GCAA 147

CAR 66
CAT A
Module 2
Physics
 AIRACRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEER TRAINING NOTES

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 CAR 66 CATEGORY A
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1 MATTER .......................................................................................... 1
1.1 SI UNITS .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Basic Units ................................................................ 1
1.1.2 Derived Units .............................................................2
1.1.3 Prefixes for SI units ....................................................3
1.1.4 Imperial system of measurement (English system)….3
1.1.5 Converting units of measurement ..............................4
1.2 MATTER AND ENERGY.................................................................................. 5
1.2.1 Chemical Nature of Matter .........................................5
1.2.2 Physical Nature of Matter ..........................................9
1.2.3 States of matter..........................................................9
2 MECHANICS ................................................................................. 11
2.1 FORCES, MOMENTS AND COUPLES ........................................................ 11
2.1.1 Scalar and vector quantities .....................................11
2.1.2 Vector addition: triangle method...............................12
2.1.3 Vector addition: polygon method ..............................12
2.1.4 Vector addition: graphical method ............................13
2.1.5 Vector addition: trigonometric method......................14
2.1.6 Resolving vectors ..15
2.1.7 Vector addition: component method.........................16
2.1.8 Coplanar forces ........................................................17
2.1.9 Moments ..................................................................18
2.1.10 Equilibrium of coplanar forces………………………..20
2.2 CENTER OF GRAVITY…………………………………………………………….24
2.2.1 Weight ........................................................................24
2.2.2 Position of the center of gravity ..................................24
2.3 STRESS, STRAIN AND ELASTIC TENSION .................................................. 26
2.3.1 Stress .........................................................................26
2.3.2 Strain..........................................................................31
2.3.3 Elasticity .....................................................................32
2.4 SIMPLE MACHINES ........................................................................................ 34
2.4.1 Levers ........................................................................34
2.4.2 Actual mechanical advantage ....................................38
2.4.3 Velocity Ratio .............................................................38
2.4.4 Mechanical efficiency .................................................38
2.5 FRICTION ........................................................................................................ 39
2.5.1 Static friction ..............................................................39
2.5.2 Dynamic friction..........................................................40

3 KINEMATICS ................................................................................. 43
3.1 LINEAR MOTION .......................................................................................... 43
3.1.1 Displacement .......................................................... 43
3.1.2 Speed and velocity...................................................43
3.1.3 Acceleration ............................................................ 43
3.1.4 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and time..........44
3.1.5 Velocity time graphs .................................................45

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3.1.6 Relative velocity ...................................................... 47

3.2 ROTARY MOTION ........................................................................................ 49
3.2.1 Angular velocity and acceleration.............................49
4 DYNAMICS .................................................................................... 53
4.1 QUANTITIES................................................................................................. 53
4.1.1 Mass and weight ......................................................53
4.1.2 Force ....................................................................... 53
4.1.3 Linear momentum ....................................................58
4.1.4 Impulse ................................................................... 58
4.1.5 Conservation of linear momentum ...........................59
4.1.6 Collisions................................................................. 60
4.1.7 Work...........................................................................62
4.1.8 Power .........................................................................63
4.1.9 Energy........................................................................65
4.1.10 Conservation of energy ..............................................67
4.2 CIRCULAR MOTION ....................................................................................... 68
4.2.1 Centripetal force .........................................................68
4.2.2 Simple harmonic motion.............................................69
4.2.3 Restoring force...........................................................69
4.2.4 Elastic potential ..........................................................69
4.2.5 Period and frequency .................................................70
4.2.6 Vibration theory ..........................................................71
4.3 GYROSCOPES................................................................................................ 73
4.3.1 Rigidity .......................................................................73
4.3.2 Precession .................................................................74
4.3.3 Balancing of rotating masses .....................................75

5 FLUID DYNAMICS......................................................................... 77
5.1 FLUIDS AT REST ......................................................................................... 77
5.1.1 Density .................................................................... 77
5.1.2 Relative density....................................................... 77
5.1.3 Pressure.................................................................. 79
5.1.4 Pressure in a fluid ................................................... 79
5.1.5 Archimedes principle ................................................81
5.1.6 Hydraulic press ........................................................82
5.2 FLUIDS IN MOTION ......................................................................................83
5.2.1 Fluid flow ................................................................. 83
5.2.2 Viscosity .................................................................. 84
5.2.3 Compressibility...........................................................86
5.2.4 Bernoulli’s equation ....................................................88
5.2.5 Venturi tube................................................................88
5.2.6 Pitot-statics ................................................................89
6 THERMODYNAMICS ..................................................................... 91
6.1 TEMPERATURE ........................................................................................... 91
6.1.1 Temperature scales .................................................91
6.2 HEAT............................................................................................................. 93

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1 MATTER
Physics is the study of the laws that determine the structure of the universe
with reference to the matter and energy of which it consists. It is concerned
not with chemical changes that occur but with the forces that exist between
objects and the interrelationship between matter and energy.
This module covers the aspects of physics relating to aeronautical
maintenance engineering required by the EASA Part 66 syllabus for the ‘B’
license. The student will need to be conversant with not only the laws,
formulae and calculations of this module for the sake of examination
purposes, but also how they underpin future knowledge of subsequent
modules throughout the course.

1.1 SI UNITS
To find precise relationships that describe physical phenomena we must be
able to measure physical quantities such as length, area, volume, velocity,
acceleration, mass, time and temperature.

1.1.1 BASIC UNITS

In the SI system (Système Internationale d’Unités) there are seven basic

units and from these the units of other quantities called derived units can be
obtained by multiplying or dividing the basic units.
This module will only consider six of the basic units, which are used for
measuring length, mass, time, temperature, electric current and
amount of substance (table 1.1).

Quantity Basic unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol
mass m kilogram kg
length l meter m
time t second s
temperature T Kelvin K
electric current I ampere A
amount of
substance n mole mol
Table 1.1 – Basic units

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1.1.2 DERIVED UNITS

As has been mentioned previously not all measurable quantities have their own
units. Often the unit is defined in terms of basic units. These combinations are
known as derived units (table 1.2).
An example of a derived unit is area, which is found by multiplying the unit of
length by itself, i.e. m x m = m².

Quantity Derived unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol
area A square meter m²
volume V cubic meter m³
density  kilogram per cubic meter kg m-³
velocity v meter per second ms-1
acceleration a meter per second squared ms-2
momentum  Kilogram meter per second kg ms-1
Table 1.2 - Derived units

Derived units that are rather complex when expressed in terms of their basic units
are given special names. These names are in honour of the scientists associated
with work in that particular field (table 1.3).

Quantity Derived units

Name Symbol Name Symbol
force F Newton N
pressure p Pascal Pa
energy E Joule J
work W Joule J
power P Watt W
Table 1.3 – Derived units

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1.1.3 PREFIXES FOR SI UNITS

Due to the nature of science and engineering calculations large values can be
obtained which can prove cumbersome to deal with, so prefixes are sometimes
required. In general prefixes involving powers of ten which are multiples are
preferred but others can be used (table 1.4).

Multiple Prefix Symbol Submultiple Prefix Symbol

10³ kilo k 10-3 milli m
106 mega M 10-6 micro 
109 giga G 10-9 nano n

1012 tera T 10-12 pico p

Table 1.4 – Commonly used prefixes

1.1.4 IMPERIAL SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT (ENGLISH SYSTEM)

Whereas science and engineering in general has changed to the SI system of

measurement a large part of aeronautical engineering still relies on the imperial
system of measurement (English system). The student must also familiarise
themselves with this system as it is referred to throughout all other modules
within the EASA B1 syllabus (table 1.5).

Quantity Basic unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol
mass m pound lb
length l foot ft
time t second s
temperature T Fahrenheit °F
Table 1.5 – Commonly used Imperial measurements

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1.1.5 CONVERTING UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

If you have a given length in meters and it is extended by a number of units in

feet clearly you cannot simply just add the two numbers together. Before adding
the lengths together one system must be converted to the other or vice versa. It is
usual to use a consistent set of units when dealing with specific problems; this
ensures that all mathematical equations will be consistent (table 1.6).

Imperial measure Metric measure

1 mile 1.6093 kilometers
1 square foot 0.0929 square meters
1 square mile 2.59 square kilometers
1 cubic foot 0.0283 cubic meters
1 pint 0.5683 litres
1 pound 0.4536 kilograms
1 inch 2.54 cm
Table 1.6 – Commonly used Imperial / Metric conversions

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1.2 MATTER AND ENERGY

By definition:
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The air, water and food
you need to live, as well as the aircraft you will maintain are all forms of matter.
Mass is related to energy, which by the principle of conservation of energy states
that it cannot be created nor destroyed. This energy though can be changed into
other forms. In doing so it can be used to do work such as the chemical energy
stored in a battery which can be used to start a car or light a bulb in a torch.

1.2.1 CHEMICAL NATURE OF MATTER

Most substances are in the form of compounds which can be broken down into
elements. For example water is a compound which can be broken down into
hydrogen and oxygen.
The smallest part of an element that can exist chemically is the atom. Atoms
consist of a small dense nucleus of neutrons and protons surrounded by
moving electrons (Fig 1.1).
The neutron is a neutral particle with zero charge and a mass of approximately
1.674 x 10-27 kg. The proton is a particle with a positive charge equal in
magnitude to the electron and a mass similar to that of the neutron. The electron
is a particle with a negative charge and a mass much smaller than those of
neutrons and protons.

Electron
Protons (+)
8+
Neutron (N)
8N

Hydrogen

1+
Oxygen

Fig 1.1 Hydrogen and oxygen atomic models

The electron(s) may be thought of as a particle(s) moving in a circular or elliptical

path (Bhor model) around the nucleus. More accurately, they move in discrete
regions of space. These regions of space are known as orbits or shells.

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The orbits/shells relate to discrete energy levels that the electrons move in.
Each shell/orbit can contain only a fixed number of electrons. The amount
electrons per shell can generally be found by using the equation 2n², where n
represents the shell number.

Example 1.1
The maximum number of electrons the third shell/orbit can contain is equal to 2 x
(3²) = 18 electrons.

1.2.1.1 Periodic table

There are 92 naturally occurring elements and a number of synthetic ones. Each
element has an identifiable number of protons, neutrons and electrons.

An element can be described using its atomic number and atomic mass. An
elements atomic number relates to the number of protons in its nucleus and is
equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom. An elements atomic mass
relates to the number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus.
When the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, elements with
similar chemical and physical properties recur at regular intervals. A periodic
table (Fig 1.2) is a way of arranging the elements to exhibit these regularities.

