Physical Layer

Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Introduction of Network
 Network: A network is defined as a group of two or more
computer systems linked together.
 Types of Networks:
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN
 PAN
 Ad-hoc Network
Local Area Networks (LAN)
 floor/building-wide
 single communication medium
 no routing, broadcast
 segments connected by switches or hubs
 high bandwidth, low latency
 Ethernet - 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps
 no latency guarantees
LAN- Local Area Network
 It is designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory.
 LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot.
 Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other
through LANs.
 We can use different types of topologies through LAN, these are
Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
 LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to
share files and network among each other while it can also be as
complex as interconnecting an entire building.
 LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like
printers, shared hard-drive etc.
LAN Diagram
LAN Advantages
• Cost reductions through sharing of information and
databases, resources and network services.
• Increased information exchange between different
departments in an organization, or between
individuals.
• The trend to automate communication and
manufacturing process.
LAN Disadvantages
 Special security measures are needed to stop users
from using programs and data that they should not
have access to;
• Networks are difficult to set up and need to be
maintained by skilled technicians.
• If the file server develops a serious fault, all the
users are affected, rather than just one user in the case of a
stand-alone machine.
Applications
 One of the computer in a network can become a server
serving all the remaining computers called clients. Software
can be stored on the server and it can be used by the
remaining clients.
 Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let
them communicate with each other locally without any
internet access.
 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some
common applications of LAN.
MAN- Metropolitan Area Network
 It is basically a bigger version of LAN.
 It is also called MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN.
 It is designed to extend over the entire city.
 It can be means to connecting a number of LANs into a
larger network or it can be a single cable.
 It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a
public company.
MAN- Metropolitan Area Network
continued….
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
 city-wide, up to 50 km
 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): .25 - 8 Mbps, 5.5km from
switch
 BellSouth: .8 to 6 Mbps
 Cable modem: 1.5 Mbps, longer range than DSL
 Bright house w/ Road Runner: .5 to 10Mbps
MAN Diagram
MAN-Advantages
 It provides a good back bone for a large network and
provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in
both direction simultaneously.
 A Man usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an
entire city.
MAN-Disadvantages
 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place
to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and
industrial espionage (spying) graphical regions.
MAN Applications
 The MAN can be used to provide services including
 telecoms,
 Internet access,
 television and
 CCTV to businesses and citizens in these metropolitan areas.
WAN-Wide Area Network
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public
leased network.
 It is used for the network that covers large distance such as
cover states of a country.
 It is not easy to design and maintain.
 Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite
links.
 WAN operates on low data rates.
WAN-Wide Area Network…continued
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 world-wide
 Different organizations
 Large distances
 routed, latency .1 - .5 seconds
WAN Diagram
WAN Advantages
•Covers a large geographical area so long distance
businesses can connect on the one network.
•Shares software and resources with connecting
workstations.
•Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the
network
•Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to
the internet) can be shared by all the computers on the
network without having to buy a different peripheral for each
computer.
•Everyone on the network can use the same data. This
avoids problems where some users may have older
information than others.
WAN Disadvantages
•Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering
and disrupting the network
•Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and
complicated. The bigger the network the more
expensive it is.
•Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job
which requires network supervisors and technicians to
be employed.
•Security is a real issue when many different people have
the ability to use information from other computers.
•Protection against hackers and viruses adds more
complexity and expense.
PAN-Personal Area Network
 PAN stands for personal area network, a network covering a
very small area, usually a small room.
 PAN’s can be wired or wireless.
 The best known wireless PAN network technology is
Bluetooth, and the most popular wired PAN is USB.
 Wi-Fi also serves as a PAN technology, since Wi-Fi is also
used over a small area.
PAN- Diagram
PAN-Advantages
 The pan is a personal network of one or two person so there

is no risk of any leak of data.

PAN-Disadvantages
 The network it can only travel straight up to 10mts and if in

different rooms then only 2mts.

 In the case of infrared the infra red sensor bust be in a

straight line otherwise it won't communicate.

 Transmission speed is slow to moderate.

 Ad-hoc Networks
 A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) or MANET is a
decentralized type of wireless network.
 The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a pre-
existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks
or access points in managed (infrastructure) wireless
networks.
 Ad-hoc means without base station or Access point
(means without infrastructure)
 Ad-hoc Network Diagram

Figure (a) Wireless networking with a base station.

