Introduction

Electrical signals carried on cables can be described as normal mode, differential

mode, or common mode.

 Normal-mode signals are read between two wires in a balanced or

unbalanced transmission path
 A differential-mode signal appears differentially on a pair of wires in an
ungrounded cable configuration.

The common mode refers to signals or noise that flow in the same direction in a
pair of lines. The differential (normal) mode refers to signals or noise that flow in
opposite directions in a pair of lines. Common-mode signal is the voltage common
to both input terminals of an electrical device. In telecommunication, the common-
mode signal on a transmission line is also known as longitudinal voltage. In
most electrical circuits the signal is transferred by a differential voltage between
two conductors. If the voltages on these conductors are U1 and U2, the common-
mode signal is the half-sum of the voltages:

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From the fig above

Three sources of common-mode voltage are represented in Figure 1 above as eGD,

eLC, and EOS:

 EOS is typically a DC offset introduced by a differential-mode driver

operating from a single supply, as represented in Figure 3.
 eGD is a noise signal representing the difference in ground potentials at the
transmitting and receiving locations. It is usually an AC signal containing
the fundamental and possibly several harmonics of the power-line
frequency.
 eLC is a longitudinally coupled noise signal occurring equally on both
transmission lines due to capacitive, electromagnetic, or inductive coupling
from extraneous sources.

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common-mode voltage is one-half the vector sum of the voltages from each
conductor of a balanced circuit to local ground or common. Such signals can arise
from one or more of the following sources:

 Radiated signals coupled equally to both lines,

 An offset from signal common created in the driver circuit, or
 A ground differential between the transmitting and receiving locations.

Types of common mode

The common-mode voltage can be AC, DC, or a combination of AC and DC.

AC signal - containing the fundamental and possibly several harmonics of the

power-line frequency. It is the voltage common to both input terminals of an
electrical device. In telecommunication, the common-mode signal on a
transmission line is also known as longitudinal voltage. In most electrical circuits
the signal is transferred by a differential voltage between two conductors.

Since direct current is more stable, companies are finding ways of using high
voltage direct current (HVDC) to transport electricity long distances with less
electricity loss.

Common mode rejection in electronics

Common-mode rejection is the ability of the differential amplifier (which sits
between the oscilloscope and probes as a signal-conditioning preamp) to eliminate

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the common-mode voltage from the output. The CMRR (Common Mode Rejection
Ratio) is the most important specification and it indicates the how much of the
common mode signals will present to measure. The value of the CMMR frequently
depends on the signal frequency and the function should be specified. The function
of the CMMR is specifically used to reduce the noise on the transmission lines. For
an example, when we measure the resistance of a thermocouple in the noisy
environment the noise from the environment appears as an offset on both input
leads and making it as a common mode voltage signal. The CMRR instrument
determines the attenuation applied to the noise. The CMRR in an operational
amplifier is a common mode rejection ratio. Generally, the op amp as two input
terminals which are positive and negative terminals and the two inputs are applied
at the same point. This will give the opposite polarity signals at the output. Hence
the positive and the negative voltage of the terminals will cancel out and it will
give the resultant output voltage. The ideal op amp will have the infinite CMRR
and with the finite differential gain and zero common mode gain.

CMMR = Differential mode gain / Common-mode gain

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 An overview of the Differential Amplifier

The differential amplifier amplifies the voltage difference present on its inverting
and non-inverting inputs. The differential amplifier is a voltage subtractor circuit
which produces an output voltage proportional to the voltage difference of two
input signals applied to the inputs of the inverting and non-inverting terminals of
an operational amplifier. Thus far we have used only one of the operational
amplifiers inputs to connect to the amplifier, using either the “inverting” or the
“non-inverting” input terminal to amplify a single input signal with the other input
being connected to ground. But as a standard operational amplifier has two inputs,
inverting and no-inverting, we can also connect signals to both of these inputs at
the same time producing another common type of operational amplifier circuit
called a Differential Amplifier. Basically, as we saw in the first tutorial about
operational amplifiers, all op-amps are “Differential Amplifiers” due to their input
configuration. But by connecting one voltage signal onto one input terminal and
another voltage signal onto the other input terminal the resultant output voltage
will be proportional to the “Difference” between the two input voltage signals
of V1 and V2. Then differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two
voltages making this type of operational amplifier circuit a Subtractor unlike a
summing amplifier which adds or sums together the input voltages. This type of
operational amplifier circuit is commonly known as a Differential
Amplifier configuration and is shown below:

Differential Amplifier

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By connecting each input in turn to 0v ground we can use superposition to solve
for the output voltage V out. Then the transfer function for a Differential
Amplifier circuit is given as:

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When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the
differential amplifier can be simplified to the following expression:

Differential Amplifier Equation

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If all the resistors are all of the same ohmic value, that is: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 then
the circuit will become a Unity Gain Differential Amplifier and the voltage gain of
the amplifier will be exactly one or unity. Then the output expression would
simply be V out = V2 – V1.