Atomic Number
Element Symbol
1.00 Atomic Mass

Li BE
6.94 9.01
11 12
Na Mg
22.9 24.3
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Ca Sc Ti Cr Mn Fe Co
39.0 40.0 44.9 47.8 50.9 52.9 54.9 55.8 58.9
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Rb Sr Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
85.4 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 98.0 101.1 102.9
Fig 1.2 Part of the Periodic Table
If one of two or more atoms of the same element has a different number of
neutrons in their nucleus, these atoms are known as isotopes. An example of an
isotope is hydrogen (1 proton, no neutrons), deuterium (1 proton, 1 neutron), and
tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons).

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1.2.1.2 Molecules

Molecules are the smallest part of an element or compound which can exist
independently. For example, oxygen atoms at room temperature do not exist
independently. They join in pairs to form oxygen molecules. So the symbol O 2
represents a molecule of oxygen which is composed of two oxygen atoms.

Just as each element has its own symbol, so each compound has symbols of the
elements into which it can be broken down. Water (H2O) consists of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

1.2.1.3 Bonding

When atoms combine to form chemical substances they are held together in
compounds by chemical bonds. The outermost shell of an atom is called the
valence shell and it is this shell that contains the electrons involved in bond
formation. The most important feature of the valence shell is that for noble gases
it is complete. In reality it is far more complicated than that and it involves those
electrons that travel furthest from the nucleus.
In this chapter we will be looking at three types of bond; covalent, metallic and
ionic.

Covalent Bonding is a form of chemical bonding that is characterised by the

sharing of electrons (Fig 1.3). The shared electrons act as bonds between the
atoms creating a noble gas configuration for each atom. From figure 1.3 it can be
seen that both hydrogen atoms require one electron each to complete its shell,
whilst the oxygen atom requires two electrons to complete its outer shell. When
bonding takes place the two hydrogen atoms share electrons with the oxygen
atom thus forming a water molecule.

1+
8+
1+ 8N

Fig 1.3 Water (H2O) molecule

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Metallic Bonding is the electrostatic attraction between delocalized electrons

(Fig 1.4). Being delocalized allows the electrons to move freely within their
molecular orbits. The metal is held together by the strong forces of attraction
between the positive nuclei and the delocalized electrons. This is sometimes
referred to as ‘an array of positive ions in a sea of free electrons’. This accounts
for the many characteristics of metals, such as their strength, ductility,
conduction of heat and electricity.

Ag+ Ag+ +
Ag+
Ag

Ag+ Ag+ Ag+ e-

e-
Ag+ Ag+
Ag+ Ag+ e-

Fig 1.4 Metallic Bonding

Ionic Bonding is a bond formed by the attraction of two oppositely charged ions.
Ionic bonds often form between metals and non-metal ions. The metal donates one
or more electrons forming a positively charged ion or cation. The donated electrons
enter the non-metal forming a negatively charged ion or anion. The electrostatic
attraction between the oppositely charged ions causes them to come together and
form a bond. A typical example of an ionic bond is sodium chloride (NaCl). Ionic
compounds in a solid state form a continuous lattice structure (Fig 1.5).

Sodium atom Ionic bonding

Chlorine atom

Fig 1.5 Ionic Bonding

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1.2.2 PHYSICAL NATURE OF MATTER

Matter can be thought to exist in three states, solids, liquids and gases, plasma
or other states of matter will not be considered in this module.

A good example when considering the three states of matter is water. Ice is a
solid and its molecules are locked together in a rigid structure. When heated
sufficiently it changes to water. The energy supplied by the heating process
enables the molecules to break away from each other so its rigid structure falls
apart.

When water is heated sufficiently its temperature rises to boiling point when it
changes from water to steam. Again the heating process enables the water
molecules to break away from each other.

Ice, water and steam are examples of the three states of matter.

1.2.3 STATES OF MATTER

1.2.3.1 Solids

Solid state materials are characterized by having a fixed volume and shape
(Fig 1.7). A solid will not conform to a container. They generally exist as
crystalline or amorphous structures.

1.2.3.2 Liquid

Liquids have a fixed volume at a given temperature and pressure and take the
shape of their container (Fig 1.7). The atoms of a liquid are not much father apart
than in a solid but they have greater internal energy due to increased
temperature.
Liquids also exhibit surface tension (Fig 1.6) that makes it behave as if its surface
is enclosed in an elastic skin. This property results from intermolecular forces. A
molecule in the interior of a liquid experiences an interaction of forces with other
molecules equally from all sides. Whereas a molecule at the surface of the liquid;
is only affected by molecules below it in the liquid.
The property of surface tension is responsible for the formation of liquid drops,
soap bubbles and meniscuses, as well as the rise of liquids in a capillary tube.

Fig 1.6 –Surface tension

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1.2.3.3 Gas

In a gas or vapor the atoms and molecules move randomly with high speeds
through all the space available (Fig 1.7). Gases have no fixed volume and no
fixed shape. The volume of a quantity of gas is dependent on its temperature and
surrounding pressure.

Solid Liquid Gas

Fig 1.7 States of Matter

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2 MECHANICS

2.1 FORCES, MOMENTS AND COUPLES

2.1.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Quantities are thought of as being either scalar or vector.

A scalar quantity has only magnitude and is completely specified by a number
and a unit. Examples of scalars are speed; distance, time, mass, volume,
temperature and frequency. The magnitude of a scalar can be thought of as
being represented by a simple scale (Fig 2.1).

0 ºC 10 ºC 20 ºC

Fig 2.1 Scalar representation of temperature

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples of vectors are;
force, velocity, acceleration, momentum, displacement and field strength.
Forces for example give rise to all changes in motion. A force is needed to start a
stationary object moving, to change its direction of motion, and to stop it. From
this it can be seen that we need to know the direction of the force as well as its
magnitude to determine what its effects will be.
There many ways of representing vectors, either algebraically or graphically. One
common method is by the use of vector diagrams (Fig 2.2). An arrow is used to
represent magnitude and an angle to represent direction. If the point of
application of a vector is important a space diagram may be used.

10 F = 10N
F
Units

Vector Diagram Space Diagram

Fig 2.2 Vector representation

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2.1.2 VECTOR ADDITION: TRIANGLE METHOD

The total effect or resultant of a number of forces acting on a body may be

determined by vector addition (Fig 2.3).
To add vector B to vector A; draw B so that its tail is at the head of A. The vector
sum A + B is the resultant R that joins the tail of A and the head of B.

Fig 2.3 Triangle method

The order in which A and B are added is not significant, so that A + B = B + A

(Fig 2.4).

Fig 2.4 Triangle method

2.1.3 VECTOR ADDITION: POLYGON METHOD

Exactly the same procedure is followed when more than two vectors of the same
kind are to be added. Consider three forces A, B and C, A and B can be added to
produce resultant (A + B). If force C is then added a new resultant (A + B + C) is
produced (Fig 2.5).

A+B+C

=
A+B

Fig 2.5 Polygon method

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This procedure can be repeated again and again (Fig 2.6).

E C

Overall
resultant

Start B
A
Fig 2.6 Polygon method

2.1.4 VECTOR ADDITION: GRAPHICAL METHOD

1. Set a suitable scale representing magnitude.

2. Set a reference or datum direction.
3. Draw lines representing the vectors being careful to preserve their correct
lengths and directions.
4. The resultant is drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last
(Fig 2.7).

θD C
D
Finish
Resultant θC
B
θR
Start Direction
θA

θB
A
Fig 2.7 Graphical method of vector addition

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2.1.5 VECTOR ADDITION: TRIGONOMETRIC METHOD

It is easy to apply trigonometry to find the resultant R of two vectors A and B that
are perpendicular to each other (Fig 2.8).

Fig 2.8 Trigonometric method

The magnitude of the resultant is given by the Pythagorean Theorem as:

R = A2 + B 2
The direction, angle  between R and A may be found from:
B B
tan =  = tan−1
A A

Example 2.1

Calculate the resultant of two forces A and B, force B = 3N and acts due north
and force A = 4N acts due east.

B = 3N

A = 4N
Applying Pythagoras: R = A +B
2 2
R = 32 + 42  Magnitude = 5N
B 3
Angle  = tan−1  = tan−1    37°
A 4

To express R in terms of north we find the value of  = 90° -  = 90° - 37°  53°

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2.1.6 RESOLVING VECTORS

Just as two or more vectors can be added to yield a single resultant vector, so it
is possible to break up a single vector into two or more vectors.
If vectors A and B together equal to C, then vector C is equivalent to the two
vectors A and B (Fig 2.9).

+ B =
A

= + B
A

Fig 2.9 Resolving vectors

When a vector is replaced by two or more others, the process is called resolving
the vector. The new vectors are known as components of the initial vector.
The components into which a vector is resolved are nearly always chosen to be
perpendicular to one another (Fig 2.10).

Fy

Fx

Fig 2.10 Resolving vectors

Force F can be resolved into two component vectors Fx and Fy where:

Fx = horizontal component of F
Fy = vertical component of F
The magnitudes of these components are:
Fx = F cos 
Fy = F sin 

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2.1.7 VECTOR ADDITION: COMPONENT METHOD

When vectors that are to be added together are not perpendicular, the method of
addition by components can be used.
1. Resolve the initial vectors into components in the x, y, z directions.
2. Add the components in the x direction to give Rx, add the components in the
y direction to give Ry, add the components in the z direction to give Rz,
e.g. Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx + ……
Ry = Ay + By + Cy + ……
Rz = Az + Bz + Cz + ……
3. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant R from its components Rx, Ry, Rz
by using Pythagorean theorem. R = R2x + R2y+ R2z

4. Calculate the direction of the resultant R from its components Rx and Ry (or
Ry
Rz if required) in terms of angle .  = tan−1
Rx

Note: If the vectors being added together all lie in the same plane, only two
components need to be considered.

Example 2.2

Three coplanar forces act at a single point:

Force A = 500 N at 120°
Force B = 1200 N at 40°
Force C = 900 N at 250°
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the single resultant force.
Resolve the initial vectors into components in the x, y directions.
Fx = 500 Cos 120° + 1200 Cos 40° + 900 Cos 250° = 361.435
Fy = 500 Sin 120° + 1200 Sin 40° + 900 Sin 250° = 358.634

361.435 2 + 358.634 2
The magnitude of F = = 509.169 N
−1 FY 358.634
The direction of F = tan = tan−1 = 44.77°
FX 361.435

Applying CAST both Fx and Fy are positive so by convention the direction will be
44.77° from the positive x-axis.

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2.1.8 COPLANAR FORCES

Forces whose line of action act in the same plane (usually the x and y plane) are
said to be coplanar.
Note: In general, however, three mutually perpendicular components are required
to completely describe the magnitude and direction of a vector quantity,
conventionally labelled x, y, z axes.
If the two forces F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction (i.e.
F1 and F2 = 0), then the object is in translational equilibrium (Fig 2.11).