(b) Ad hoc networking.
 Ad-hoc Network Advantages
 Ad-hoc networks can have more flexibility.
 It is better in mobility.
 It can be turn up and turn down in a very short time.
 It can be more economical.
 It considered a robust network because of its non-
hierarchical distributed control and management
mechanisms
Ad-hoc Network Disadvantages
 Hostile environment and irregular connectivity.
 There are no known boundaries for the maximum range that
nodes will be able to receive network frames.
 The wireless channel is weak, unreliable, and unprotected
from outside interferences.
• Limited wireless range.
• Hidden terminals.
• Packet losses.
• Routes changes.
• Devices heterogeneity.
• Battery power constraints.
Ad-hoc Network Applications
 Group of people with laptops and they want to exchange
files and data without having an access point.
 Incase if we need to exchange information and the network's
infrastructure has been destroyed.
 It is suitable for military communications at battlefield where
there is no network infrastructure.
Other Wireless Networks
 Wireless local area networks (WLAN)
 IEEE 802.11 (WiFi)
 10-100 Mbps, 1.5km
 802.11 (1997): upto 2 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
 802.11a (1999): upto 54 Mbps, 5 GHz, ~75 feet outdoor
 802.11b (1999): upto 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet [most popular]
 802.11g (2003): upto 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet [backward
compatible with 802.11b, becoming more popular]
 Wireless metropolitan area networks (WMAN)
 IEEE 802.16 (WiMax)
 1.5-20 Mbps, 5-50km
Other Wireless Networks
 Wireless wide area networks (WWAN)
 worldwide
 GSM (Global System for Mobile communications)
 9.6 – 33 kbps
 3G (“third generation”): 128-384 kbps to 2Mbps
Other Networks
 Internetworks
 connecting different kinds of networks
 routers, gateways
 WAN
LAN

PAN

CAN
MAN
 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN LAN,WAN,MAN
PARAMETERS LAN WAN MAN

Ownership of network Private Private or public Private or public

Geographical area
Small Very large Moderate
covered

Design and maintenance Easy Not easy Not easy

Coaxial cables, PSTN,

Communication Twisted Pair cable
PSTN or satellite links optical fibre, cables,
medium (UTP)
wireless

Bandwidth Low High moderate

Data rates(speed) High Low moderate

Network performance
Example Range Bandwidth Latency
(Mbps) (ms)
Wired:
LAN Ethernet 1-2 km 10-1000 1-10
MAN ATM 250 km 1-150 10
WAN IP routing worldwide .01-600 100-500
Internetwork Internet worldwide 0.5-600 100-500
Wireless:
WPAN Bluetooth (802.15.1) 10 - 30m 0.5-2 5-20
WLAN WiFi (IEEE 802.11) 0.15-1.5 km 2-54 5-20
WMAN WiMAX (802.16) 550 km 1.5-20 5-20
WWAN GSM, 3G phone nets worldwide 0.01-2 100-500
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Topologies-Types of Network Topology

 BUS
 RING
 STAR
 MESH
 TREE
 HYBRID
BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called
Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

It transmits data only in one direction.
Every device is connected to a single cable
BUS Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Cables fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of
the network decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
 It is slower than the ring topology.
 RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology

 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large

number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to
the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data
will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence
to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called
Dual Ring Topology.
 In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data
flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the
second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
 Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data
transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the
destination node.
Ring Topology
Advantages of Ring Topology
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by
adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can
transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network
activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
 STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
STAR Topology
Advantages of Star Topology
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

Features of Mesh Topology

Fully connected.
Robust.
Not flexible.
MESH Topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.
 TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
Used in Wide Area Network.
TREE Topology
Advantages of Tree Topology
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.
 HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
HYBRID Topology
Features of Hybrid Topology
 It is a combination of two or topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies
included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
 Effective.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 Complex in design.
 Costly.
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

NETWORK CLASSIFICATION BY THEIR
COMPONENT ROLE

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

PEER TO PEER NETWORK CLIENT SERVER NETWORK

 PEER TO PEER NETWORK
 A peer-to-peer network is a distributed network architecture composed of
participants that make a portion of their resources, such as processing
power, disk storage or network bandwidth directly to network participants
without the need for central coordination instances.
 Used largely for sharing of content files such as audio, video, data or
anything in a digital format.
 There are many p2p protocols such as Ares, Bittorrent, or eDonkey.
 Can be very large
 Can also be used for business solutions for relatively small companies that
may not have resources available to implement a server solution.
 Peer to peer network is useful for a small network containing less than 10
computers on a single LAN .
 In peer to peer network each computer can function as both client and
server.
 Peer to peer networks do not have a central control system. There are no
servers in peer networks.
 Peer networks are amplified into home group.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF
PEER TO PEER NETWORK
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Use less expensive computer  Not very secure
hardware  No central point of storage
 Easy to administer or file archiving
 No NOS required  Additional load on computer