Also note that if input V1 is higher than input V2 the output voltage sum will be
negative, and if V2 is higher than V1, the output voltage sum will be positive.

The Differential Amplifier circuit is a very useful op-amp circuit and by adding
more resistors in parallel with the input resistors R1 and R3, the resultant circuit
can be made to either “Add” or “Subtract” the voltages applied to their respective
inputs. One of the most common ways of doing this is to connect a “Resistive
Bridge” commonly called a Wheatstone Bridge to the input of the amplifier as
shown below.

TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

Wheatstone Bridge Differential Amplifier

The standard Differential Amplifier circuit now becomes a differential voltage

comparator by “Comparing” one input voltage to the other. For example, by
connecting one input to a fixed voltage reference set up on one leg of the resistive
bridge network and the other to either a “Thermistor” or a “Light Dependant
Resistor” the amplifier circuit can be used to detect either low or high levels of

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temperature or light as the output voltage becomes a linear function of the changes
in the active leg of the resistive bridge and this is demonstrated below.

Light Activated Differential Amplifier

Here the circuit above acts as a light-activated switch which turns the output relay
either “ON” or “OFF” as the light level detected by the LDR resistor exceeds or
falls below some pre-set value. A fixed voltage reference is applied to the non-
inverting input terminal of the op-amp via the R1 – R2 voltage divider network.

The voltage value at V1 sets the op-amps trip point with a feedback
potentiometer, VR2 used to set the switching hysteresis. That is the difference
between the light level for “ON” and the light level for “OFF”.

The second leg of the differential amplifier consists of a standard light dependent
resistor, also known as a LDR, photoresistive sensor that changes its resistive value
(hence its name) with the amount of light on its cell as their resistive value is a
function of illumination.

The LDR can be any standard type of cadmium-sulphide (CDS) photoconductive

cell such as the common NORP12 that has a resistive range of between about
500Ω in sunlight to about 20kΩ or more in the dark.

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The NORP12 photoconductive cell has a spectral response similar to that of the
human eye making it ideal for use in lighting control type applications. The
photocell resistance is proportional to the light level and falls with increasing light
intensity so therefore the voltage level at V2 will also change above or below the
switching point which can be determined by the position of VR1.

Then by adjusting the light level trip or set position using potentiometer VR1 and
the switching hysteresis using potentiometer, VR2 an precision light-sensitive
switch can be made. Depending upon the application, the output from the op-amp
can switch the load directly, or use a transistor switch to control a relay or the
lamps themselves.

It is also possible to detect temperature using this type of simple circuit

configuration by replacing the light dependant resistor with a thermistor. By
interchanging the positions of VR1 and the LDR, the circuit can be used to detect
either light or dark, or heat or cold using a thermistor.

One major limitation of this type of amplifier design is that its input impedances
are lower compared to that of other operational amplifier configurations, for
example, a non-inverting (single-ended input) amplifier.

Each input voltage source has to drive current through an input resistance, which
has less overall impedance than that of the op-amps input alone. This may be good
for a low impedance source such as the bridge circuit above, but not so good for a
high impedance source.

One way to overcome this problem is to add a Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier such as
the voltage follower seen in the previous tutorial to each input resistor. This then
gives us a differential amplifier circuit with very high input impedance and low

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output impedance as it consists of two non-inverting buffers and one differential
amplifier. This then forms the basis for most “Instrumentation Amplifiers”.

Applications of differential amplifier

 The main application of the differential amplifier is to amplify the balanced
differential signal.
 Differential Amplifier circuits are used in the audio amplifier for accurate and
noiseless volume control.
 In analog and digital data transmission system differential amplifiers are used
for noise cancellation.
 Differential Amplifiers are used for audio and video processing.
 They also used as an automatic gain control circuit.
 These amplifiers are used for amplitude modulation.
 Differential amplifier circuit also used as a negative feedback circuit.
 They are also used as an electronic switch.
 They are also used for motor control.
 There are huge applications of Differential amplifier in the control system.
 These amplifier circuits are also used as a high pass filter circuit.
 Differential amplifiers are used in earlier days in analog computers.
Advantages
 Differential Amplifier has noise cancellation property.
 Differential Amplifier can reduce external interference.
 The nature of these amplifiers is linear.
 These amplifiers help to increase CMRR(Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
which further helps to avoid unwanted signal.