F1 = 10N

F2 = 10N

Fig 2.11 Forces in translational equilibrium

When two equal but opposite forces are present, whose lines of action are not
coincident they will create a rotation termed a couple. A moment of a couple is
equal to the magnitude of the force F, multiplied by the distance between them.
If in addition the two forces act along a common line of action then the object is
also in rotational equilibrium (Fig 2.12).

F2 = 10N F1 = 10N

Fig 2.12 Forces in translational and rotational equilibrium

If the vector sum of three forces is zero (F1+ F2 + F3 = 0), then the object is in
translational equilibrium. If in addition the lines of action of the three forces pass
through a common point then the object is in rotational equilibrium as well. Such
a system of forces is called concurrent (Fig 2.13).

F1 F2

F3
Fig 2.13 Concurrent forces

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2.1.9 MOMENTS

A force (F) applied to a hinged or pivoted body at (O) changes its rotation about
the hinge or pivot. Experience shows that the turning effect or moment of the
force is greater the greater the magnitude of the force, and the greater the
distance of its point application (y) from the pivot (Fig 2.14).

o
Fig 2.14 Moment of a Force

The moment of a force about a point is measured by the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the point.

Moment of a force (F) about a point (O) = F x y

The moment or turning effect of a force about a specific point can be clockwise
(CWM) or anti-clockwise (ACWM) depending on the direction of the force.
SI units of a moment is the Newton meter or Nm
Note: If the force is not perpendicular to the line of action then trigonometry is
used to calculate the moment.

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Example 2.3

A rod of negligible mass is pivoted about a point O; at the other end B a constant
force of 20 N is applied perpendicular to the rod OB. If length of the rod OB is 4m
calculate the moment acting about O (Fig 2.15).

20 N

O 4m B

Fig 2.15 Moment acting about O

The moment of force about O = F x d = 20 x 4 = 80 Nm

Example 2.4

A force of 28 N acts as shown (Fig 2.16). Calculate the moment about P.

28 N

30°
P Q
3m
Fig 2.16 Moment acting about P

The force F = 28N can be resolved into forces:

Fx = 28 Cos 30° = 24.2 N

Fy = 28 Sin 30° = 14 N

The force Fx has no moment about P since it passes through P

 The moment about P = 3 x 28 Sin 30° = 3 x 14 = 42 Nm

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2.1.10 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

If a body is acted on by a number of coplanar forces and is in equilibrium (i.e. it is

at rest or in uniform motion) (Fig 2.17).

Force B
O

Force A

Fig 2.17 Coplanar forces acting on a body

Then following conditions must apply:

The components of the forces in both of any two directions (usually taken at
right angles) must balance.

The sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the same point.

The first statement above is a consequence of there being no translational motion

in any direction and the second follows since there is no rotation of the body. If a
body is in equilibrium the forces and moments must both balance.

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Example 2.5
In figure 2.18 a beam with negligible mass is pivoted about point B with
perpendicular forces of 50N and 125N acting at either end.
The 50N force produces an anti-clockwise moment of 50 x 3 = 150 Nm about
point B and force 125 N produces a clockwise moment of 125 x Y = 125Y Nm.

3m Ym

B
50 N 125 N

Anti-clockwise Clockwise
moment about B moment about B

Fig 2.18 Simple beam problem

The beam is assumed to be in equilibrium

 Clockwise moments = Anti-clockwise moments
125Y = 150
Y = 1.2 m

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Example 2.6
In figure 2.19 a beam with negligible mass of length 8m is pivoted about point F.
Three forces A, B and C act perpendicular to the beam. Calculate the additional
force that must be applied to the beam at D to maintain equilibrium, and state
whether it acts upwards or downwards.

Fig 2.19 Simple beam problem

CWM = ACWM
Forces up = Forces down
Neglecting force D at this point in time
CWM = (1000 x 1) + (250 x 3.5) = 1875 Nm
ACWM = (500 x 3) = 1500 Nm
If ACWM = CWM then force D must be acting in an anticlockwise direction, and
the moment produced by D must be equal to 1875 – 1500 = 375 Nm
The value of force D = moment  distance from pivot point = 375  5 = 75 N
Force D is equal to 75 N and acts upwards on the beam

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Example 2.7
A beam of negligible mass has five forces A – F acting downwards on the beam
and two forces acting R1 and R2 acting upwards. Assuming the beam is in
equilibrium, calculate the magnitude of the forces R1 and R2 (Fig 2.20).

Fig 2.20 Simple beam problem

ACWM = CWM
Forces up = Forces down
In this problem there are two unknowns R1 and R2.
To solve the problem, we make one of the unknowns equal zero by
taking moments to act about that point.
In this example R1 = 0
 All distances are measured from R1
CWM = (2000 x 1) + (10000 x 2) + (5000 x 3.5) + (5000 x 4.5) + (1000 x 5.5)
= 67 500 Nm
ACWM = (1000 x 0.5) + (6.25 x R2)
 67 500 = 500 + (6.25 x R2)
 R2 = (67 500 – 500)  (6.25) = 10 720 N
To solve for R1 we can use the second statement Forces up = Forces down
 R1 + R2 = 1000 + 2000 + 10000 + 5000 + 5000 + 1000
We know R2 = 10 720 N
R1 = 1000 + 2000 + 10000 + 5000 + 5000 + 1000 – 10720 = 13 280 N

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2.2 CENTER OF GRAVITY

2.2.1 WEIGHT

For an object of mass m, its weight is the gravitational force by which the object is
attracted to the earth center. Weight is the product of a body’s mass and the
acceleration due to gravity:

W = mg

The value of the acceleration due to gravity (g) is approximately 9.8 ms -2 or 32 fts-2
but varies slightly both geographically and with altitude. Since weight is a force its
S.I. unit is the Newton.
In any rigid extended body there is a unique point at which the total gravitational
force, the weight, appears to act. This point is known as the center of gravity.

2.2.2 POSITION OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

In general, determining the center of gravity is a complicated procedure because

the mass (and weight) may not be uniformly distributed throughout an object. The
general case requires the use of calculus. If the mass is uniformly distributed the
problem is greatly simplified.
The position of the center of gravity (C of G) of a flat (lamina) body can be
determined by suspending it at any point, P and marking a vertical, then
suspending it at a second point Q, and a gain marking the vertical. The center of
gravity is at the intersection of the two lines (Fig 2.21).

Fig 2.21 Determining the C of G of a 2-dimensional (lamina) body

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In figure 2.22 are some examples showing the center of gravity (G) of common
shapes with uniform mass.

Fig 2.22 C of G locations of some common shapes

For a triangle of height h, the center of gravity is h/3, for a rectangle the center of
gravity is just the intersection of diagonals, and for a semi-circle of radius r the
center of gravity is at 4r/3.

For a three dimensional body the center of gravity can be determined practically,
by several methods such as; measuring and equating moments. This is carried
out when calculating the weight and balance of aircraft (Fig 2.23).

Center of Gravity
symbol W = mg

Fig 2.23 C of G position relative to an aircraft

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2.3 STRESS, STRAIN AND ELASTIC TENSION

The mechanical properties of a material are concerned with its behavior under
the action of external forces. This is a matter of importance to engineers when
selecting the correct material for a particular job.
Information about mechanical properties may be obtained by observing the
behavior of materials when placed under load. This allows engineers to analyze
the external forces and then make deductions about the internal forces or
stresses that are produced.
The terms stress and strain are used when referring to deforming forces and the
deformation they produce. Components fail due to being over-stressed, not
over-loaded.

2.3.1 STRESS

Stress  (pronounced ‘sigma’) is the force (in N) acting on unit cross-sectional

area (1 m²). The unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa) which equals 1 Nm-2

Stress = force  area or =FA

Stresses can occur in differing forms, dependent on the manner of application of

the external force.
There are five different types of stress in mechanical bodies. These are tension,
compression, torsion, bending and shear.

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2.3.1.1 Tension or Tensile Stress

Tensile stress describes the effect of a force that tends to pull an object apart.
Flexible steel cable used in aircraft control systems is an example of a
component that is in designed to withstand tensile loads (Fig 2.24). It is easily
bent and has little opposition to other types of stress, but, when subjected to a
purely tensile load, it performs exceptionally well.

F F F

Fig 2.24 - Tension

2.3.1.2 Compression or Compressive Stress

Compression is the resistance to an external force that tries to force an object

together. Aircraft rivets are driven with a compressive force. When a compressive
stress is applied to a rivet, the rivet firstly expands until it fills the hole and then
the external part of the shank spreads to form a second head, which holds the
sheets of metal tightly together (Fig 2.25).

Fig 2.25 - Compression

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2.3.1.3 Torsion

A torsional stress is applied to a material when it is twisted. Torsion is a

combination of both tension and compression. For example, when an object is
subjected to torsional stress, tensional stresses operate diagonally across the
object whilst compression stresses act at right angles to the tension stress
(Fig 2.26).

Fig 2.26 - Torsion

An engine crankshaft is a component whose primary stress is torsion. The

pistons pushing down on the connecting rods rotate the crankshaft against the
opposition, or resistance of the propeller. The resulting stresses attempt to twist
the crankshaft.

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2.3.1.4 Bending Stress

If a beam is anchored at one end and a load applied at the other end, the beam
will bend in the direction of the applied load (Fig 2.27).

Cantilever beam (supported at one end

Dotted line shows position of unloaded beam
Bending
force

Fig 2.27 Cantilever Beam

An aircraft wing is a cantilever beam, with the wing supported at the fuselage
attachment point.
When the aircraft is on the ground the force of gravity causes the wing to bend in
a similar manner to the beam shown in Fig. 2.27.
In this case, the top of the wing is subjected to tensile stress whilst the lower skin
experiences compression stress. In flight, the force of lift tries to bend an aircraft's
wing upward. When this happens the skin on the top of the wing is subjected to a
compressive force, whilst the skin below the wing is pulled by a tensile force
(Fig 2.28). .

Bending Bending
Moment Moment
Compression Compression

Tension Tension

C of G

Fig 2.28 Bending stress on an aircraft’s wing in flight

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2.3.1.5 Shear

A shear stress attempts to slice, (or shear) a body apart. The upper diagram
(Fig 2.29) shows a clevis bolt in an aircraft control system, which is designed to
withstand shear loads. They are made of high-strength steel and are fitted with a
thin nut that is held in place with a split pin. Whenever a control cable moves,
shear forces are applied to the bolt. However, when no force is present, the clevis
bolt is free to turn in its hole.
The lower diagram (Fig 2.29) shows two sheets of metal held together with a
rivet. If a tensile load is applied to the sheets (as would happen to the top skin of
an aircraft wing, when the aircraft is on the ground), the rivet is subjected to a
shear load.

Clevis bolt

Rivet

Fig 2.29 Examples of Shear Stress

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2.3.2 STRAIN

The relative change in the size or shape of a body due to an applied stress is
called strain.
Strain  (pronounced ‘epsilon’) is the extension of unit length (m). Strain is a
ratio and has no units, but can be expressed as a percentage.