 More built in redundancy because of resource sharing

 Hard to maintain version
 Easy setup & low cost
control
CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK
 In client-server network relationships, certain computers act as
server and other act as clients. A server is simply a computer, that
available the network resources and provides service to other
computers when they request it. A client is the computer running
a program that requests the service from a server.
 Local area network(LAN) is based on client server network
relationship.
 A client-server network is one n which all available network
resources such as files, directories, applications and shared
devices, are centrally managed and hosted and then are accessed
by client.
 Client serve network are defined by the presence of servers on a
network that provide security and administration of the network.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Very secure  requires professional
administration
 Better performance
 More hardware-intensive
 Centralized backup
 More software intensive
 very reliable
 Expensive dedicated software
TYPES OF SERVERS
TYPES OF SERVERS
 File server: These servers provide the services for storing,
retrieving and moving the data. A user can read, write, exchange
and manage the files with the help of file servers.
 Printer server: The printer server is used for controlling and
managing printing on the network. It also offers the fax service to
the network users.
 Application server: The expensive software and additional
computing power can be shared by the computers in a network
with he help of application servers.
 Message server: It is used to co-ordinate the interaction
between users, documents and applications. The data can be used
in the for of audio, video, binary, text or graphics.
 Database server: It is a type of application server. It allows the
uses to access the centralised strong database.
Distributed Networks
 Arrangement of networked computers in which several processors
(the CPUs) are located on scattered machines, but are capable of
working both independently and jointly as required.
 The key elements of Distributed Network Architecture are, as the
name implies, the distribution of decision-making and control out
to each site, while simultaneously, networking and synchronizing
the various sites together via a central hub.
 Distributed networking is a distributed computing network
system, said to be distributed when the computer programming
and the data to be worked on are spread out across more than one
computer. Usually, this is implemented over a computer network.
Benefits of Distributed Network Architecture
 Scalability: Enterprise solutions that rely on a single
Enterprise server inevitably suffer from performance issues
as the Enterprise grows and the server is overwhelmed.
Moreover, single server solutions are highly susceptible to
network failures.
 Cost: Servers and software at each local site can be
appropriately sized to meet the specific needs of each site,
without requiring installing an expensive server at even the
smallest sites.
 Reliability: Distributed Network Architecture is much
more tolerant of network and hardware failures than a single
server approach.
SDN- Software Defined Network
SDN Architecture
Need /Goal of SDN
 The goal of SDN is to allow network engineers and
administrators to respond quickly to changing business
requirements. In a software-defined network, a network
administrator can shape traffic from a centralized control
console without having to touch individual switches, and can
deliver services to wherever they are needed in the network,
without regard to what specific devices a server or other
hardware components are connected to. The key technologies
for SDN implementation are functional separation, network
virtualization and automation through programmability.
 SDN Concept
Software-defined networking (SDN) is an approach to computer
networking that allows network administrators to manage
network services through abstraction of higher-level functionality.

This is done by decoupling the system that makes decisions about

where traffic is sent (the control plane) from the underlying
systems that forward traffic to the selected destination (the data
plane).

SDN requires some method for the control plane to communicate

with the data plane. One such mechanism is OpenFlow.
 SDN Concept
Separate Control plane and Data plane entities
• Network intelligence and state are logically centralized
• The underlying network infrastructure is abstracted from the applications

Execute or run Control plane software on general purpose hardware

• Decouple from specific networking hardware
• Use commodity servers

Have programmable data planes

• Maintain, control and program data plane state from a central entity

An architecture to control not just a networking device but an entire

network
SDN Benefits
Dynamic , Manageable ,cost-effective, adaptable

Directly programmable

Agile: administrators dynamically adjust network-wide traffic flow to meet changing needs.

Centrally managed

Programmatically configured: SDN lets network managers configure, manage, secure, and
optimize network resources very quickly via dynamic, automated SDN programs

Open standards-based and vendor-neutral

Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Reference Models in
Communication Networks

The most important

reference models
are :

OSI reference TCP/IP reference

model. model.
OSI
 There are many users who use computer network and are
located all over the world. To ensure national and worldwide
data communication ISO (ISO stands for International
Organization of Standardization.) developed this model.
 This is called a model for open system interconnection (OSI)
and is normally called as OSI model.
 OSI model architecture consists of seven layers.
 It defines seven layers or levels in a complete communication
system.
OSI Model
Feature of OSI Model :

 Big picture of communication over network is

understandable through this OSI model.
 We see how hardware and software work together.
 We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
 Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
 Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on
different networks.
Layer 1: The Physical Layer :

 It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

 It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical
connection.
 It is responsible for transmission and reception of the
unstructured raw data over network.
 Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in
the physical layer.
 It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or
optical signals.
 Data encoding is also done in this layer.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

 Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be

transmitted over the physical layer.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
 Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by
this layer.
 This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames
received and sent respectively. Resending of non-
acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
 This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also
manages the Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the
transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.
Layer 3: The Network Layer :

 It routes the signal through different channels from one node

to other.
 It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
 It decides by which route data should take.
 It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles
the incoming packets into messages for higher levels.
Layer 4: Transport Layer :

 It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or

single path.
 Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on
the data are done by this layer
 It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert
the message into smaller units and passes it on to the
Network layer.
 Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the
network requirements.
 Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so
that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
Layer 5: The Session Layer :

 Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation

between two different applications.
 Transfer of data from source to destination session layer
streams of data are marked and are resynchronized properly,
so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

 Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a

way that the receiver will understand the information (data)
and will be able to use the data.
 While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the
data to be ready for the application layer.
 Languages(syntax) can be different of the two
communicating systems. Under this condition presentation
layer plays a role of translator.
 It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data
conversion etc.
Layer 7: Application Layer :

 It is the topmost layer.

 Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also
done in this layer. Mail services, directory services, network
resource etc are services provided by application layer.
 This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the
received and to be sent data.
Merits of OSI reference model:

 OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces

and protocols.
 Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
 Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology
changes.
 Supports connection oriented services as well as
connectionless service.
Demerits of OSI reference model:

 Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

 Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
 It is just used as a reference model.
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

TCP/IP model overview
 TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet
Protocol was developed by Department of Defence's Project
Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research
project of network interconnection to connect remote machines.
 The features of TCP/IP reference model were:
 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a
network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the
source and destination machines were functioning.
 The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk
to(send data packets) another application running on different
computer.
TCP/IP reference model diagram
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

 Lowest layer of the all.

 Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets
can be sent over it.
 Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer

 Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a

connectionless internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
 It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
 It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
 Order in which packets are received is different from the
way they are sent.
 IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
Layer 3: Transport Layer

 It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or

single path.
 Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on
the data is done by transport layer.
 The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
 Transport layer adds header information to the data.
 Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so
that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
 Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in
sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at

the top of the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP,
SMTP, DNS etc.
 TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows
connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it.
 FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable,
simple and efficient.
 SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is
used to transport electronic mail between a source and
destination, directed via a route.
 DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual
address for Hosts connected over a network.
Merits of TCP/IP model

 It operated independently.
 It is scalable.
 Client/server architecture.
 Supports a number of routing protocols.
 Can be used to establish a connection between two
computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP

 In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of

packets.
 The model cannot be used in any other application.
 Replacing protocol is not easy.
 It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and
protocols.
Comparison of OSI Reference Model
and TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP(Transmission Control
OSI(Open System Interconnection)
Protocol / Internet Protocol)
1. TCP/IP model is based on standard
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent protocols around which the Internet has
standard, acting as a communication gateway developed. It is a communication protocol,
between the network and end user. which allows connection of hosts over a
network.
2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
2. In OSI model the transport layer
not guarantees delivery of packets. Still the
guarantees the delivery of packets.
TCP/IP model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.
5. OSI is a reference model around which
5. TCP/IP model is, in a way
the networks are built. Generally it is used as
implementation of the OSI model.
a guidance tool.
Comparison of OSI Reference Model
and TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP(Transmission Control
OSI(Open System Interconnection)
Protocol / Internet Protocol)
6. Network layer of OSI model provides
6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model
both connection oriented and connectionless
provides connectionless service.
service.
7. OSI model has a problem of fitting the
7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and
are easily replaced as the technology 8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
changes.
9. OSI model defines services, interfaces and
9. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and
protocols very clearly and makes clear
protocols are not clearly separated. It is also
distinction between them. It is protocol
protocol dependent.
independent.
10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers
Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI
Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Design issues for Layers
 Addressing
 Error Control
 Flow Control
 Multiplexing
 Routing
Addressing
 Addressing Level
• Unique address for each end system (computer) and each intermediate
system(router)
• Network level address-IP or internet address (TCP/IP)
Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)
• Process within the system-Port number (TCP/IP)
Service access point or SAP
 Addressing Scope
• Global nonambiguity-Global address identifies unique system,There is
only one system with address X
• Global applicability-It is possible at any system (any address) to identify
any other system (address) by the global address of the other system
Address X identifies that system from anywhere on the network
• e.g. MAC address on IEEE 802 networks
Error Control
 Guard against loss or damage of data and control information
Error control is implemented as two separate functions:
Error detection
Sender inserts error detecting bits
Receiver checks these bits
If OK, acknowledge
If error, discard packet
Retransmission
If no acknowledge in given time, re-transmit
Performed at various layers of protocol
Flow Control
 Done by receiving entity
Function to limit amount or rate of data sent by a
transmitting entity
Simplest form: stop-and-wait procedure
More efficient protocols: Credit systems Sliding window
Needed at application as well as network layers
Multiplexing
 Supporting multiple connections on one machine
-Mapping of multiple connections at one level to a single
connection at another
-Carrying a number of connections on one fiber optic cable
-Aggregating or bonding ISDN lines to gain bandwidth
Routing
 Determine path or route that packets will follow
Use routing protocol based on a routing algorithm
“Good” path should be least cost path
Cost : depends on the following factors.
Average queuing delay
Propagation delay
Bandwidth, mean queue length, etc.
End systems and routers maintain routing tables
Dynamic or static
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Transmission Mediums
 CAT5, 5e, 6
 OFC and
 Radio Spectrum,
Common network cable types
 Coaxial cable