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Disadvantages

 Complexity
 Proper biasing needed

Instrumentation Amplifier

Instrumentation Amplifiers (in-amps) are very high gain differential amplifiers

which have a high input impedance and a single ended output. Instrumentation
amplifiers are mainly used to amplify very small differential signals from strain
gauges, thermocouples or current sensing devices in motor control systems.

Unlike standard operational amplifiers in which their closed-loop gain is

determined by an external resistive feedback connected between their output
terminal and one input terminal, either positive or negative, “instrumentation
amplifiers” have an internal feedback resistor that is effectively isolated from its
input terminals as the input signal is applied across two differential
inputs, V1 and V2.

The instrumentation amplifier also has a very good common mode rejection ratio,
CMRR (zero output when V1 = V2) well in excess of 100dB at DC. A typical
example of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier with a high input impedance
( Zin ) is given below:

High Input Impedance Instrumentation Amplifier

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The two non-inverting amplifiers form a differential input stage acting as buffer
amplifiers with a gain of 1 + 2R2/R1 for differential input signals and unity gain
for common mode input signals. Since amplifiers A1 and A2 are closed loop
negative feedback amplifiers, we can expect the voltage at Va to be equal to the
input voltage V1. Likewise, the voltage at Vb to be equal to the value at V2.

As the op-amps take no current at their input terminals (virtual earth), the same
current must flow through the three resistor network of R2, R1 and R2 connected
across the op-amp outputs. This means then that the voltage on the upper end
of R1 will be equal to V1 and the voltage at the lower end of R1 to be equal to V2.

This produces a voltage drop across resistor R1 which is equal to the voltage
difference between inputs V1 and V2, the differential input voltage, because the
voltage at the summing junction of each amplifier, Va and Vb is equal to the
voltage applied to its positive inputs.

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However, if a common-mode voltage is applied to the amplifiers inputs, the
voltages on each side of R1 will be equal, and no current will flow through this
resistor. Since no current flows through R1 (nor, therefore, through
both R2 resistors, amplifiers A1 and A2 will operate as unity-gain followers
(buffers). Since the input voltage at the outputs of amplifiers A1 and A2 appears
differentially across the three resistor network, the differential gain of the circuit
can be varied by just changing the value of R1.

The voltage output from the differential op-amp A3 acting as a subtractor, is

simply the difference between its two inputs ( V2 – V1 ) and which is amplified by
the gain of A3 which may be one, unity, (assuming that R3 = R4). Then we have a
general expression for overall voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier circuit
as:

Instrumentation Amplifier Equation

In the next tutorial about Operational Amplifiers, we will examine the effect of the
output voltage, Vout when the feedback resistor is replaced with a frequency
dependant reactance in the form of a capacitance. The addition of this feedback
capacitance produces a non-linear operational amplifier circuit called an
Integrating Amplifier.

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Why common mode rejection

Differential amplifiers are mainly used in common mode rejection mainly to

suppress noise.
Noise consists of typical differential noise and common-mode noise, of which the
latter can easily be suppressed with an op-amp.
There are two main causes of common-mode noise:
1. Noise is generated in the wires and cables, due to electromagnetic
induction, etc., and it causes a difference in potential (i.e., noise) between
the signal source ground and the circuit ground.
2. Current flowing into the ground of a circuit from another circuit
causes a ground potential rise (noise).

In either case, the ground potential, a reference for a circuit, fluctuates because of
noise. It is difficult to remove common-mode noise with typical filters. Differential
amplifiers are used as a means of suppressing common-mode noise.
The op-amp configures this differential amplifier as the main circuit. The symbol
shown below represents a differential amplifier. It has two inputs: VIN(+) and
VIN(-). The output voltage is equal to a difference in voltage between the two
inputs multiplied by the amp’s gain (AV):
VOUT=AV{VIN(+) - VIN(-)}
Suppose that common-mode noise (vnoise) is superimposed on the differential
inputs. Then,
VIN(+)‘=VIN(+) + Vnoise
VIN(-)‘=VIN(-) + Vnoise
Hence, the output is expressed as follows. This indicates that the differential
amplifier
cancels out common-mode noise:

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VOUT=AV[{VIN(+) + Vnoise} - {VIN(-) + Vnoise}]
=AV{VIN(+) - VIN(-)}

COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO

Gain of an amplifier is defined as VOUT/VIN. For the special case of a differential

amplifier, the input VIN is the difference between its two input terminals, which is
equal to (V1-V2) as shown in the following diagram.