Intensity of strain (ε) = change in length  original length or ε = L  L

Strain can be tensile or compressive in nature (Fig 2.30).

Fig 2.30 Examples of Tensile and Compressive Strain

Example 2.8
A steel rod 20 mm in diameter and 1m in length carries a load of 45 kN. This causes an
extension of 1.8mm. Calculate the stress and strain in the steel rod.
Force (F )
Stress () = = 45,000 = 143Nmm−2 OR 143MNm−2
Area (A)  (10 )2 mm 2

Extension (l) 1.8 mm

Strain () = = = 0.0018
original length (l) 1,000 mm

To show strain as a percentage you multiply by 100

 Strain as a percentage = 0.0018 x 100 = 0.18%.

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2.3.3 ELASTICITY

Elasticity is the property of certain materials that enables them to return to their
original dimensions after an applied stress has been removed.
The graph (Fig 2.31) shows the relationship between stress and strain of a given
specimen. The strain increases in proportion (OA) until a certain point called the
limit of proportionality is reached (A). This is in accordance with Hooke’s Law.

C
Stress

O
Strain
Fig 2.31 Graph of stress against strain
Thereafter there is a slight increase in strain with increased stress until a point (L)
is reached. This is the elastic limit; up to this point the deformation of the
specimen is elastic, i.e. when the stress is removed the specimen returns to its
original length.
Beyond point L there is permanent deformation when the stress is removed, i.e.
the material has ceased to be elastic and has become plastic.
In the plastic region individual materials behavior varies, however at point (B)
there is a sudden increase in strain with further increases in stress - this is the
yield point.
Point (C) represents the material ultimate tensile strength and point (D)
represents the specimens fracture point.

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The ratio of the applied stress on a body to the strain produced is known as the
elastic modulus. Within the region of elastic deformation strain is found to be
proportional to stress.
Stress  Strain = Constant
This constant is called Young’s Modulus and is denoted by the letter E.
E = Longitudinal stress  Longitudinal strain
F/ A
E=
L / L
The value of Young’s Modulus is given by the gradient of a stress – strain graph
and depends on the nature of the material and not on the dimensions of the
sample being tested.

Example 2.9
Calculate Young’s modulus of the steel rod used in example 2.8.
Young’s Modulus = E = Longitudinal stress  Longitudinal strain
Taking the results for stress and strain from example 2.8:
Stress  = 143 MN m-2
Strain  = 0.0018
 Young’s Modulus E = (143 x 106)  (0.0018) = 7.94 x 109 Nm-2
Note: The units of Young’s Modulus of elasticity are the same as those for
stress: Nm-2.

Material Young’s Modulus – E/109 Nm-2

Steel 210
Copper 113
Glasses 70
Polythene approximately 0.5
Rubber approximately 0.005
Table 2.1 Approximate values of Young’s modulus (E)
for some common materials

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2.4 SIMPLE MACHINES

A simple machine is any device which enables energy to be used in a convenient
way to perform work. Typical examples of simple machines are levers, winches,
inclined planes, pulleys and screws. Machines do not save work; in general they
allow a smaller force to be applied in order to achieve a result, but the smaller
force must be applied over a larger distance. Only the lever will be considered in
this chapter.

2.4.1 LEVERS

A lever can be described as a rigid beam supported at a point or fulcrum that is

fixed, and about which the beam can turn (Fig 2.32).
In figure 3.32 a force (E) is applied at the one end of the lever that supports the
load (R) at the opposite end. This arrangement is such that the lever is
maintained in a horizontal position. In this arrangement the system is in rotational
equilibrium. The anticlockwise moment is RI whilst the clockwise moment is LE.
Therefore, if L is greater than I the force required to balance the weight is less
than the weight itself
.

I L

R E

RI LE

Fig 2.32 Lever in rotational equilibrium

This arrangement can be expressed mathematically: RI = EL or R = L

E I
The above expressions can be used to solve simple lever problems.

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Example 2.10
A 20 N weight is located 1 m to the left of a fulcrum, and creates an anticlockwise
moment of 20 Nm. A 10 N weight is placed 2 m to the right of the fulcrum creating
a clockwise moment of 20 Nm. Since the sum of the moments is zero the lever is
in equilibrium (Fig 2.33).

1m 2m
20 N 10 N

Fig 2.33 Lever in rotational equilibrium

There are three different classes of lever whose class depends on the location of
the fulcrum, the resistance force or load, and the effort force.

2.4.1.1 First Class Lever

In a first class lever the fulcrum is placed between the load (R) and effort (E). An
example of a first class lever may be a long armed lever used to lift a load where
the fulcrum is placed close to the load (Fig 2.34).

Fig 2.34 First class lever

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2.4.1.2 Second Class Lever

In a second class lever the load (R) is between the effort (E) and the fulcrum.

Fig 2.35 Second class lever

A typical example of this lever arrangement is a wheel-barrow (Fig 2.35). The

fulcrum here is the wheel axle. Experience will tell you that less effort is needed
to lift and move the wheelbarrow if the load (R) is placed close to the fulcrum.

Example 2.11
Calculate the effort required to lift a load of 400 N placed in a wheelbarrow 0.3 m
from the wheel axle and 0.85 m from the handles to the wheel axle.
Using equation:
LxE=RxI
0.85 x E = 400 x 0.3
E = 120  0.85
 141 N

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2.4.1.3 Third Class Lever

In a third class lever the effort (E) is between the fulcrum and the load (R) .

Retraction jack

assembly

Fig 2.36 Third class lever

A good example of a third class lever is a landing gear retraction mechanism

(Fig 2.36). The effort is applied close to the fulcrum whilst the load (wheel and
brake assembly) is at the end of the lever.

In a third class lever system the effort expended is greater than the load, but the
load is moved a greater distance. In other words effort is sacrificed in order to
gain distance.

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2.4.2 ACTUAL MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

The actual mechanical advantage of a machine is the ratio between the output
force (Load) it exerts and the input force (effort) that is applied to it.

Load L
Actual Mechanical Advantage (MA) = =
Effort E

2.4.3 VELOCITY RATIO

The ratio of the distance moved by the point of application effort in a simple
machine; to the distance moved by the point of application load in the same time.

Input displacement of effort d E

Velocity Ratio (VR) = =
Output displacement of load d L

2.4.4 MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

A measure of the performance of a machine is the ratio of energy or power it

delivers to the energy or power fed to it. This measure is known as the machines
efficiency. In general the efficiency of a machine varies with the conditions under
which it operates and there is usually a load at which it operates with the highest
efficiency.

Output MA
Mechanical Efficiency = 100 OR
Input VR

In a perfect machine operating at 100% mechanical efficiency, mechanical

advantage would be equal to velocity ratio i.e. MA = VR.

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2.5 FRICTION
The force that resists the motion of one surface relative to another with which it is
in contact is known as friction. Surfaces, however smooth they may look to the
eye, on a microscopic scale have many humps and crests. Therefore, the actual
area of contact is very small indeed (Fig 2.37). As a consequence, very high
pressure leads to local welding of the surfaces. In motion the welds are broken
and remade continually.

Fig 2.37 Friction acting between two surfaces

2.5.1 STATIC FRICTION

If an object is placed on a plane whose angle of inclination can be increased, it

is found that the object remains stationary until a certain angle of inclination is
reached whereupon the object starts to move. The force preventing the object
from moving is known as static friction.
The maximum force of static friction Fs max depends upon the materials, the
smoothness of the surfaces in contact and on the component of the force, N,
pressing the two surfaces together. For any pair of surfaces, it is found that:

Fs max = s N

Where s is constant for any two materials of specified smoothness and is called
the coefficient of static friction. It varies from about 0.1 for steel on ice to about
1.0 for rubber on dry concrete.

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2.5.2 DYNAMIC FRICTION

If an object is sliding over a surface at constant velocity, then the friction is an

example of dynamic friction and there will be some conversion of kinetic energy
of the object into heat.
The force of dynamic friction Fd depends upon the material of the two surfaces,
on their smoothness and on the component of the force N, that presses the two
surfaces together. Dynamic friction is practically independent of the relative
velocity of the two surfaces.
It has been found that:
Fd = d N
Where d is a constant for a given pair of surfaces and is known as the
coefficient of dynamic friction. The value of d varies from about 0.06 for a
smooth steel surface sliding on ice to 0.7 for rubber sliding over dry concrete.
As an applied force is increased, so the force of static friction increases
preventing an object from moving. At a certain maximum value called starting
friction when the applied force is increased further the object will begin to move
across the surface. The dynamic friction that occurs afterwards is usually less
than the starting friction, so less force is needed to keep the object moving than
tom start it moving (Fig 2.38).

Starting
friction

Static Dynamic friction

Frictional
friction
force Motion
begins

Applied force

Fig 2.38 Applied force versus friction force

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Example 2.12
A force of 200 N is just sufficient to start a 50 kg steel trunk moving across a
wooden floor. Calculate the coefficient of static friction between the trunk and the
floor.
Using the equation Fs max = s N
The normal force N is equivalent to the trunks weight mg
Hence:
s = F  N = F  mg
= 200 N  (50 kg x 9.81 ms-2)  0.41

Note: The coefficient is a ratio and has no units.

Example 2.13
A 40 kg wooden crate is being pushed across a wooden floor with a force of
160 N. If the coefficient of dynamic friction d between the crate and the floor is
0.3, calculate the crates acceleration.
The applied force Fa = 160 N is opposed by frictional force Ff.
Ff = d N = d mg = (0.3) (40 kg) (9.81 ms-2) = 118 N
The net force on the crate is therefore:
Fnet = Fa - Ff = 160 – 118 = 42 N
The acceleration of the crate is:
a = Fnet  m = 42 N  40 kg = 1.05 ms-2

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INTENTIONALLY
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3 KINEMATICS

3.1 LINEAR MOTION

Kinematics is the study of motion without reference to the forces involved. In this
chapter only linear motion and angular motion will be examined.

3.1.1 DISPLACEMENT

Displacement is a specified distance in a specified direction. It is the vector

equivalent of the scalar distance. It is important to distinguish between ‘Linear
displacement’ and ‘distance travelled’ along a path that is not necessarily straight.
The only time that these are the same is when the distance travelled is a straight
line. The symbol ‘s’ is used for displacement.

