MODULE 3

KINETICS OF PARTICLES:
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After careful study of this chapter you should be able to do the following:
✓ Explain the relationships between mass, force, and acceleration.
✓ Apply Newton's second law of motion to solve particle kinetics problems
using different coordinate systems.
✓ Analyze central force motion problems using principles of angular
momentum and Newton's law of gravitation.

3.a NEWTON’S SECOND LAW AND LINEAR MOMENTUM

In statics, we dealt with forces acting on particles that led to a state of equilibrium.
Now we study forces acting on particles that lead to a state of motion. The key
relationship connecting force and motion is Newton’s second law.

3.a.1. Newton’s Second Law of Motion

We can state Newton’s second law as follows:

“If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle has an
acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in the direction of
this resultant force.”

Newton’s second law of motion is best understood by imagining the

following experiment: A particle is subjected to a force F1 of constant direction and
constant magnitude F1. Under the action of that force, the particle moves in a
straight line and in the direction of the force (Fig. 1a). By determining the position of
the particle at various instants, we find that its acceleration has a constant
magnitude a1. If we repeat the experiment with forces F2, F3, . . . of a different
magnitude or direction (Fig.1b and c), we find each time that the particle moves in
the direction of the force acting on it and that the magnitudes a1, a2, a3, . . . of the
accelerations are proportional to the magnitudes F1, F2, F3, . . . of the corresponding
forces.

Fig. 1. Acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the force and in the same
direction as the force

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 1

 Thus,
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
= = = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3

The constant value obtained for the ratio of the magnitudes of the forces
and accelerations is a characteristic of the particle under consideration; it is called
the mass of the particle and is denoted by m. When a particle of mass m is acted
upon by a force F, the force F and the acceleration a of the particle must therefore
satisfy the relation

𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

Fig. 2. By Newton’s second law, the proportionality constant between an applied

force and the resulting acceleration is the particle’s mass m.

When a particle is subjected simultaneously to several forces, F = ma should

be replaced by

𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒂𝒘, ∑𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔

where ∑F represents the sum or resultant of all the forces acting on the
particle.

3.a.2. Linear Momentum of a Particle and its Rate of Change

Suppose we replace the acceleration a in the equation by the derivative
dv/dt. We have
𝒅𝒗
∑𝑭 = 𝒎
𝒅𝒕

Since the mass m of the particle is constant, we can write this as

𝒅
∑𝑭 = (𝒎𝒗) The resultant of the forces acting on the particle is equal to
𝒅𝒕 the rate of change of the linear momentum of the particle.

The product mv is called the linear momentum, or simply the momentum, of

the particle. It has the same direction as the velocity of the particle, and its
magnitude is equal to the product of the mass m and the speed v of the particle

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 2

 Fig. 3. Linear momentum is the product of the mass m and the velocity v of a
particle. It is a vector in the same direction as the velocity.

The second law of motion was originally stated by Newton in this form.
Denoting the linear momentum of the particle by L, we have

𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝑳 = 𝒎𝒗

If we denote its derivative with respect to t as 𝑳̇, we can write the equation
considering the rate of change of the linear momentum of the particle in the
alternative form as

𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒂𝒘, ∑𝑭 = 𝑳̇

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎

The rate of change of the linear momentum mv is zero when ∑𝑭 = 𝟎. Thus, we

have the statement:

If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the linear momentum of the
particle remains constant in both magnitude and direction.

This is the principle of conservation of linear momentum for a particle.

3.a.3. Systems of Units

International System of Units (SI Units)

In this system, the base units are the units of length, mass, and time and are called,
respectively, the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second (s).

𝟏𝑵 = (𝟏𝒌𝒈)(𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 ) = 𝟏 𝒌𝒈 ∗ 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

The weight W of a body, or the force of gravity exerted on that body, should, like
any other force, be expressed in newtons.

𝒎
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 = (𝟏𝒌𝒈) (𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 ) = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝑵
𝒔𝟐
𝒎𝒗 = (𝒌𝒈)(𝒎/𝒔) = 𝒌𝒈 ∗ 𝒎/𝒔

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 3

 U.S. Customary Units
Most practicing American engineers still commonly use a system in which the base
units are those of length, force, and time. These units are, respectively, the foot (ft),
the pound (lb), and the second (s).