 Unshielded
twisted pair

 Fiber optic
UTP characteristics
 Unshielded
 Twisted (why?) pairs of insulated conductors
 Covered by
insulating sheath
UTP categories
Category 1 Voice only (Telephone)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Localtalk)

Category 3 Data to 10Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20Mbps (Token ring)

Category 5 Data to 100Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
Category 5e Data to 1000Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet)
Category 6 Data to 2500Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet)
Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 5

 100 MHz Bandwidth
 24.0 dB Attenuation
 100 ohms Impedance
 Used for high-speed data transmission
 Used in 10BaseT (10 Mbps) Ethernet & Fast Ethernet (100
Mbps)
Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 5e

 150 MHz Bandwidth
 24.0 dB Attenuation
 100 ohms Impedance
 Transmits high-speed data
 Used in Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) &
155 Mbps ATM
 For runs of up to 90 meters
 Solid core cable ideal for structural installations (PVC or Plenum)
 Stranded cable ideal for patch cables
 Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
Physical Media

Categories of UTP: CAT 6

 250 MHz Bandwidth

 19.8 dB Attenuation
 100 ohms Impedance
 Transmits high-speed data
 Used in Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) & 10 Gig Ethernet (10000
Mbps)
Comparison between CAT5,5e and 6
CAT5 CAT5e CAT6
Frequency 100 MHz 100 MHz 250 MHz
Attenuation (min. at 100 MHz) 22 dB 22 dB 19.8 dB
Characteristic Impedance 100 ohms = 15% 100 ohms = 15% 100 ohms = 15%
NEXT (min. at 100 MHz) 32.3 dB 35.3 dB 44.3 dB
PS-NEXT (min. at 100 MHz) NA 32.3 dB 42.3 dB
EL-FEXT (min. at 100 MHz) NA 23.8 dB 27.8 dB
PS-ELFEXT (min. at 100 MHz) NA 20.8 dB 24.8 dB
PS-ANEXT (min. at 500 MHz) -- -- --
PS-AELFEXT (min. at 500 MHz) 16 dB 20.1 dB 20.1 dB
Return Loss (min. at 100 MHz) 16 dB 20.1 dB 20.1 dB
Delay Skew (max. per 100m) NA 45 ns 45 ns
Networks Supported 100BASE-T 1000BASE-T 1000BASE-TX
OFC- Optical fiber cable
 An optical fiber cable, also known as fiber optic cable,
is an assembly similar to an electrical cable, but containing
one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light.
 The optical fiber elements are typically individually coated
with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube suitable
for the environment where the cable will be deployed.
 Different types of cable are used for different applications,
for example long distance telecommunication, or providing a
high-speed data connection between different parts of a
building.
Physical Media

Fiber Media
 Optical fibers use light to send information through the
optical medium.
 It uses the principal of total internal reflection.
 Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the signal.
Total Internal Reflection
Fiber Media
 Light travels through the optical media by the way of total
internal reflection.
 Modulation scheme used is intensity modulation.
 Two types of Fiber media :
1. Multimode
2. Singlemode
 Multimode Fiber can support less bandwidth than Singlemode
Fiber.
 Singlemode Fiber has a very small core and carry only one beam
of light. It can support Gbps data rates over > 100 Km without
using repeaters.
Physical Media

Single and Multimode Fiber

 Single-mode fiber
 Carries light pulses along single path
 Uses Laser Light Source
 Multimode fiber
 Many pulses of light generated by LED travel at different angles
Fiber Media
 The bandwidth of the fiber is limited due to the dispersion effect.
 Distance Bandwidth product of a fiber is almost a constant.
 Fiber optic cables consist of multiple fibers packed inside
protective covering.
 62.5/125 µm (850/1310 nm) multimode fiber
 50/125 µm (850/1310 nm) multimode fiber
 10 µm (1310 nm) single-mode fiber
Physical Media

Fiber-Optic Cable
 Contains one or several glass fibers at its core
 Surrounding the fibers is a layer called cladding
Physical Media

Fiber Optic Cable

 FO Cable may have 1 to over 1000 fibers
Radio Spectrum
 The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum from 3 Hz to 3000 GHz (3 THz).
 Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range, called radio
waves, are extremely widely used in modern technology,
particularly in telecommunication.
 Coordinated by an international body, the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Frequency Band
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Devices and the layers at which they
operate