3.1.2 SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed is the ratio of the distance covered by a moving body in a straight line or a
continuous curve, to the time taken.
The velocity of a body is defined as its rate of change of position with respect to
time, the direction of motion being specified.
If a body is travelling in a straight line it is in linear motion, and if it covers equal
distances, in equal successive time intervals, it is uniform linear motion.
For uniform velocity, where s is the displacement covered in time t, the velocity v
is given by:
v=st

3.1.3 ACCELERATION

The acceleration of a body is its rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
Any change of either speed or direction of motion involves acceleration.
Retardation is merely a negative acceleration.
When the velocity of a body changes by equal intervals of time, it is said to have
a uniform acceleration, measured by the change in velocity in unit time.
If the initial velocity u of a body in linear motion changes uniformly in time t to
velocity v, its acceleration a is given by:

a = (v – u)  t

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3.1.4 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION AND TIME

Consider a body with initial velocity u, which in time t, attains under uniform
acceleration a, a final velocity v.
Suppose that the displacement during this time is s
Starting with equation: (Write all the equations of motion)

Note: If the displacement in time t is denoted by s, the velocity v can be

obtained by differentiation:

ds
v =
dt

Similarly, the acceleration a is given by:

dv d 2s
a= =
dt dt 2

Conversely, given an expression for acceleration, integration will give an

expression for velocity, and further integration an expression for displacement.

Example 3.1

An aircraft accelerates from rest to 200 kmh -1 in 25 seconds. Calculate the

aircrafts acceleration in ms-2.

200 km = 200 000 m and 1 hour = 3600 seconds

 200 kmh-1 = 200 000  3600 = 55.55 ms-1

v−u 55.55 − 0
using a = = = 2.22 ms-2
t 25

Example 3.2

If an aircraft slows from 160 kmh-1 to 10 kmh-1 with a uniform retardation of

5 ms-2. Calculate the period of retardation.

Using v = u + at

160 kmh-1 = 44.44 ms-1 & 10 kmh-1 = 2.78 ms-1

v − u 2.78 − 44.44
t= = = 8.33 s
a −5

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Example 3.3
Calculate the distance the aircraft will travel during its retardation phase in
example 3.2.
Using either s = ut + 0.5at 2 or v² = u² + 2as

Using the first equation s = ut + 1 2 at 2

s = (44.44  8.33)+ (0.5  −5  8.332 )= 196.7 m

3.1.5 VELOCITY TIME GRAPHS

The linear motion of a body can be illustrated by means of velocity-time graphs

(Fig 3.1 a – c). In each case the distance travelled by the body between times t 1
and t2 is represented by the area under the corresponding part of the graph. The
instantaneous acceleration at any time is given by the gradient of the curve at any
point.

Velocity

u s = ut

0 Time
t1 t2

Fig 3.1 (a) Uniform velocity

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Velocity
at

s = ut + ½at²

t2 Time
t1

Fig 3.1 (b) Uniform acceleration

Velocity

0 Time

Fig 3.1 (c) Changing acceleration

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3.1.6 RELATIVE VELOCITY

It is sometimes necessary to determine the velocity with which one moving body
appears to be moving with respect to another; known as relative velocity.

For linear motion this type of problem may be solved graphically (Fig 3.2) by
drawing from an origin, vector diagrams.

Velocity Va Velocity Vb
A B

Figure 3.2 Relative velocity

By using the vector triangle rule (Fig 3.3) the third side of the triangle, ob,
represents the velocity of A relative to B.

a
Vb
Va b

Figure 3.3 Relative velocity

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Example 3.4
A vehicle A travelling in a straight line at 80 kmh-1 passes another vehicle B going
in the same direction at 50 kmh-1. What is the relative velocity of vehicle A to
vehicle B?
The velocity of vehicle A relative to vehicle B is given by:
vA – vB = 80 – 50 = 30 kmh-1 in the same direction.

Example 3.5
What would be the relative velocity of vehicle A to vehicle B in example 3.4 if
vehicle A is travelling at 80 kmh-1 due north and vehicle B is travelling at 50 kmh-1
due south?
The velocity of vehicle A relative to vehicle B is given by:
vA – vB = 80 – (- 50) = 130 kmh-1 due north

When velocities are not in the same straight line then vector addition has to be
carried out.

Example 3.6
A vehicle A is travelling at 30 kmh-1 due north and another vehicle B is travelling
at 40 kmh-1 due east. What is the relative velocity of vehicle A to vehicle B?
Since the vehicles are travelling at 90° to each other Pythagoras theorem can be
used to solve this particular problem.

Relative velocity of vehicle A to vehicle B = A2 + B 2

= 302 + 402

= 50 kmh-1 north, north east

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3.2 ROTARY MOTION

3.2.1 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

A body which travels equal distances in equal times along a circular path has
constant speed, but not constant velocity. In figure 3.4, a point P travels in a
circular path. Its velocity at P1 is directed along the tangent at P1; when it reaches
P2 its velocity is directed along the tangent at P2 (Fig 3.4).
If the speed is constant the magnitudes of the velocities at P1 and P2 are the
same, but their directions are different and so the velocity of point P has changed.
A change of velocity; is an acceleration, and a body moving uniformly in a circular
path or arc is therefore accelerating.


P1
v1

P2


v2

Figure 3.4 A point P moving in a circular path

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3.2.1.1 Angular and linear velocity

The speed of a body moving in a circular path can be specified either by its speed
along the tangent at any instant, i.e. by its linear speed or by its angular velocity.
A body’s angular velocity is the angle swept out in unit time by the radius joining
the body to the center of the circular path.

Point P’s angular velocity (Fig 3.4)  (omega) is given by:


= angular displacement  time
t

Where  is the angular displacement in radians.

Angular velocity is usually expressed in radians per second (rad s-1), revolutions
per second (rev s-1 or rps), and revolutions per minute (rev/min or rpm), where:

1 rev s-1 = 2 rad s-1 = 6.28 rad s-1

2
1 rev/min = rad s-1 = 0.105 rad s-1
60

The linear velocity of point P (Fig 3.4) moving in a circle of radius r with uniform
angular velocity  is given by:

v=r = r = angular velocity x radius of circle
t

Note: The formula is only valid when  is expressed in radian measure.

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3.2.1.2 Angular acceleration

Although the velocity of the point P (Fig 3.4) is constant in magnitude it is

constantly changing in direction, and, therefore by definition point P is subject to
an angular acceleration, , which is given by:

 = ²r, or v = angular velocity change  time

If point P is moving at constant speed v in a circle of radius r it will have a

constant acceleration of:
v2
=
r

Note: Its acceleration is directed towards the center of the circle.

Example 3.7

(a) A shaft rotates at 2000 rpm express this rotation in rad s-1.

Example 3.8
A steel cylinder 60 mm in radius is to be machined in a lathe. If the desired linear
velocity of the cylinder’s surface is to be 0.7 ms-1, how many revolutions per
minute should it rotate?
From the formula v = r we obtain, with r = 60 mm = 0.06 m
Example 3.9
An aircraft jet engine is rotating at 6000 rpm. Calculate the engines angular
velocity, and the linear velocity at the tip of its compressor. The engines
compressor has a diameter of 2 m.
6000
The engine rotates at 6000 rpm = = 100 rps = n
60
1 revolution = 2 radians

 angular velocity  = n 2 = 100 x 2 = 200 rad s-1 = 628 rad s-1

The compressors linear velocity = r
The compressors radius = 1 m
  = 628 x 1 = 628 ms-1

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4 DYNAMICS
Dynamics is the study of motion related to force. In chapter 3 it was shown how a
body moves; in this chapter it will be shown why a body moves in such a way.

4.1 QUANTITIES

4.1.1 MASS AND WEIGHT

The mass of a body may be defined as the quantity of matter in the body. It can
also be thought of as a measure of a body’s inertia, i.e. its resistance to
acceleration. The S.I. unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) and the standard kilogram
of measure is 1 kg of platinum-iridium alloy, called the international standard
kilogram. Mass defined in this way is called the inertial mass of a body.
The weight (W) of a body is the force by which the body is gravitationally
attracted to the earth is the product of the mass of the body and the acceleration
of free fall (g). The weight of a body is represented by the equation W = mg.
In general language, weight and mass are often interchanged with one another;
however, for scientific purposes they are different. Mass as mentioned previously
is measured in kilograms; weight, being a force is measured in Newton’s.
Weight moreover depends on where it is measured, because the value of g
varies at different localities. Mass on the other hand, is constant wherever it is
measured.

4.1.2 FORCE

Force is the agency that tends to change the momentum of a body, defined as
being proportional to the rate of increase of momentum. Forces always occur in
equal and opposite action-reaction pairs between bodies.
The S.I. unit of force is the Newton (N), which is the force necessary to induce an
acceleration of 1 ms-2 in a mass of 1 kilogram.
Sir Isaac Newton established the basic principles which link force and motion. He
stated these basic principles in three laws, known as Newton’s laws of motion.

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4.1.2.1 Newton’s first law of motion

A body remains in a state of rest or uniform motion (i.e. no acceleration) in

a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
Example 4.1
An object sliding freely on ice moves at a constant velocity. This is because there
is no friction between the object and the ice, so there is no resultant force on the
object.

4.1.2.2 Newton’s second law of motion

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant

force and acts in the direction of the force.

Consider an object of fixed mass m acted upon by a constant resultant force F.

Suppose the object is accelerated from rest to speed v in time t.
Change in momentum = final momentum – initial momentum = mv – 0
mv
 change of momentum per second = change in momentum  time taken =
t
v
the objects acceleration a =
t
 the change in momentum per second = ma

From Newton’s second law, the resultant force F is proportional to the change in
momentum per second, so the resultant force is proportional to the product of
mass and acceleration.

F is proportional to ma, which becomes F= kma

The constant of proportionality k is set at 1 by defining the unit of force, the
Newton (N), as the force which would give 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 ms-2.

Thus for a fixed mass F = ma

where F = resultant force in Newton’s
m = mass in kg
a = acceleration

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Example 4.2
A force of 3000 N is applied to a 1500 kg object at rest.
(a) What is the objects acceleration?
(b) What will the objects velocity be 5 seconds later?
F 3000
(a) Using F = ma a= = = 2 ms-2
m 1500

(b) v = u + at = 0 + (2 x 5) = 10 ms-1

4.1.2.3 Newton’s third law of motion

When one body exerts a force on another body, the second body exerts an
equal force in the opposite direction on the first body.

The third law of motion applies to two different forces on two different bodies: the
action force one body exerts on the other; and the equal but opposite reaction
force the second body exerts on the first.

Example 4.3
A book rests on a table why do the forces acting on the table not cause it to
move?
The forces acting on the table have a vector sum of zero, so there is no net force
acting on it.

Example 4.4
In the process of walking, what makes a person move forward?
The person’s foot exerts a backward force on the ground; the forward reaction
force of the ground on the foot produces forward motion.

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4.1.2.4 Resolving forces

In general, any force F can be resolved into two perpendicular components F sin 
and F cos  acting in the direction shown (Fig 4.1).

