ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

SIMPLE PHENOMENA OF MAGNETISM

MAGNETS
• Magnets have a _____________ field around them
• They 2 opposite poles (___________ and ____________) which exert forces on other
magnets.
• Like poles ___________ and unlike poles ___________. This is caused by the interaction of
magnetic fields.
o Therefore if magnets are facing each other with opposite poles, they will come
together given a small space between them
• They attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent or temporary) magnetism in them.
• Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material
• The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the _____________ on a positive
charge at that point
• Induced Magnetism:
o Magnets attract materials by inducing __________ in them; the material becomes a magnet
as well.
o The side of the material facing the magnet will become the __________ pole as the magnet.

FERROUS NON-FERROUS
Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials

• IRON • PLASTIC
• •
• •

• Methods of inducing magnetism:

o A piece of steel becomes permanently ________________ when placed near a magnet, but
its magnetism is usually weak.
o It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with one end of a magnet
o Most effective method: place it in a solenoid and pass a large, direct current (d.c.) through
the coil.

1
Inducing magnetism in a magnetic material

• Methods of demagnetisation:

o If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are thrown out of line and it becomes
___________________.

o Heating a magnet to a high temperature also demagnetize it.

o Stroking with another magnet to destroy the alignment of poles

o Place magnet with poles opposite to that which is induced by a d.c. current and insert
into coil with d.c. current

o Most efficient method: place magnet inside a solenoid connected to an alternating

current (a.c.) supply.

• Soft Iron vs. Steel

SOFT IRON STEEL

• Gets magnetized faster but loses its • Slow to be magnetized but retains acquired
magnetism as soon as inducing magnet is magnetism for a long time.
removed.
• High susceptibility but low retentivity • Low susceptibility but high retentivity
• Use: core in the transformer • Use: making magnets.

2
• Permanent Magnet vs. Electromagnet

PERMANENT MAGNET ELECTROMAGNET

• Design: hard magnetic material • Design: Uses a solenoid to create magnetic

field

• Use: • Use:
for applications where magnetism is For applications where magnetic field
needed over long periods – fridge doors needs to be turned on & off - scrap metal
moving

ELECTRIC CHARGE
• There are 2 types of charges: ______________ and __________________ .
• Unlike charges ______________ and like charges ___________________.
• The SI unit of charge is the _____________ (C).
• The presence of an electrostatic charge can be detected using a _____________ electroscope.
o If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are ___________.
o The metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or negative) and the metal stem and
gold leaf get the other type of charge so they repel each other.

• Electric field: region in which electric charge experiences a ____________.

• The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a _____________
charge at that point.

3
• Conductors: materials that let _____________ pass through them. Metals are the best
electrical conductors as they have free electrons. E.g. copper
• Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and
hardly move, but they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber

• Simple Field Patterns: (Name the field pattern)

• Induced charges:
o Charging a body involves the __________ or removal of electrons.
o A charge that “appears” on an uncharged object because of a charged object nearby
o For example, if a positively charged rod is brought near a small piece of aluminium
foil, electrons in foil are pulled towards rod, which leaves the bottom of the foil with a
net positive charge.
o The attraction is stronger than ___________ because the attracting charges are closer
than the repelling ones.

4
CURRENT

• Current: a flow of ____________.

• The SI unit is the _______________ (A).
• An ______________ measures the current in a circuit and is connected in ___________ .
• Current is a rate of flow of charge.
• In metals, current is caused by a flow of ______________- .
C𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴) =

• Current follows path of least resistance

• Conventional current flows in the opposite direction from that in which electrons flow.

• 1𝑒̅= 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

• 1𝐶 = 6.25 × 1018 𝑒̅

5
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

• The energy supplied by the source in driving a unit charge around a circuit.
• The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the _________________ (EMF),
measured in __________.
• When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower because of the energy wastage inside
the cell.
• A cell produces its maximum ____________ (PD) when not in a circuit and not supplying
current.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (P.D)

• Potential difference, or PD is also known as ___________________.

• Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured
in _________ (V) and is measured by a ____________(connected in ___________).
• If a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each coulomb of charge (J/C)

RESISTANCE

Factors affecting resistance:

• Length
o Ω∝𝐿
o The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus encounter more ____________.
• Cross-sectional area
o Ω ∝ 1/A
o More electrons can flow per unit time, increasing the ____________ and therefore
decreasing the _____________.
• Material
o Better conductor = less resistance
• Current Voltage Character of an Ohmic Resistor and a Filament Lamp

6
 o Ohm’s law states that voltage across a resistor is _________ proportional to the current
through it. This is only true if the temperature of the resistor or lamp remains constant

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

• Electrical energy is transferred from the _________ or power source to the circuit
components then into the surroundings.
• 1 Watt is 1 J/s

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

7
• The current at any point in a series circuit is the same.
• The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so the total current is always
__________ than the current in one branch.
• Combining resistors

o The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor
by itself and the current in the two resistors in greater in the source than in the individual
resistors and is equal to the sum of the currents in all the resistors connected in parallel.
• Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
o If one lamp breaks, the other still works
o Each lamp gets maximum PD
• In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the components combined
• In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents in the separate branches

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS (complete all the name and symbols)

Cell

Battery of cells

Power supply

Junction of conductors

Fixed resistor

8
Variable resistor

Light dependent resistor

Switch

Earth or ground

Buzer

Motor

Generator

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Relay coil

9
 Diode

Light-emitting diode

Fuse

Oscilloscope

ACTION AND USE OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS:

• A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.

• To find the voltage (at VOUT) we use the following formula:

• A variable potential divider (potentiometer) is the same as the one above but using a
variable resistor; it acts like a potential divider, but you can change output voltage.
• Input Transducers:
o Thermistor: input sensor and a transducer. It is a temperature-dependent resistor. At
higher temperature there is _______ resistance.
o Light dependent resistor (LDR): input sensor and a transducer. When light intensity
increases, resistance _____________.

10
• Relays:

o A switch operated by an ______________ .

Why relays are used?
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-power
signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Examples include
headlamps, rear-window defoggers, fuel pumps, A/C compressor clutches, cooling
fans, heaters, fan blowers, abs systems, ignition circuits, power windows, seats, and
horns.

How do relays work?

o The electromagnet starts energizing when the current flows through the control coil
and then intensifies the magnetic field.
o The electromagnet becomes connected to the power source through the contacts to the
load and a control switch.
o The upper contact arm becomes attracted to the lower fixed arm and then closes the
contacts that result in a short circuit.
o The contact then moves in the opposite direction and creates an open circuit once the
relay has been de-energized.
o The movable armature will return to its initial position when the coil current is off.

11
o The force that causes its movement will be almost the same as the half strength of the
magnetic force. Spring and gravity provide this force.

Diodes:
o A device that has an extremely high resistance in one_________ and a low resistance
in the other, therefore it effectively only allows _____________ to flow in one direction
o Forward bias is when the diode is pointing in the direction of the conventional
current and reverse bias is the opposite.
o It can be used in a rectifier; turns AC current into DC current.

12
Digital Electronics

• Analogue uses a whole range of continuous variations to transmit a ___________ that

include variations of __________ and __________ states.
• Digital signals use only 2 states, on and off.
• Logic gates are processors that are circuits containing transistors and other components.
Their function is shown by the truth table below (3 columns from the right)

Gate Symbol Input A Input B Input C Remarks

NOT gate 0 None 1
1 0

AND gate 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR gate 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
NAND gate 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR gate 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Dangers of Electricity:

• Hazards:
o Damaged insulation: contact with the wire (live wire especially) due to gap in the
insulation causes electric shock which can cause serious injury or shock.

o Overheating of cables: when long extension leads are coiled up, they may overheat.
The current warms the wire, but the heat has less area to escape from a tight bundle.
This might cause a fire.

13
o Damp conditions: water can conduct a current, so if electrical equipment is wet
someone might get electrocuted.

FUSE CIRCUIT BREAKER

A fuse protects a _________. An automatic switch which if current rises

Thin piece of wire which overheats and over a specified value, the electromagnet
melts if current is too _______. pulls the contacts _______, breaking the
It is placed on the live wire before the circuit.
switch. This prevents overheating and The reset button is to rest everything. It
catching fire. A fuse will have a specific works like a fuse but is better because
current value (e.g. 13 Amps.) so when it can be reset.
choosing a suitable fuse you must use
the one above minimum value but less
than maximum value.

• Benefits of Earthing a Metal Case:

o Many electrical appliances, have metal cases, the earth wire creates a safe route for
current to flow through if the live wire touches the casing
o Earth terminal connected to metal casing, so in such a case, the current goes through
earth wire instead of causing an electric shock.
o A strong current surges through earth wire because it has very low resistance
o This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance

14
Electromagnetic Effects

• Electromagnetic Induction: If a wire is passed across a magnetic field/changing

magnetic field, a small EMF is induced and can be detected by a _______________.
• The direction of an induced EMF opposes the change causing it.