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So the gain of this differential amplifier is

Gain = VOUT/(V1-V2). -------------- (1)

We can find the expression of VOUT in term of V1 and V2 by using superposition
theorem:
VOUT = [R3/(R1+R3)] [(R4 + R2)/R2] V1 - [R4/R2] V2 -------------- (2)
However, we will not be able to re-arrange this expression in the form of eqn (1) to
find the gain of the amplifier (except in the special case of R1 = R2 and R3 = R4).

Instead of applying superposition theorem with V1 and V2 separately, a better way

is to first combined V1 and V2 in a different format, viz. (V1-V2). This is known as
the differential mode input - Vd. Associated with this differential mode component
will be the common mode input - Vcm., which is equal to the average value of
V1 and V2.

Differential mode component : Vd = (V1-V2)

Common mode component : Vcm = (V1+V2)/2

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By using these alternate representation of the input components (Vd and Vcm)
instead of the original components (V1 and V2), we can re-express eqn (2) in terms
of Vd and Vcm as follows.

Vcm = (V1+V2)/2 Þ 2Vcm = V1 + V2 ---- (3)

Since Vd = V1 - V2 ---- (4)

Therefore
(3) + (4) Þ V1 = Vcm + Vd/2 ---- (5)
and (3) - (4) Þ V2 = Vcm - Vd/2 ---- (6)

Substitute eqns (5) & (6) into eqn (2) :

VOUT = 1/2[R3/(R1+R3)] [(R4 + R2)/R2 + R4/R2] Vd +

[R3/(R1+R3)] [(R4 + R2)/R2 - R4/R2] Vcm -------------- (7)

From this expression, we can find the gain of the differential amplifier
Gain = VOUT/(V1-V2)

= VOUT/Vd

= 1/2[R3/(R1+R3)] [(R4 + R2)/R2 + R4/R2]

This gain is known as the Differential Gain (Ad) as it is based on the differential
input alone, i.e.

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 Ad = 1/2[R3/(R1+R3)] [(R4 + R2)/R2 + R4/R2]

As there is another component in VOUT due to the common-mode component Vcm of

the input, we define another gain for the differential amplifier, the Common Mode
Gain (Acm=VOUT/ Vcm). From eqn (7), this is

Acm = [R3/(R1+R3)] [(R4 + R2)/R2 - R4/R2]

So although a differential amplifier is supposed to amplify the differential

component of the input signals, the common component of the input signals (which
is the average value of the two input voltages) will also appear at the output. In
practice, this common mode component will cause an error in the measurement of
the signals.

To eliminate the effect of the common mode component, we can either

(i) make the input common mode component equal to zero, i.e. make
V2 = -V1
such that the average value of the two input signals equal to zero
or

(ii) choose the resistor values of R1 to R4 in such a way that Acm is

zero.

(i) is usually not possible in practice due to the constraint of the measuring
circuitry used to produce V1 and V2 (e.g. the Bridge circuit).

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(ii) can be achieved theoretically by making R1 = R2 and R3 = R4. However, this is
not feasible in practice due to the tolerance of the resistors used.

Because of this imperfection, a figure of merit used to describe differential

amplifier is the Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR), which is defined as

CMRR = 20 log (Ad/Acm)

For a perfect differential amplifier, the CMRR is equal to ¥, as Acm is zero.

In practice, a CMRR in excess of 80dB to 100dB will be needed for high accuracy
measuring system (e.g. a microcomputer data acquisition system). This is very
difficult to achieve if the differential amplifier uses discrete resistors for R1 to R4.

The common mode rejection ratio is a differential amplifier and the op amps are
amplified in with the differential input. Hence the CMMR ratio can be applied to
the operational amplifier. By using the condition of common mode rejection ratio,
i.e. when both the input of the amplifier has same voltages, then the output of the
amplifier should be zero or the amplifier should be rejecting the signal. The
following image shows the amplifier of MCP601 of common mode rejection ratio.

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 Common Mode
Rejection Ration of Op Amp

Offset Error of a CMRR of the Op-Amp

The CMRR can build parallel out offset voltage in op amps configured in the non-
inverting amplifier which is shown in the below figure. The non-inverting
operating amplifier will have a small amount of CMRR error because both the
inputs are connected to ground, there is no presence of CM dynamic voltage.