F sin 
F

F cos 

Fig 4.1 Force F resolved into component forces

Example 4.5
A block of mass 5.0 kg, slides across a horizontal frictionless surface under the
action of a force of 60 N, 40° above the positive horizontal axis. What is the
blocks acceleration?
The situation is depicted below (Fig 4.2):

F = 60 N

40° x

Fig 4.2 A block moving across a horizontal plane

In this example only the motion in the x-direction is of interest, and Fx = max
yields:
(60N) cos 40° = (5.0 kg)a
60 cos 40
a= = 9.2 ms-2
5.0

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One further example is an object on an inclined plane (Fig 4.3). The force which
is required to hold the object stationary is the component of weight acting parallel
to the plane: mg sin .

mg sin  


mg cos 
mg
Fig 4.3 Components of forces acting on an inclined plane

Example 4.6
A block with a mass of 5000 kg is pulled up a frictionless incline plane  equal to
5° by a cable with a force of 5.8 kN. Calculate the blocks acceleration.

We assume the force on the cable is acting parallel to the slope.

The force mg sin  is required to hold the block stationary. To get it moving
requires an extra force up the incline equal to ma.
 The total force required to move the block up the slope is:

F = ma + mg sin 
5800 = (5000)a + (5000 x 9.81 x sin 5°)
5800 − 4275
a= = 0.3 ms-2
5000

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4.1.3 LINEAR MOMENTUM

The momentum () of a body of mass m and velocity v is the product of its mass
and its velocity.

Momentum  = mv

The S.I. unit of momentum is kilogram-meters per second, kgms-1. The direction
of momentum of a body is the same direction in which it is moving.
The greater the momentum of a body, the greater is its tendency to keep in
motion. A body launched with great velocity v is harder to stop than one launched
with small velocity. Conversely a body with a large mass m launched with a
constant velocity is harder to stop than a body with a small mass launched with
the same velocity.

4.1.4 IMPULSE

A force F that acts on a body during a time t provides the body with an impulse of
Ft.
Impulse = Ft = force x time interval

When a force F acts on a body of mass m and changes its velocity from v1 to v2
according to the second law of motion:
v − v1
F = ma = m 2
t
Hence:
Ft = 2 - 1 = m(v2 – v1)
 Impulse = momentum change

The momentum change on a body is equal to the impulse provided by the force
acting on it.

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Example 4.7
Calculate the momentum of a body with a mass of 50 kg travelling with a velocity
of 6 ms-1.

 = mv = 50 x 6 = 300 kgms-1

Example 4.8
A 46 gram golf ball is struck by a club and flies off at 70 ms -1. If the head of the
club was in contact with the ball for 0.5 ms (millisecond), what was the average
force on the ball during the impact?

The ball started from rest, v1 = 0 and its momentum change is:
m (v2 - v1) = mv2 = (0.046) (70) = 3.22 kgms-1
Since 1 millisecond = 10-3 s, here t = 0.5 ms = 5.0 x 10-4 s and
m (V 2 − V1 ) 3.22
F= = = 6.4 x 10³ N = 6.4 kN
t 5x10−4

4.1.5 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

Consider an enclosed system with two bodies A and B, traveling along the same
path, which collide. The duration of the collision, being a short period of time (t)
(Fig 4.4).

Fig 4.4 Collision of two bodies

Throughout the collision each body will experience a force equal and opposite to
that experienced by the other body (Newton’s third law). The impulse force Ft is
the same for each body, thus the change in momentum will be the same for each
body.
If at the time of the collision Body A was overtaking body B, it is apparent that the
effect of the impact will be to decrease the momentum of A and increase the
momentum of B, and the total momentum of the system will remain unchanged.

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The effect of an interaction between bodies in a closed system can be

summarized in the Law of Conservation of Momentum:
The total momentum in any given direction before impact is equal to the
total momentum in that direction after impact.

Example 4.9

1 kg 1 kg 1 kg 1 kg

15 ms-1 10 ms-1 collision 10 ms-1 15 ms-1

Momentum before Momentum after

collision collision
25 kgms-1 25 kgms-1

4.1.6 COLLISIONS

Momentum is also conserved for any isolated collisions, but kinetic energy is
usually not. Collisions are classified as either elastic or inelastic.

4.1.6.1 Elastic collisions

An elastic collision is defined as one in which both conservation of momentum

and conservation of kinetic energy is observed. This implies that no forces are
dissipated during the collision and that all of the kinetic energy of the objects
before the collision is still in the form of kinetic energy afterwards.
Collisions between hard steel balls and ideal gases are nearly elastic.

Before After
v’ 2
m2

m1 v’ 1 m2

v’ 1
m1

Fig 4.5 Elastic collision

If a moving billiard ball strikes a stationary one, the two move off in such a way
that the vector sum of their momentum is the same as the initial momentum of the
first ball (Fig 4.5), where: mv1 = mv’1 + mv’2

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4.1.6.2 Inelastic collisions

An inelastic collision is one in which part of the kinetic energy is changed to some
other form of energy in the collision. In a perfectly inelastic collision (Fig 4.6) the
bodies stick together and the kinetic energy loss is the maximum possible
consistent with momentum conservation. The initial momentum of the body m1v1
equals the final momentum of both bodies (m1 + m2)v2.
Most collisions are inelastic, that is being somewhere between elastic and
perfectly inelastic.

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Before After

Fig 4.6 Perfectly inelastic collision

Example 4.10
A 1000 kg car moving at 80 kmh-1 collides head on with a 1500 kg car moving at
30 kmh-1, and the cars stick together. Which way does the wreckage move?
The 1000 kg car had the greater initial momentum, so the wreckage moves in the
same direction it had.

4.1.7 WORK

Work is the measure of the amount of change that a force produces when it acts
on a body. The change may be in the velocity of the body, in its position, size or
shape
Example questions from must be given

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Example 4.12
A horizontal force of 420 N is used to push a crate for 5 m across a level floor.
How much work is done?
The mass of the crate does not matter since the force is parallel to the
displacement:
W = Fs = 420 x 5 = 2100 J or 2.1 kJ

Example 4.13
The 420 N force of example 4.12 is instead exerted on the crate at an angle of
35° above the horizontal. How much work is done now?
W = Fs cos  = 420 x 5 x cos 35° = 1720 J or 1.72 kJ

Example 4.14
How much work is done in raising a 2 kg object from the ground to a height of 1.8 m?
The force needed to raise the object is the same as its weight mg. The force acts
parallel to the displacement of the object, where s = h
 W = Fs = mgh = 2 x 9.81 x 1.8 = 35 J

4.1.8 POWER

Power is the rate at which work is done by a force.

W
P= = work done  time
t

Power can also be written in terms of force and velocity.

Fxd
P= = Fv
t

The S.I. unit of power is the Watt (W) and equals the rate of working of 1 Joule
per second, i.e. 1 W = 1 Js-1.
Note: 1 horsepower (1 Hp) is the equivalent of 746 Watts, or 33 000 ft-lb/min.

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4.1.8.1 Brake horse power

Engines are often rated as being of a certain brake horsepower. This refers to the
method by which their horsepower is measured. The engine is made to do work
on a device known as a dynamometer or brake. This loads the engine output
whilst a reading of the work being done can be observed from the machines
instrumentation.

4.1.8.2 Shaft horsepower

This is a similar measurement to brake horsepower, except that the

measurement is usually taken at the output shaft of a turbo-prop engine. The
power being produced at the shaft is what will be delivered to the propeller when
it is installed to the engine.

Example 4.15
A hoist powered by a 10 kW motor is used to raise a bucket filled with concrete
and having a total mass of 500 kg to height of 80 m. If the efficiency of the hoist is
80%; calculate the time required to raise the bucket.
The upward force required is equal to the buckets weight mg.
The power available is:
Pout = (Eff) (Pin) = 0.8 x 10 000 = 8000 W or 8 kW

Since P = W = Fs
t t
Fs mgh 500x9.81x80
t= = = = 49 s
P P 8000

Example 4.16
A horse has a power output of 1 kW when it pulls a cart with a force of 400 N.
Calculate the wagons velocity.
P = Fv
P 1000
v= = = 2.5ms−1
F 400

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4.1.9 ENERGY

Energy is the property something has which enables it to do work. The more
energy something has the more work it can perform. Two types of energy will be
considered in this chapter kinetic energy and potential energy.
The S.I. units of energy is the Joule

4.1.9.1 Potential energy

The energy a body has by virtue of its position is called potential energy. It
arises when a body experiences a force in a field such as the earth’s gravitational
field.
The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m and at a height h above a
given reference level is:
Gravitational potential energy = PE = mgh
Where g is the acceleration of gravity;
In terms of the weight w of a body:
PE =wh

Example 4.17
A 1.5 kg spanner is held 60 cm above a bench whose top is 1.2 m above the
floor. Calculate the potential energy of the spanner (a) with respect to the bench,
and (b) with respect to the floor.
(a) Here h = 60 cm = 0.6 m
 PE = mgh = 1.5 x 9.81 x 0.6 = 8.8 J
(b) The spanner is 0.6 m + 1.2 m = 1.8 m above the floor
 PE = mgh = 1.5 x 9.81 x 1.8 = 26.5 J

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4.1.9.2 Kinetic energy

The energy a body has by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
Consider a body with mass m, moving with velocity u. If a constant force F acts
on it and brings it to a rest in a distance s (Fig 4.8).

u at rest

m m
F F

Fig 4.8 Determining kinetic energy

Since the final velocity v is zero, from v² = u² + 2as, we have:

0 = u² + 2as
u2
 a=-
2s
The negative sign shows that the acceleration a is opposite in direction to u. The
acceleration in the direction of F is thus + u²/2s. The original kinetic energy of the
body equals the work W it does against F, hence
kinetic energy of body = W = Fs
u2
= mas = ms = ½ mu²
2s
Example 4.18

Calculate the kinetic energy of a 1000 kg object whose velocity is 20 ms -1.

