine that nowadays, it has become
temporarily unavailable due to huge
demand.
GROUND WATER Meteoric water
This refers to groundwater that
originates from rainfall and other forms
of precipitation such as hailstorms and
snowfall. It is the result of precipitation
water seeping into the ground.
Groundwater also called subsurface water
because it is found underground in
saturated zones. Saturated zones occur
beneath the surface of the earth where it
occupies all or part of the void spaces in
soil, sand, and rock. Groundwater helps to
replenish and maintain levels of surface Juvenile water
waters such as rivers, lakes and streams.
Typically, groundwater helps to keep our
rivers flowing. It is also referred to as magmatic water.
This is water that is brought closer to the
earth’s surface due to volcanic activities.
It usually has high mineral content.
The following are four types of
ground water:
Connate water
It may also refer as fossil water. This is
water trapped in the pores of the rock
during the formation of rocks. The
chemical composition of water changes
with the changes that the rock
undergoes. Most connate water is
saline.
Oceanic water
This is groundwater that results from the
seepage of groundwater into the
ground. It is common in the coastal
areas where ocean water seeps
horizontally into the ground from the
ocean.
Sources of Groundwater: What is Earthquake
Groundwater ?
Rain Water
Groundwater systems often comprise
Some rain water which percolates layers of permeable rock called aquifers
and is trapped after meeting an separated by low-permeability layers
impermeable rock. called aquitards. Major earthquakes are
known to affect surface water and
groundwater systems;
Melt Water
Water that infiltrates into the
ground when snow melts during
spring and summer.
Surface Water
Water from rivers, seas, swamps,
oceans, lakes and ponds that
seep into the ground.
Most likely cause of water
disappearing is that it flows into
crustal ruptures that are newly formed
during the earthquake.
Magmatic/Plutonic
Water
(Figure 1)
Water trapped in rocks beneath
surface during vulcanicity.
Springs
Place where water flows out
naturally onto the earth‟s surface
along a slope.
Earthquakes like the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake in Japan increase the
permeability of aquifers thousands of
kilometers away.
Reason: After an earthquake, regional
stream flows will sometimes increase
because of an influx of groundwater being
released from aquifers.
for instance, by altering spring locations,
making streams disappear, or causing
groundwater levels to drop temporarily or
permanently. Other factors after an
earthquake, regional stream flows will
sometimes increase because of an influx of
groundwater being released from aquifers.
There are two most common groundwater-
level response; the water-level oscillation
and the instantaneous water-level offset, or
step, these step changes can be large
enough to make a well flow at land surface,
or to cause a well to go dry near an
earthquake.
Changes in groundwater levels occur 'near
field' of an earthquake because the
earthquake subjects the earth's crust,
including its aquifer systems, to stress and
permanent strain (deformation). This
deformation process results in altered fluid
pressure within the aquifer systems, and
consequently, a step- like change in water
level would be expected. Changes can be up
or down, because the stress and strain
effects on the system vary. For upward steps
in shallow wells, compaction of overlying
sediments may raise the groundwater level.
Alternately, in a fractured rock aquifer, the
fractures providing water to the well may be
widened, unclogged, or sealed by the wave
train of an earthquake. New water-bearing
fractures may even be created. Water levels
in these systems can permanently increase
or decrease as a result.
EXAMPLE:
The six hydrographs below present
groundwater levels measured in selected
wells monitored by the USGS. The
hydrographs presented here are
produced from wells with near real-time
instrumentation. These graphs were
selected as examples of locations where
measured groundwater levels responded
to the August 23, 2011, Virginia
earthquake. The red arrow indicates the
approximate time of the mainshock of
the earthquake near Mineral, Virginia.
