GEOLOGICAL MAPS

SCALE

Maps are constructed to a scale. The scale represents the ratio of a

distance on the map to the actual distance on the ground.
The scale is usually found in the legend box of the map, and can be
expressed in a variety of ways. There are three common types of
scale used:

1) a ratio scale (for example 1:50 000)

2) a word statement (1 centimetre equals half a kilometre)

3) a scale bar (simply measure the distance with a ruler)

A scale bar has a distinct advantage over a ratio scale and a word
statement. If the map is reduced or enlarged the scale bar changes
accordingly whereas the others do not.
STANDARD SCALES

1:10,000
1:25,000
1:50,000 Calculation:
Measure 253 mm on a map with
1:100,000 scale 1:50,000

1:250,000 253 x 50,000 = 12,650,000 mm

or 12,650 metres
1:500,000 or 12.65 kilometres
 MAPS

A map represents a portion of the earth's surface and can

show a variety of features. The maps we are interested in
are:

1. Topographic map,
2. Geological map.
 Topographic maps

• Topographic map - topography (land surface) projected onto a plan

surface.

• Primarily shows contours (lines of equal elevation) as well as other

information such as rivers, infrastructure and land use.

• For the purpose of this course, we are only interested in the contours
which they depict.
 Topographic maps (contd..)
• Spot height is a surveyed point that is typically at a higher elevation
than the surrounding landscape, eg •216.7m.

• A few of these high points will commonly have a trig beacon

constructed on them.

• A trig beacon is fixed and of known elevation and position.

• Surveys are conducted from them and typically consist of a white

cylindrical concrete tube which is clearly visible from afar.

• On a map their symbol is typically a small triangle with a reference

number, eg 216.7m31.
Topographic maps

A spot height is a surveyed point that is typically at a higher elevation than the
surrounding landscape, eg •216.7m. A few of these high points will commonly have a
trig beacon constructed on them. A trig beacon is fixed and of known elevation and
position. Surveys are conducted from them and typically consist of a white
cylindrical concrete tube which is clearly visible from afar. On a map their symbol is
typically a small triangle with a reference number, eg 216.7m31.
 • 216.7m

elevation number of the point

216.7m
31
3D
Topographic profile
Geological maps
 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

• A geological map is a representation of the distribution pattern of all

the different solid rocks (i.e. if all the soil cover were stripped away).

• Areas of thick surficial deposits are also shown.

• Useful for agricultural and engineering purposes such as parent

materials of soils, foundation conditions and location of building
aggregates.

• Other data include structural readings, fossil and mineral localities and
metamorphic zone indicators.
 GEOLOGICAL MAPS (contd..)
• Most geological maps are lithological maps: they show rock types, or
groupings of related rock types.

• Generally constructed from simplified topographic maps onto which

the geology is projected.

• Illustrate rocks cropping out (outcrop) on the land surface (or beneath
superficial deposits e.g. soil cover).

• The shapes and patterns on the geological map reflect the interaction
between the three-dimensional structure of the geology and the
topography.

• Typically, but not necessarily, they show contours.

STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS AND COLUMN

A stratigraphic unit is a stratum or body of strata recognizable as a unit

that may be used for mapping, description or correlation.

A stratigraphic column is a graphical representation, in the form of a

column, of the order of units in which they were deposited. Oldest unit
is always at the base of the column. They are commonly drawn to
scale where the vertical thickness of each unit in the column equals the
map's scale.
Igneous intrusions are offset from the "true" geology as they may
intrude a number of units. Igneous extrusions tend to form beds and
must be included in the stratigraphic column.
 EXPLANATION OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Planar strata

These could be: a) sedimentary layers

b) lava flows
c) intrusive sills

Sediments and lavas (but not sills) have been laid down in sequence,
getting younger upwards, forming a stratigraphic succession. The
present orientation of strata is described in terms of strike and dip
measurements.
Strike is a horizontal line in the surface being measured and has zero
dip. The true dip direction (direction of maximum dip) lies in the
surface perpendicular to the strike. The dip is the angle in degrees
between the horizontal plane and an inclined surface, measured in the
dip direction (regardless of the slope of the ground). The orientation
of strata can be given in either of two ways:

 By giving the strike direction between 0° and 180°, the amount of

dip, and the direction of dip (i.e. which side of the strike line).

 By giving the azimuth of the dip direction (from 0° to 360°) and

the amount of dip.
Horizontal strata
(i.e. dip = 0°)
are shown with
the symbol +.