KE = ½ mv² = 0.5 x 1000 x 20² = 2 x 105 J

Example 4.19
What velocity does a 1 kg object have when its kinetic energy is 1 J?
Since KE = ½ mv² and 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 kgm²s-1
2KE 2x1
v= = = 2  1.4 ms-1
m 1

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4.1.10 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

If a body of mass is thrown vertically upwards with velocity u from a point A, it

has to do work against gravity (mg). When the body has risen to another point
say B its velocity will have reduced to v.
By the definition of kinetic energy (KE):
Loss of KE between A and B = work done by the body against mg
By definition of potential energy (PE):
Gain in PE between A and B = work done by the body against mg
 Loss of KE = gain in PE
 ½mu² - ½mv² = mgh
This is called the principle of conservation of energy and may be stated as
follows:
The total amount of energy (KE + PE) which the bodies in an isolated
system possess is constant.
This applies to only frictionless motion i.e. to conservative systems. If the system
is not conservative it has to include internal energy changes and becomes;
Loss of KE = gain in PE + gain of internal energy

Example 4.20
A swing at its highest point is 2.5 m above he ground and at its lowest point is
0.7 m off above the ground. What is the swings maximum velocity?
The swings maximum velocity occurs at the lowest point. Its kinetic energy there
equals its loss in potential energy in descending through a height of
h = 2.5 m – 0.7 m = 1.8 m
KE = PE
½mv² = mgh
v= 2gh = 2x9.81x1.8 = 5.9 ms-1

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4.2 CIRCULAR MOTION

4.2.1 CENTRIPETAL FORCE

It was shown in chapter 3 that a body travelling with uniform speed in a circular
pattern has an acceleration of v²/r towards the center of the circle.
The force producing this acceleration is termed centripetal force, and for a body
of mass m the centripetal force is:
mv 2
Fc = towards the center of the circle.
r

It should be noted that in the case of a body travelling in a circular pattern on the
end of a piece of string, while the mass is experiencing centripetal force towards
the hand holding the string, there is an equal an opposite reaction on the hand
holding the string, known as centrifugal force. Centrifugal force exists only as an
equal and opposite reaction to the centripetal force.

Example 4.21
A 1000 kg vehicle rounds a turn of radius 30 m at 9 ms -1. Calculate the centripetal
force.
mv 2 1000x92
Fc = = = 2700 N
r 30

Example 4.22
How much centripetal force is required to keep a 160 lb skater moving in a circle
20 ft in radius at a velocity of 10 fts-1?
The skaters mass is m = w/g = 160 / 32 = 5 slugs

mv 2 5x102
Hence: Fc = = = 25 lb
r 20

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4.2.2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

In periodic motion a body repeats a certain motion indefinitely always returning to

its starting point after a constant interval and then starting a new cycle. Simple
harmonic motion is periodic motion that occurs when the restoring force on a
body displaced from an equilibrium position is proportional to the displacement
and in the opposite direction.

4.2.3 RESTORING FORCE

An elastic object such as a spring which gives a small vertical displacement from
its equilibrium position and then released will oscillate with simple harmonic
motion.
When such an object is stretched or compressed, a restoring force appears that
tries to return the object to its normal length. From Hooke’s law the restoring force
F is proportional to the displacement s provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.
Hence Fr = - ks
Restoring force = - (force constant)(displacement)
The minus sign is required as the restoring force acts in the opposite direction to
the displacement. The greater the force constant k, the greater the restoring force
for a given displacement and the greater the applied force F needs to be to
produce the displacement.

4.2.4 ELASTIC POTENTIAL

As work has to be done by an applied force to stretch or compress an object, the

object has elastic potential energy as a result. Where:
PE = ½ks²
When a deformed object is released, its elastic potential energy turns into kinetic
energy or into work done on something else.
Example 4.23
A force of 5 N compresses a spring by 4 cm. (a) Find the force constant of the
spring. (b) Find the elastic potential energy of the compressed spring.
F 5
(a) k = = = 125 Nm-1
s 0.04

(b) PE = ½ks² = 0.5 x 125 x 0.04² = 0.1 J

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4.2.5 PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

The period T of a body undergoing simple harmonic motion is the time needed for
the body to complete one cycle. T is independent of the amplitude A (maximum
value of displacement either side of the equilibrium position). If the acceleration of
the body is a when its displacement is s, then:
s displacement
T = 2 − Period = 2 −
a acceleration
m
For a stretched spring: T = 2
k
A simple pendulum also provides an example of simple harmonic motion.
Consider a mass m suspended from a light cord with length L, displaced through
a small angle  (in radians) from the vertical.
Then it can be shown that its period of oscillation (periodic motion about an
equilibrium position) is:

T = 2

The frequency of a body under going simple harmonic motion is the number of
cycles per second it executes so that:
1 1
f= frequency =
T period

Harmonic motion is often represented as the projection on a straight line of a

point that is moving on a circle at constant speed (Fig 4.9). With the angular
speed of the line O – P designated by ; the displacement x can be written as
x = A sin t.

P
A
 = t
o
t

2

Fig 4.9 Harmonic motion as a point moving on a circle

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4.2.6 VIBRATION THEORY

There are two general classes of vibration – free and forced.

Free vibrations occur where the total energy of a vibrating system stays
constant. The energy of the system changes from P.E. to K.E. and back every
half-cycle (Fig 4.10). But the total energy (P.E. + K.E.) remains constant. For
example, the simple pendulum when moved to the side is given P.E. When
released the P.E. falls and its K.E. rises. But at any stage the sum of P.E. and
K.E. is equal to the initial P.E.

Energy

P.E.

K.E.

0
Displacement

Fig 4.10 Energy distribution within a vibrating system

When a periodic force is applied to an oscillating system its response depends on

the frequency of the periodic force. When a system oscillates without any force
applied, its frequency is called its natural frequency. If the frequency of the
periodic force is equal to the natural frequency of the system, then each push can
build the amplitude further. If the frequencies are not equal the periodic force will
build up the amplitude up for a while, then it will slow the motion down for a while;
then build up again etc. Whether or not the frequencies are equal the vibration is
said to be forced. The periodic force provides a means of supplying energy to the
system.
When the force frequency equals the natural frequency energy is fed in
continuously so the amplitude can build up more and more. The system is then
said to be in resonance. At resonance the force frequency is equal to the natural
frequency of the system.

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A decrease in the amplitude of an oscillation as a result of energy being drained

from the oscillating system to overcome frictional or other resistive forces is
known as damping. The simple pendulum gives an example of damped
oscillations, although many cycles may pass before it stops. In this instance the
damping force is friction due to air resistance.
Where oscillations gradually die away, the damping is said to be light (Fig 4.11).
Displacement

0
Time

Fig 4.11 Lightly damped oscillations

If the system is heavily damped or over-damped it will not oscillate when

displaced from its equilibrium and released, and would be slow to return to
equilibrium. If a system, when displaced and released returns to equilibrium
without overshooting and in the shortest possible time the system is said to be
critically damped (Fig 4.12).

Heavy damping
Displacement

Critical damping
0

Fig 4.12 Critical and heavy damping

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4.3 GYROSCOPES
A conventional gyroscope consists of a symmetrical rotor spinning rapidly about
its axis, and free to rotate about one or more perpendicular axes. Freedom of
movement about one axis is usually achieved by mounting the rotor in a gimbal
(Fig 4.13), and complete freedom can be approached by using two gimbals.

Fig 4.13 Gyroscope mounted in a frame

The two properties governing a gyro are rigidity in inertial space and precession.
These properties are exploited in heading reference systems and inertial
navigation systems, and some aircraft instruments.

4.3.1 RIGIDITY

If a rotating body is so mounted as to be completely free to move about any axis

through the center of the mass. Then its spin axis remains fixed in inertial space
however much the frame may be displaced.
This means that even if the location of the gyroscope changes, the axis of spin
will continue to point in same direction relative to space unless acted upon by an
external force or torque.
This property is known as rigidity. There are a number of factors that determine
rigidity including: mass of the rotating body, distribution of the body’s mass and its
angular velocity.

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4.3.2 PRECESSION

Precession refers to the movement of a gyroscopes axis as the result of torque

applied about an axis that is not aligned with its spin axis.
Because a gyroscope contains a spinning rotor mass, its behavior when torque is
applied may be different to that displayed by an identical but stationary mass
subjected to the same torque. If the torque is applied about an axis that is aligned
with the spin axis then no precession will take place.
Precession is caused by the applied force being carried in the direction of spin.
This results in the torque apparently acting around the perpendicular to the axis
around which the torque was applied.

4.3.2.1 Direction of precession

Figure 4.14 shows a simple rule of thumb to determine the direction of

precession:

Fig 4.14 Determining precession

(a) Consider the torque as being due to force acting at right angles to the plane
of spin at a point on the rotor rim.
(b) Carry this force around the rim through 90° in the direction of rotor spin.
(c) The torque will apparently act through this point and will precess in the
direction shown.

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4.3.3 BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES

An important consideration in the design and manufacture of any high speed

rotating equipment is the balance of each component and assembly. Unbalance
in any high speed rotating components can cause noise, component wear,
excessive vibration, and reduction in bearing life.
Balancing which is the process of attempting to improve the mass distribution of a
body so that it rotates in its bearings without unbalanced forces is critical to the
performance of any high speed equipment.
For a body to be completely balanced it must have two things “static” and
“dynamic” balance. Static balance occurs when there is no resultant rotational
force and the center of gravity is on the axis of rotation. Dynamic balance occurs
when there is no resultant turning moment along the axis.

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5 FLUID DYNAMICS
A fluid is a liquid or gas that changes its shape to conform to the vessel that
contains it.

5.1 FLUIDS AT REST

5.1.1 DENSITY
m
The density  (rho) of a substance is its mass per unit volume:  =
v
The S.I. unit of density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kgm-3). The density of
pure water at 4 °C is 1000 kgm-3.

Example 5.1

A liquid fills a container to the brim. The liquid has a mass of 756 kg. The
container is 1.6 m long, 1.0 m wide and 0.75 m deep. Calculate the density of the
liquid.
The volume of the container is 1.6 x 1.0 x 0.75 = 1.2 m³
m 756
Using  = = = 630 kgm-3
v 1.2

5.1.2 RELATIVE DENSITY

Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a

given reference material. For solids and liquids it is the ratio of the density of the
substance (usually at 20 °C) to the density of water (at maximum density  4 °C).
This measure was formerly called specific gravity.

density of substance (20 °C)

Relative density =
density of water (4 °C)

The relative density (RD) of water is 1.000, and so substances with a RD less
than 1.000 will float in water and substances with a RD greater than 1.000 will
sink in water.
The same formula is used to find the relative density of gases by substituting the
density of water with dry air at 20 °C and 1 atmosphere.

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Relative Densities
Solid RD Liquid RD Gas RD
Ice 0.917 Petroleum 0.72 Hydrogen 0.0695
Aluminium 2.7 Jet Fuel JP4 0.785 Helium 0.138
Titanium 4.4 Alcohol 0.789 Acetylene 0.898
Iron 7.9 Kerosene 0.823 Nitrogen 0.967
Copper 8.9 Synthetic Oil 0.928 Air 1.000
Lead 11.5 Water 1.000 Oxygen 1.105
Gold 19.3 Mercury 13.6 CO2 1.528
Table 5.1 Examples of relative densities

5.1.2.1 Hydrometer

A device called a hydrometer (Fig 5.1) is used to measure the relative densities
of liquids. This device has a glass float contained within a cylindrical glass body.
The float has a weight in the bottom and a graduated scale at the top. When
liquid is drawn into the body, the float displays the relative density on the
graduated scale. Immersion in pure water would give a reading of 1.000,
therefore liquids with relative densities less or more than water would cause the
float to ride lower or higher than it would in the pure water.
Two areas of aviation where this topic is of special interest, is the electrolyte of
batteries, where the relative density is an indication of battery condition and
aircraft fuel density measurement.