Layer Name of Layer Device

3 Network Routers, layer 3

switches

2 Data Link Switches,

bridges, NIC’s

1 Physical Hubs, Repeaters

Network Devices:
 Bridge
 Switch
 Router
 Brouter and
 Access Point
 Hubs

• A hub is used as a central point of connection among

media segments.
• Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on
the hub.
• Types of HUBS :
– A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires
coming from different branches.
– The signal pass through a passive hub without regeneration
or amplification.
– Connect several networking cables together
– Active hubs or Multiport repeaters- They regenerate or
amplify the signal before they are retransmitted.
 Repeaters
• A repeater is a device that operates only at the
PHYSICAL layer.
• A repeater can be used to increase the length of the network
by eliminating the effect of attenuation on the signal.
• It connects two segments of the same network, overcoming
the distance limitations of the transmission media.
• A repeater forwards every frame it has no filtering capability.
• A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
• Repeaters can connect segments that have the same access
method. (CSMA/CD, Token Passing, Polling, etc.)

Optic fiber repeater

Repeater connecting two segments of a LAN

Function of a repeater
Switches
 A network switch is a computer networking device that
connects devices together on a computer network by using
packet switching to receive, process, and forward data to the
destination device.
 Unlike less advanced network hubs, a network switch
forwards data only to the devices that need to receive it,
rather than broadcasting the same data out of each of its
ports.
 It uses Ethernet (MAC Address) address.
Store and Forward Switches
 Do error checking on each frame after the entire frame has
arrived into the switch
 If the error checking algorithm determines there is no error,
the switch looks in its MAC address table for the port to
which to forward the destination device
 Highly reliable because doesn’t forward bad frames
 Slower than other types of switches because it holds on to
each frame until it is completely received to check for errors
before forwarding
Cut Through Switch
 Faster than store and forward because doesn’t perform error
checking on frames
 Reads address information for each frame as the frames enter
the switch
 After looking up the port of the destination device, frame is
forwarded
 Forwards bad frames
 Performance penalty because bad frames can’t be used and
replacement frames must be sent which creates additional
traffic
Unmanaged/Intelligent switches
 Unmanaged – provides LAN’s with all the benefits of
switching. Fine in small networks

 Intelligent switches tracks and reports LAN performance

statistics. Have a database ASIC (application specific
integrated circuit) on board to collect and store data which
you view through a software interface
 Comparison of Hub and Switch
Basis for Hub Switch
Comparison
Layer Physical layer. Layer 1 devices Data Link Layer. Layer 2
Function To connect a network of personal Allow to connect multiple device and port can be
computers together, they can be joined manage, Vlan can create security also can apply
through a central hub.
Data Transmission Electrical signal or bits Frame (L2 Switch) Frame & Packet (L3 switch)
Ports 4/12 ports Switch is multi port Bridge. 24/48 ports
Device Type Passive Device (Without Software) Active Device (With Software) & Networking device
Used in LAN LAN
Transmission Mode Half duplex Half/Full duplex
Broadcast Domain Hub has one Broadcast Domain. Switch has one broadcast domain
Definition An electronic device that connects A network switch is a computer networking device
many network device together so that that is used to connect many devices together on a
devices can exchange data computer network. A switch is considered more
advanced than a hub because a switch will on send
msg to device that needs or request it
Speed 10Mbps 10/100 Mbps, 1 Gbps
Collisions Collisions occur in setups using hubs. No collisions occur in a full-duplex switch.
Address Used Uses MAC address Uses MAC address
 Bridges
• Operates in both the PHYSICAL and the data link layer.
• As a PHYSICAL layer device, it regenerates the signal
it receives.
• As a data link layer device, the bridge can check
the PHYSICAL/MAC addresses(source and destination) contained in
the frame.
• A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.
• It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame
should be forwarded or dropped.
• If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify the port.
• A bridge has a table that maps address to ports.
• Limit or filter traffic keeping local traffic local yet allow connectivity to
other parts (segments).
 A bridge connecting two LANs

A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.

 How Bridges Work
Bridges work at the Media Access Control
• Routing table is built to record the segment no. of address
• If destination address is in the same segment as the source
address, stop transmit
• Otherwise, forward to the other segment
 Characteristics of Bridges
Routing • Contains one entry per station of network to which bridge is
connected.

Tables • Is used to determine the network of destination station of a

received packet.

• Is used by bridge to allow only those packets destined to the

Filtering remote network.
• Packets are filtered with respect to their destination and
multicast addresses.

Forwarding • the process of passing a packet from one network to another.