Offset Error of a CMRR of the op amp

Error (RTI) = Vcm / CMRR = Vin / CMRR

Vout = [1 + R2/R1] [ Vin + Vin/ CMRR]
Error (RTO) = [1+R2/R1] [Vin/CMRR]

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Measuring Common Mode Rejection Ratio

There are different ways to measure the common mode rejection ratio. In the
below figure we will discuss the four-precision resistor to configure the op amp as
a differential amplifier. A signal is applied to the both inputs, changes in the output
are measured and an amplifier with infinite CMRR also no changes in the output.
The inherent difficulties of this circuit are that the ratio match of the resistors is
important as the CMRR of the op amp. The 0.1% mismatch is between resistor pair
and the result will be in CMR of 66 dB. Hence the most of the amplifiers will have
a low frequency of CMR is between the 80dB to 120Db. In this circuit, it is clear
that there is only marginally useful for measuring the CMRR.

Measuring Common Mode Rejection

Ratio

ΔVout = ΔVin / CMRR (1 + R2/R1)

CMRR without Using Precision Resistors

The following circuit is more complicated by comparing with the above circuit and
it can measure the CMRR by without using a precision resistor. By switching the
power supply voltage the common mode rejection ratio is changed. Practically,

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the circuit can be implemented easily and by using the same circuit we can apply
different power supply voltages to measure the power supply rejection ratio.
In the following circuit, the power supply is from the +-15 DUT op amp with the
common mode voltage range of +-10V. From the following circuit, the integrated
amplifier A1 should have high gain, low Vos and low IB and the op amp is 097
devices.

CMRR
without Using Precision Resistors

Application of common mode rejection

The CMRR is a very important specification, as it indicates how much of

the common-mode signal will appear in your measurement. The value of the
CMRR often depends on signal frequency as well, and must be specified as
a function thereof.

It is often important in reducing noise on transmission lines

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It indicates the presence of common-mode signals at the op-amp inputs, which
eventually determines the op-amp's ability to minimize the noise in audio, video
and communication designs.

Biomedical instrumentation

One of the most common applications of high CMRR op-amp circuits is in

biomedical instrumentation, such as electrocardiograms (ECGs),
electroencephalograms (EEGs), and electromyograms (EMGs). These devices
measure the electrical activity of the heart, brain, and muscles, respectively, by
attaching electrodes to the skin. However, these signals are often very weak and
noisy, and can be easily distorted by the common-mode signal from the power
supply, the environment, or the body itself. Therefore, high CMRR op-amp circuits
are used to amplify the differential signal from the electrodes while rejecting the
common-mode noise, improving the signal-to-noise ratio and the quality of the
measurement.

Audio amplifiers

Another common application of high CMRR op-amp circuits is in audio

amplifiers, such as microphones, speakers, and headphones. These devices convert
sound waves into electrical signals and vice versa, and need to preserve the fidelity
and clarity of the sound. However, the electrical signals can also be affected by the
common-mode noise from the power supply, the cables, or the electromagnetic
interference. Therefore, high CMRR op-amp circuits are used to amplify the

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differential signal from the sound source while rejecting the common-mode noise,
enhancing the performance and the sound quality of the audio amplifiers.

Instrumentation amplifiers

A third common application of high CMRR op-amp circuits is in instrumentation

amplifiers, which are specialized op-amps that are designed to amplify low-level
signals from sensors, transducers, or other measurement devices. These signals can
be very sensitive to the common-mode noise from the power supply, the ground
loops, or the temperature variations. Therefore, high CMRR op-amp circuits are
used to amplify the differential signal from the sensor while rejecting the common-
mode noise, increasing the accuracy and the stability of the instrumentation
amplifiers.

Other applications

There are many other applications that require high CMRR op-amp circuits, such
as data acquisition systems, filters, oscillators, modulators, demodulators, and
comparators. In general, any application that involves amplifying a small
difference between two input signals while ignoring a large common-mode signal
can benefit from using high CMRR op-amp circuits. These circuits can improve
the performance, the reliability, and the efficiency of the signal processing
systems.

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That shows why a high CMRR is critical in empowering an op-amp to
attenuate any CMI elements.

The CMRR becomes even more crucial when differential input is comparable
to the CMI signal in an op-amp. An op-amp should be able to suppress the
CMI signal at input terminals, thus canceling out any harmonics to reduce
distortion.

Take the example of a thermocouple operating in a noisy environment: The

noise from the environment can potentially offset both inputs, leading to the
creation of the common-mode voltage signal and inevitably affecting the op-
amp’s output voltage.

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Advantages of cmrr

it indicates the presence of common-mode signals at the op-amp inputs,

which eventually determines the op-amp’s ability to minimize the noise in
audio, video and communication designs.

reducing noise on transmission lines

disadvantages

the ratio match of the resistors is as important as the CMRR of the op amp.

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