𝟏𝒍𝒃 = (𝟏 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈)(𝟏 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝟐 ) = 𝟏 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 ∗ 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝟐

𝟏𝒍𝒃
𝟏 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 = = 𝟏𝒍𝒃 ∗ 𝒔𝟐 /𝒇𝒕
𝟏 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝟐

𝒇𝒕
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 = (𝟏𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈) (𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 )
𝒔𝟐
𝒇𝒕 𝒔𝟐 𝒇𝒕
𝒎𝒗 = (𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈) ( ) = (𝒍𝒃 ∗ ) ( ) = 𝒍𝒃 ∗ 𝒔
𝒔 𝒇𝒕 𝒔

Conversion from One System of Units to Another

Length : 1𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048𝑚

Force : 1𝑙𝑏 = 4.448𝑁
Mass : 1𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 1 𝑙𝑏 ∗ 𝑠2 /𝑓𝑡 = 14.59𝑘𝑔

3.a.4. Equations of Motion

Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by several forces. Recall that we

can express Newton’s second law by the equation

∑𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

which relates the forces acting on the particle to the vector ma.

Fig. 4. The sum of forces applied to a particle of mass m produces a vector ma in

the direction of the resultant force.

Two of the most important tools you will use in solving dynamics problems,
particularly those involving Newton’s second law, are the free-body diagram and
the kinetic diagram. These diagrams will help you to model dynamic systems and
apply appropriate equations of motion.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 4

 Fig. 5. Steps in drawing a free-body diagram and a kinetic diagram for solving
dynamics problems.

Free-Body Diagram (Steps) :

Body: Define your system by isolating the body (or bodies) of interest. If a problem
has multiple bodies, you may have to draw multiple free-body diagrams and kinetic
diagrams.

Axes: Draw an appropriate coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian, normal and

tangential, or radial and transverse).

Support Forces: Replace supports or constraints with appropriate forces (e.g., two
perpendicular forces for a pin, normal forces, friction forces).

Applied Forces and Body Forces: Draw any applied forces and body forces (also
sometimes called field forces) on your diagram (e.g., weight, magnetic forces, a
known pulling force).

Dimensions: Add any angles or distances that are important for solving the problem.

Kinetic Diagram (Steps) :

Body: This is the same body as in the free-body diagram; place this beside the free-
body diagram.

Inertial terms: Draw the ma term to be consistent with the coordinate system.
Generally, draw this term in different components (e.g., max and may or man and
mat). If they are unknown quantities, it is best to draw them in the positive directions
as defined by your coordinates.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 5

 Sample Problem 1
A 200-lb block rests on a horizontal plane. Find the magnitude of the force P
required to give the block an acceleration of 10 ft/s2 to the right. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block and the plane is μ k = 0.25.

Sample Problem 2
The two blocks shown start from rest. The horizontal plane and the pulley are
frictionless, and the pulley is assumed to be of negligible mass. Determine the
acceleration of each block and the tension in each cord.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 6

 Sample Problem 3
The bob of a 2-m pendulum describes an arc of a circle in a vertical plane. If the
tension in the cord is 2.5 times the weight of the bob for the position shown, find the
velocity and the acceleration of the bob in that position.

Sample Problem 4
The 12-lb block B starts from rest and slides on the 30-lb wedge A, which is supported
by a horizontal surface. Neglecting friction, determine (a) the acceleration of the
wedge, (b) the acceleration of the block relative to the wedge.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 7

 3.b ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND ORBITAL MOTION

3.b.1. Angular Momentum of a Particle and its Rate of Change

Consider a particle P with a mass m moving with respect to a newtonian

frame of reference Oxyz. The linear momentum of the particle at a given instant is
defined as the vector mv that is obtained by multiplying the velocity v of the particle
by its mass m. The moment about O of the vector mv is called the moment of
momentum, or the angular momentum, of the particle about O at that instant and
is denoted by HO. Denote the position vector of P by r. Then we have

𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑯𝑶 = 𝒓 𝑥 𝒎𝒗

Note that HO is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing r and mv and has
a magnitude
𝑯𝑶 = 𝒓𝒎𝒗 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅

where ∅ is the angle between r and mv.