Learning • the process by which the bridge learns how to reach stations on
Algorithm the internetwork.
 Types of Bridges
Transparent Bridge
• Also called learning bridges
• Build a table of MAC addresses as frames arrive
• Ethernet networks use transparent bridge
• Duties of transparent bridge are : Filtering frames,
• forwarding and blocking
Source Routing Bridge
• Used in Token Ring networks
• Each station should determine the route to the destination when it
wants to send a frame and therefore include the route information in
the header of frame.
• Addresses of these bridges are included in the frame.
• Frame contains not only the source and destination address but also
the bridge addresses.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Bridges
• Advantages of using a bridge
– Extend physical network
– Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
– Creates separate collision domains
– Reduce collisions
– Connect different architecture
• Disadvantages of using bridges
– Slower that repeaters due to filtering
– Do not filter broadcasts
– More expensive than repeaters
 Comparison of Switch and Bridge
Switch Bridge
A switch when compared to bridge has Bridge has a single incoming and outgoing
multiple ports. port.
Switches can perform error checking A bridge maintains a MAC address table for
before forwarding data. both LAN segments it is connected to.
Switches are very efficient by not Bridge filters traffic on the LAN by looking at
forwarding packets that error-ed out the MAC address.
or forwarding good packets selectively Bridge looks at the destination of the packet
to correct devices only. before forwarding unlike a hub.
Switches can support both layer 2 It restricts transmission on other LAN
(based on MAC Address) and layer 3 segment if destination is not found.
(Based on IP address) depending on Bridges are used to separate parts of a
the type of switch. network that do not need to communicate
Usually large networks use switches regularly, but need to be connected.
instead of hubs to connect computers
within the same subnet.
 Two and Three layer switches
• Two layer switch operate at PHY and data link
layer
• Three layer switch operates at network layer
• Bridge is an example of two-layer switch.
• Bridge with few port can connect a few LANs
• Bridge with many port may be able to allocate a
unique port to each station, with each station on its
own independent entity. This means no competing
traffic (no collision as we saw in Ethernet)
 3-layer switches- Router
• Routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-host
addressing)
• A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and
has a routing table that is used for making decision about the
route.
• The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated
using routing protocols.

Routers connecting
independent LANs and
WANs
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Routers
• Advantages
– Routers
-provide sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic
isolation
-are configurable, which allows network manager to
make policy based on routing decisions
-allow active loops so that redundant paths are available
• Disadvantages
– Routers
– are protocol-dependent devices that must understand
the protocol they are forwarding.
– can require a considerable amount of initial
configuration.
– are relatively complex devices, and generally are more expensive
than bridges.
 Routers versus Bridges
• Addressing
– Routers are explicitly addressed.
– Bridges are not addressed.
• Availability
– Routers can handle failures in links, stations, and other routers.
– Bridges use only source and destination MAC address, which
does not guarantee delivery of frames.
 Message Size
» Routers can perform fragmentation on packets and thus handle
different packet sizes.
» Bridges cannot do fragmentation and should not forward a
frame which is too big for the next LAN.
 Forwarding
» Routers forward a message to a specific destination.
» Bridges forward a message to an outgoing network.
 Priority
» Routers can treat packets according to priorities
» Bridges treat all packets equally.
 Error Rate
» Network layers have error-checking algorithms that
examines each received packet.
» The MAC layer provides a very low undetected bit error
rate.
 Security
» Both bridges and routers provide the ability to put “security
walls” around specific stations.
» Routers generally provide greater security than bridges because
– they can be addressed directly and
– they use additional data for implementing security.
 Brouters: Bridging Routers
 Combine features of bridges and routers.
 Capable of establishing a bridge between two networks as well as
routing some messages from the bridge networks to other
networks.
 Are sometimes called (Layer 2/3) switches and are a
combination of bridge/router hardware and software.
 Gateway
• Interchangeably used term router and gateway
• Connect two networks above the network layer of OSI model.
• Are capable of converting data frames and network
protocols into the format needed by another network.
• Provide for translation services between different computer
protocols.
• Transport gateways make a connection between two
networks at the transport layer.
• Application gateways connect two parts of an application in the
application layer, e.g., sending email between two machines using
different mail formats
• Broadband-modem-router is one e.g. of gateway
Access Point
 In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP)
is a networking hardware device that allows a Wi-Fi
device to connect to a wired network. The WAP usually
connects to a router (via a wired network) as a standalone
device, but it can also be an integral component of the
router itself.
Access Point
 Access Point(AP) units serve areas of a building, similar to
base units of cordless telephones except each AP can connect
to many computers. APs serve as network bridges between
the wired and wireless portions of the network.
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Encoding

Coding is the process of embedding clocks into a given data stream and
producing a signal that can be transmitted over a selected medium.

Transmitter is responsible for "encoding" i.e. inserting clocks into data

according to a selected coding scheme

Receiver is responsible for "decoding" i.e. separating clocks and data from the
incoming embedded stream.

A signal needs to be manipulated in such a way so that it contains identifiable

changes that are recognizable to the sender and receiver.