• The induced EMF can be increased by:

o moving the wire faster
o using a stronger magnet
o Increasing length of wire in magnetic field, e.g. looping the wire through the
field several times.

• The current and EMF direction can be reversed by:

o moving the wire in the opposite direction
o turning the magnet round so that the field direction is reversed

• Fleming’s right-hand rule gives the current direction:

15
Bar magnet pushed into coil

• The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:

o ________________________________
o ________________________________
o ________________________________
• If the magnet is pulled away, the direction of the induced EMF (and current) is
reversed
• Using South pole instead of North pole reverses direction of induced EMF (and
current)
• If the magnet is held still, there is no EMF
• An induced current always flows in a direction such that it opposes the change which
produced it.
• When a magnet is moved towards a coil the pole of the coil and magnet next to each
other are the ________________ (same/different).
• When the magnet is moved away the poles are _________ (same/opposite)
(hint:opposite poles attract).
• The pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the direction in which the current is
induced.
• The direction of the current is given by the _____________________(what rule?)

• The fingers point in the direction of ______________ and the thumb gives the North
Pole.

16
• In a direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in ________________ direction.
• In an alternating current (a.c) the direction of flow is _____________ in regular
time periods.
• A.C Generator:
o The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is rotated by turning the shaft;
the slip rings are fixed to the coil and rotate with it.
o The brushes are 2 contacts which rub against the slip rings and keep the coil
connected to the outside part of the circuit, usually made of carbon.
o When the coil is rotated, it cuts ________________ lines, so an EMF is
generated, which makes a current flow.
o Each side of the coil travels upwards then downwards then upwards etc. so
the current flows backwards then forwards then backwards etc. so it is an
alternating current.

17
• The current is maximum when the coil is ______________(vertical/horizontal) since field
lines are being cut at the fastest rate and 0 when the coil is __________(vertical/horizontal),
since it is cutting NO field lines.
• The EMF can be increased by:

➢ increasing the _________________ on the coil

➢ increasing the ___________of the coil
➢ using a __________(weaker/stronger) magnet
➢ rotating the coil faster

Transformers
• AC currents can be increased or decreased by using a
__________________(relay/transformer).
• Consists of a primary coil, a secondary coil and an iron core.
• The iron core gets magnetized by the incoming current and this magnetism then creates a
current in the leaving wire.
• The power is the same on both sides (assume= 100% efficiency).
• You can figure out number of coils and the voltage with the formula. (state the formula involve
in transformer device.

When magnetic field is changed across the primary coil by connecting it with A.C. an
e.m.f. induces across the secondary coil.
• The iron core channels the alternating field through the secondary coil, inducing an alternating
e.m.f. across it.

18
• A step-up transformer increases the ____________ (resistance/voltage) and a step down
transformer decreases it.
• Transformers used to make high voltage AC currents.
• Since power lost in a resistor, having a lower current will decrease the power loss.

P=

• Since transmission cables are many kilometres long they have a lot of resistance, so a
transformer is used to __________________ (increase/decrease) the voltage and
(increase/decrease) the current to decease power lost.
• The advantages of high-voltage transmission:
o Less power lost
o Thinner, light, and cheaper cables can be used since current is reduced.

Electromagnetic Effect of a Current

• Increasing the strength of the field

• Increasing the current increases the strength of the field
• Increasing the number of turns of a coil increases the strength increases the strength of the
field.
• Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic field direction (right-hand rule).
• The direction of a magnetic field line at a point is the direction of the force on the N pole of
a magnet at that point
• Magnetic effect of current is used in a relay and a circuit breaker

19
Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

Force

• If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, it warps the field lines.

• The field lines from the magnet want to straighten out naturally.
• This causes a catapult like action on the wire creating a force
• If you reverse current, you will reverse direction of force
• If you reverse direction of field, you will reverse direction of force
• The direction of the force, current or magnetic field is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.

20
D.C. Motor

• When a current-carrying coil is in a magnetic field, it experiences a __________________

• A DC motor runs on a _______________(direct/alternating) current.
• The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is free to rotate between the poles of the magnet.
• The commutator (split-ring) is fixed to the coil and rotates with it.
• When the coil overshoots the vertical, the commutator changes direction of the current
through it, so the forces change direction and keep the coil turning.
• The brushes are two contacts which rub against the commutator and keep the coil connected
to battery, usually made of carbon
• The max. turning effect is when the coil is horizontal.
• There is no force when the coil is vertical but it always overshoots this position.

21