Fig. 6. The angular momentum vector of a particle is the vector product of the
position vector r and the linear momentum vector mv.

The unit for angular momentum,

SI Units : (𝒎)(𝒌𝒈 ∗ 𝒎/𝒔) = 𝒌𝒈 ∗ 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔
𝒇𝒕
US Customary Units : (𝒇𝒕)(𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈) ( ) = (𝒇𝒕)(𝒍𝒃 ∗ 𝒔) = 𝒇𝒕 ∗ 𝒍𝒃 ∗ 𝒔
𝒔

In this section, we introduced the angular momentum or the moment of the

momentum, HO, of a particle about O as
𝑯𝑶 = 𝒓 𝑥 𝒎𝒗

1. Solving problems involving the motion of a particle under a central force. In

problems of this type, the angular momentum HO of the particle about the
center of force O is conserved. Therefore, we can express the conservation
of angular momentum of particle P about O by rmv sin θ = r0mv0 sin θ0.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 8

 2. In space mechanics problems involving the orbital motion of a planet about
the sun or of a satellite about the earth, the moon, or some other planet, the
central force F is the force of gravitational attraction. This force is directed
toward the center of force O and has the magnitude

𝑴𝒎
𝑭=𝑮
𝒓𝟐

Note that in the particular case of the gravitational force exerted by the
earth, the product GM can be replaced by gR2, where R is the earth’s radius.

The following two cases of orbital motion are frequently encountered:

a. For a satellite in a circular orbit, the force F is normal to the orbit and you
can write F = man. Substituting for F and observing that an = v2/ρ = v2/r,
you obtain
𝑴𝒎 𝒗𝟐 𝑮𝑴
𝑮 𝟐 =𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝟐 =
𝒓 𝒓 𝒓

b. For a satellite in an elliptical orbit, the radius vector r and the velocity v of
the satellite are perpendicular to each other at points A and B, which are
closest and farthest to the center of force O, respectively. Thus, the
conservation of angular momentum of the satellite between these two
points can be expressed as
𝒓𝑨𝒎𝒗𝑨 = 𝒓𝑩 𝒎𝒗𝑩

3.b.2. Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The gravitational force exerted by the sun on a planet or by the earth on an
orbiting satellite is an important example of a central force. In this section, you will
learn how to determine the magnitude of a gravitational force.

Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that two particles of masses M

and m at a distance r from each other have a mutual attraction of equal and
opposite forces F and -F directed along the line joining the particles. The common
magnitude F of the two forces is

𝑴𝒎
𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒂𝒍 𝑭=𝑮
𝒓𝟐
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

where G is a universal constant, called the constant of gravitation.

Experiments show that the value of G is (66.73 ± 0.03) x 10-12 m3/kg*s2 in SI units or
approximately 34.4 x 10-9 ft4/lb*s4 in U.S. customary units.

Fig. 7. By Newton’s law of gravitation,

two masses attract each other with equal force.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 9

 Gravitational forces exist between any pair of bodies, but their effect is
appreciable only when one of the bodies has a very large mass. The effect of
gravitational forces is apparent in the cases of the motion of a planet about the
sun, of satellites orbiting about the earth, or of bodies falling on the surface of the
earth.
Since the force exerted by the earth on a body of mass m located on or near
its surface is defined as the weight W of the body, we can substitute the magnitude
W = mg of the weight for F, and the earth’s radius R for r. We obtain

𝑀𝑚 𝑮𝑴 𝑮𝑴
𝐹=𝐺 ; 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒈=
𝑟2 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐

where M is the mass of the earth.

Sample Problem 5
A satellite is launched in a direction parallel to the surface of the earth with a
velocity of 18,820 mi/h from an altitude of 240 mi. Determine the velocity of the
satellite as it reaches its maximum altitude of 2340 mi. Recall that the earth’s radius
is 3960 mi.

Sample Problem 6
A space tug travels a circular orbit with a 6000-mi radius around the earth. In order
to transfer it to a larger orbit with a 24,000-mi radius, the tug is first placed on an
elliptical path AB by firing its engines as it passes through A, thus increasing its
velocity by 3810 mi/h. Determine how much the tug’s velocity should be increased
as it reaches B to insert it into the larger circular orbit.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 10