There are 4 possible encoding techniques that can be used on the data: Digital-
to-digital, Digital-to-Analog, Analog-to-analog, Analog-to-digital.
 Digital-to-Digital Encoding
•The binary signals created by your computer (DTE) are translated into a sequence of voltage
pulses that can be sent through the transmission medium.
•Binary signals have two basic parameters: amplitude and duration.
•As the number of bits sent per unit of time increases, the bit duration decreases.
•The three most common methods of encoding used are: unipolar , polar , and bipolar .
UNIPOLAR ENCODING

Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage

level.
Lack of synchronization
POLAR ENCODING

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels

(positive and negative).
Manchester
(or diphase or biphase encoding)
This code is self-clocking.
Provides a transition for every bit in the middle of the bit cell. This
transition is used only to provide clocking.
+ve to -ve transition for a "0" bit

-ve to +ve transition for a "1" bit

Residual DC component is eliminated by having both polarities for
every bit.
This scheme is used in Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 compliant LANs
Manchester Encoding

In Manchester encoding, the transition at

the middle of the bit is used for both
synchronization and bit representation.
Differential Manchester Coding

 Code is self-clocking
 Transition for every bit in the middle of the bit cell
 Transition at the beginning of the bit cell if the next bit is " 0 "
 NO Transition at the beginning of the bit cell if the next bit is " 1 "
 Used in Token Ring or IEEE 802.5-compliant LANs.
Differential Manchester encoding

In differential Manchester encoding, the transition at

the middle of the bit is used only for synchronization.
The bit representation is defined by the inversion or
noninversion at the beginning of the bit.
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

 IEEE 802 Standards

The important ones are marked with *. The ones marked with  are hibernating. The
158
one marked with † gave up.
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard

IEEE developed the first

internationally recognized wireless
LAN standard – IEEE 802.11 in 1997

Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to

Physical and Data Link Layers.
IEEE 802.11 Standards
 802.11a (OFDM Waveform)
 802.11b
 802.11g
 802.11n
 802.11ac
 802.11ad
 802.11af
 802.11ah
 802.11ai
 802.11aj
 802.11aq
 802.11ax
 Physical Media of 802.11 Standard
Frequency- • Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band
hopping spread • Lower cost, power consumption
spectrum • Most tolerant to signal interference

Direct-sequence • Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band

spread • Supports higher data rates
spectrum • More range than FH or IR physical layers

• Lowest cost
Infrared • Lowest range compared to spread spectrum
• Doesn’t penetrate walls, so no eavesdropping
 What is meant by Spread Spectrum
Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in
which the frequency of the transmitted signal
is varied. This results in a much greater bandwidth than the
signal (Bss >> B)

This technique decreases the potential interference

to other receivers while achieving privacy.

Two types of Spread Spectrum- FHSS and DSSS

 Spread spectrum

6.163
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio
frequencies
Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals
Receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization with
transmitter, picks up message
Advantages
Efficient utilization of available bandwidth
Eavesdropper hear only unintelligible blips
Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at knocking out a
few bits
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

6.165
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

6.166
FHSS cycles
Bandwidth sharing difference between FDM and FHSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the

transmitted signal
Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band
DSSS is the only physical layer specified for the 802.11b
specification
802.11a and 802.11b differ in use of chipping method
802.11a uses 11-bit barker chip
802.11b uses 8-bit complimentary code keying (CCK) algorithm
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
DSSS example
 FHSS Vs DSSS
 FH systems use a radio carrier that “hops” from frequency to
frequency in a pattern known to both transmitter and receiver
 Easy to implement
 Resistance to noise
 Limited throughput (2-3 Mbps @ 2.4 GHz)
 DS systems use a carrier that remains fixed to a specific frequency
band. The data signal is spread onto a much larger range of
frequencies (at a much lower power level) using a specific encoding
scheme.
 Much higher throughput than FH (11 Mbps)
 Better range
 Less resistant to noise (made up for by redundancy – it transmits at least 10
fully redundant copies of the original signal at the same time)
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN; WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

 References
Websites:
 http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/
 https://cs.fit.edu/~pkc/classes/dc/slides/ch3.ppt
 https://www.techopedia.com/2/29090/networks/lanwanman-an-overview-of-network-types
 https://www.slideshare.net/ENGMSHARI/adhoc-networks
 http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/distributed-network-architecture-DNA.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_spectrum
 https://www.slideshare.net/rupinderj/networking-devices-12807479
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point
 https://www.slideshare.net/LukaXavi/data-encoding

Text Books:
 Andrew S. Tenenbaum, “Computer Networks”,5th Edition, PHI, ISBN 81-203-2175-8.
 Fourauzan B., "Data Communications and Networking", 5th Edition, Tata McGraw-
Hill, Publications, 2006