Vertical strata
(i.e. dip = 90°)
are shown with
the symbol | .
Even when dips are not marked, the outcrop pattern of mapped strata
in relation to the topography can give a good indication of the
orientation of strata. When strata are horizontal, the mapped
geological boundaries follow the topographic contours. Dipping strata
show relationships like those below. Note that the steeper the dip, the
less the displacement across steep topography. Vertical strata (e.g.
dykes) are unaffected by topography. 3D
Strike lines
By comparing the outcrop (surface expression) of a planar horizon
with topographic contours, we can construct contours on the horizon
itself. These are strike lines (or structure contours, which can be drawn
for any type of rock body). Each strike line joins all the points where
the same outcrop/structural boundary of the horizon crosses/intersects
a particular (same) topographic contour.
The example map below shows a geological boundary or a thin single
layer (a coal seam), in white, crossing some irregular topography. The
intersections between the outcrop and contours have been marked with
circles.
In the simplest case where, as here, the horizon dips uniformly, the
stratum contours will be evenly-spaced straight lines (strike lines).
In the following diagram the strike lines have been drawn in through
the contour intersections and labeled with their altitudes in meters.
Inclined strata
True dip & apparent dip

The angle of true dip (α) of the strata/boundary is given by tan α =

h/m, where h is the difference in successive strike line values, and m
is the horizontal spacing, perpendicular to the strike lines. A dip of the
strata/boundary is measured on a dipping surface other than on a plane
perpendicular to the strike, an apparent dip (α 1) will be measured.
tan α 1 = tan α x cosine angle between their directions (β).

β
Thickness of strata
Dipping strata have a vertical thickness which is not the same as their
true thickness, but depends on the amount of dip. The outcrop width
W of a mapped unit is similarly dependent on the amount of dip as
well as on the unit's true thickness.
Where: t = true thickness
w = outcrop width (measured on the map, normal to strike)
α = true dip angle
t = v x cos (α) = w x sin (α)
Various sections showing different outcrop widths (w) produced by a
bed of the same thickness (T): T1 = T2 & T4 = T3 x 2
 FRACTURES, FAULTS, FOLDS AND
UNCONFORMITIES
Fractures
Cracks across which the cohesion (brittle failure) of the material is
lost, and may be regarded as planes or surfaces of discontinuity. There
is no displacement on either side of a fracture.
Faults
Faults are brittle fractures, along which the rocks on either side have
been displaced relative to each other. The displacement is generally
parallel to the fracture plane. They can be recognized on the map
because rocks of different ages come into contact across the fault and
the outcrops of otherwise continuous units are displaced across the
fault.
Although gently-dipping faults can be very important, most of the
obvious fault patterns on maps are high-angle (i.e. steeply-dipping)
faults. The direction of dip of a fault plane can be deduced from the
same clues as are used for dipping strata: a vertical fault is unaffected
by topography; a dipping fault crossing a valley forms a V pointing in
the dip direction. You can draw strike lines on a fault plane to
determine its attitude more precisely.
The vertical component of this
displacement is called the
throw (t), and the amount of
throw can commonly be
estimated from the map. The
horizontal component of the
separation is the heave (h).
For steeply-dipping faults
whose sense of movement is
purely vertical, we simply
refer to them as vertical faults.
Where the fault plane is non- Where:
vertical, the block above the h = heave
fault is called hanging wall t = throw
and the block below is called ds = true displacement
footwall. α = dip of fault
 sin α = t / ds
Three types of faults are recognised:

1) Normal (Lag if fault plane < 45°)

2) Reverse (Thrust if fault plane < 45°)
3) Strike-slip (wrench, tear or trans-current)
3) Strike-Slip (Wrench, tear or trans-current) faults:

On geological maps one generally marks the downthrown side of a

fault (the side that has moved down with respect to the other) with a
tick as well as write the amount of downthrow. As far as a fault is a
dipping plane, it will have its own unique set of strike-lines.
Folds

Compressive stresses can lead to the flexuring and folding of layered

strata. In three-dimensional view a single folded surface has these
important properties, whose orientations can be measured in the field:
Useful terminology:
Fold axes are commonly not horizontal, but plunge, leading to
distinctive outcrop patterns on flat terrain. (The axial trace of a fold is
the outcrop of its axial surface on the ground.)

A plunging fold - 3D and outcrop pattern:

Notice these patterns of structure contours on the opposite limbs of
different folds:

Patterns of structure contours on folded surfaces

symmetrical anticline, asymmetric plunging

horizontal axis anticline
Unconformities
Unconformities mark breaks in the geological record, during which
the erosion of older strata creates a new surface for the deposition of
younger rocks. They are commonly planar, but could be irregular.

If the older strata were

tilted or folded before
erosion, you get an
angular unconformity.
Anticline Dolerite Syncline
dyke