Fig 5.1 A typical hydrometer used for measuring battery electrolyte

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5.1.3 PRESSURE

When a force acts perpendicular to a surface, the pressure exerted is the ratio
between the magnitude of the force and the area of the surface:
force F
Where pressure can be expressed as: P= =
area A
The S.I. unit of pressure is the Pascal where 1 Pa = 1 Nm -2
Other units of pressure are often used:

1 bar = 105 Pa
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa  14.7 lb in-2

Absolute pressure is pressure measured on a gauge reading zero at zero

pressure rather than at atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is measured on
a gauge that reads zero at atmospheric pressure.
 Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

Example 5.2
Applying the above formula:
A tyre whose gauge pressure is 2 bar; contains air at an absolute pressure of
about 3 bar, since sea-level atmospheric pressure is approximately 1 bar.

5.1.4 PRESSURE IN A FLUID

Pressure is a useful quantity where fluids (gases and liquids) are concerned
because of the following properties of fluids:
1. The forces that a fluid exerts on the walls of its container, and those that the
walls exert on the fluid, always act perpendicular to the walls (Fig 5.2).

Fig 5.2 Fluid pressure exerted in a container

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2. The force exerted by the pressure in a fluid is the same in all directions at a
given depth.

3. An external pressure exerted on a fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout

the fluid. This does not mean that pressures in a fluid are the same
everywhere, because the weight of the fluid itself exerts pressures that
increase with increasing depth.

Example 5.3
In figure 5.3, the pressure acting on xx1 is due to the weight of the fluid acting
downwards

Fig 5.3 Fluid pressure exerted due its weight above

Weight W = mg
Where mass m = volume x density
= height x cross-sectional area x density
=hxAx
Downward force W = h x  x g x A acting on A
h. .g.A
=
A
Therefore the pressure at a depth h in a fluid of density  due to the weight of the
fluid above is
P = h..g
Hence the total pressure at that depth is
P = Pext + h..g
When a body of a fluid is in an open container, the atmosphere exerts an external
pressure on it.

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5.1.5 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

An object immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force that arises

because pressure in a fluid increase with depth. Hence the upward force on the
bottom of the object is more than the downward force on top of it. The difference
between the two is called the buoyant force and is equal to the weight of a body
of the fluid whose volume is the same as that of the object.
This is Archimedes principle: the buoyant force on a submerged object is equal
to the weight of the fluid the objects displaces.
If the buoyant force is less than weight of the object itself, the object sinks; if the
buoyant force equals the weight of the object, the object floats in equilibrium at
any depth in the fluid. If the buoyant force is more than the weight of the object,
the object floats with part of its volume above the surface.

Example 5.4
A block is weighed in air then immersed fully in water and reweighed (Fig 5.4).
The readings obtained were 2.4 N in air and 2.0 N in water. Given that the density
of water is 1000 kgm-3, calculate the density of the block.

2.4 N

2.0 N

Fig 5.4 Experiment demonstrating Archimedes principle

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Example 5.4 cont….

Weight of the block in air = 2.4 N
Density of water = 1000 kgm-3
Assume g = 10 ms-2
Weight of the block in water = 2.0 N
 The buoyant force = weight of water displaced = 0.4 N
 Mass of water displaced = 0.4  10 = 0.04 kg
Volume of water displaced = 0.04  1000 = 4 x 10-5 m³
Mass of the block is 0.24 kg since its weight in air is 2.4 N
 Density of the block is 0.24  4 x 10-5 = 6000 kgm-3

5.1.6 HYDRAULIC PRESS

The hydraulic press (Fig 5.5) is a simple machine which uses the principle that
an external pressure exerted on a fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the
fluid.

Fig 5.5 Simple hydraulic press

Force F1 is applied to a piston with area A1 containing a fluid. The pressure (P) on
F1
the fluid is equal to and is transmitted through the pipe to the larger piston.
A1

The force of the fluid on the larger piston is given by F = PA = F1A2

A
2
1

Since the area A2 of the larger piston is greater than the area A1 of the smaller
piston; then F2 is greater than F1. So a small effort F1 can be used to move a
much greater load.
However, the input effort must travel further than the output load when the forces
move and do work.

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Example 5.5
A hydraulic press has an input cylinder 2 cm in diameter and an output cylinder
12 cm in diameter. Assuming the press is 100 % efficient; calculate the force
exerted by the output piston when a force of 80 N is applied to the input piston.
F out A d 2
At 100 % efficiency: = ; Since A = r² =
out

Fin Ain 4

 d 2 (12cm )2
Fout
= Fin  out  = (80 N) = 2880 N
 d 2 (2cm )2
 in 

5.2 FLUIDS IN MOTION

5.2.1 FLUID FLOW

5.2.1.1 Streamline flow

In the streamline flow of a fluid, the direction of motion of the individual particles
is the same as that of the fluid as a whole. Each particle of the fluid that passes a
point follows the same path as those particles which passed that point before
(Fig 5.6). Streamline flow in which the fluid moves in layers without fluctuations or
turbulence is known as laminar flow

Streamlines

Smooth layered flow

is known as laminar

Fig 5.6 Streamline flow across an aerofoil

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5.2.1.2 Turbulent flow

Turbulent flow is characterized by the presence of irregular whirls and eddies; it

occurs at high velocities and when the fluids path changes direction sharply, for
instance near an obstruction (Fig 5.7).

Fig 5.7 An extreme case of turbulent flow

5.2.2 VISCOSITY

Some liquids flow more easily than others, for example water runs more easily
than syrup. Gases flow much more freely than liquids. Fluid flow generally
involves different parts of a fluid moving at different velocities.
Where the flow is difficult to maintain the fluid is said to be viscous such as
syrup. Water is much less viscous than syrup because it flows more easily.
The viscosity of a fluid is an internal friction that prevents adjacent layers of the
fluid from sliding freely past each other when it is subjected to shear stress. The
viscosities of most liquids decrease as temperature increases; where those of
gases increase.

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Example 5.6
Consider the flow of a viscous fluid through a pipe (Fig 5.8). The fluid layers near
the pipe wall move slowly because of friction between the pipe wall and fluid. The
layers move at different speeds, from zero at the wall to a maximum at the center.

Flow Velocity profile

across pipe

Fig 5.8 Flow of a viscous fluid through a pipe

Each layer slides against the next layer closer to the wall. Friction between the
layers means that the pressure at the inlet has to be greater than at the outlet to
keep the layers moving. A pressure differential is essential to overcome the fluid
friction due to viscosity.

5.2.2.1 Skin friction

Air is slowed up, and brought to a stand still very close to a surface If there is dust
on an aircrafts wing before flight it is usually still there after flight. The layers near
the surface retard the layers further away – owing to the viscosity of the air. This
is known as skin friction (Fig 5.9). The layer(s) of air in which the shearing
action takes place between the surface and the full velocity of airflow is a called
the boundary layer. The boundary layer like main airflow may be laminar or
turbulent.

V
Air slowed up layer below

Air slowed up layer below Boundary

layer
Air slowed up by surface

Air slowed up by surface

Air slowed up layer above

V
Air slowed up layer above

Fig 5.9 Skin friction effects

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5.2.3 COMPRESSIBILTY

In real life all matter is compressible to some extent. If we take an element of

matter and squeeze it hard enough with some pressure, its volume will decrease
(Fig 5.10).

V1

V2 = V1 - dV

m
m

ρ1 = m/V1 ρ2 = m/V2

Fig 5.10 Compressibility effects where ρ 2  ρ1

If the material is solid, such as steel, then the change in volume is insignificantly
small and ρ is constant for all practicable purposes. If the material is a liquid such
as water, then the change in volume is also very small and again ρ is essentially
constant. If the material is a gas though, the volume can readily change and ρ
can be variable.

Aerodynamic flow can be characterised in to two classes: compressible flow and

incompressible flow.

Compressible flow – flow where the density of the fluid element(s) can change
from point to point, where ρ2  ρ1. The variability of density in aerodynamic flow is
particularly important at high speeds, such as high-performance subsonic aircraft.

Incompressible flow – flow in which the density of the fluid element(s) is always
constant. Incompressible flow does not happen in reality, however, for those
flows where the variation in ρ is negligibly small an assumption can be made that
ρ is constant. This assumption can be used to simplify analysis of real physical
systems

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.
5.2.3.1 Continuity equation

The rate (in volume/time) at which a fluid whose velocity v flows through a pipe or
channel of cross-sectional A is:
Flow rate = v A
It is common for the flow rate to be expressed in units of litres per second rather
than cubic meters per second.
When a fluid is incompressible (approximately true for most liquids) its rate of flow
is constant even though the size of the pipe or channel varies (Fig 5.11). Thus if a
liquids velocity is v1 when the cross-sectional area is A1 and v2 when it is A2 then:
v1 A1 = v2 A2
This is known as the continuity equation and holds for all points along a pipe (or
stream tube)

Speed v1 Speed v2

Area of cross-
section A1 Area of cross-
section A2

Fig 5.11 Flow through a tube demonstrating the continuity equation

Example 5.7
A garden hose has an internal diameter of 12 mm, and the water flows through it
at 2.5 ms-1. Calculate the exit nozzle diameter needed for the water to emerge at
a velocity of 10 ms-1.
The cross sectional areas of the hose and nozzle are in the same ratio as the
squares of their diameters since:
d 2
A = r² = from v1A1 = v2 A2 we obtain v 1d1 2 = v 2d2 2
4
2.5
v1
 d2 = d1 = (12) 10 = 6 mm
v2

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5.2.4 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation applies to streamline flow of an incompressible fluid of

density  with negligible viscosity (internal friction). According to this equation,
which is derived from the conservation of energy, the quantity P + gh + ½v²
has the same value at all points in the motion of such a fluid, where P is the
absolute pressure, h is the height above some reference level, and v is the fluid
velocity.
Thus at two locations 1 and 2
P + gh + v 2 = P + gh + v 2
1 1 1 2 2 2

The quantity gh is the potential energy of the fluid per unit volume, and ½v² is
its kinetic energy per unit volume. Each term of the equation has units of
pressure.
For flow where h is considered negligible Bernoulli’s equation is reduced to the
form of:
P + ½v² = constant

5.2.5 VENTURI TUBE

The venturi tube is another example of Bernoulli’s equation at work. It is a device

for mixing a fine liquid with a gas or for measuring the flow rate of a fluid. It
consists of two tapered sections of pipe joined by a narrow throat (Fig 5.12).

Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure

-+ - +
Velocity Pressure

` Fig 5.12 Low speed flow through a venturi tube

The fluid velocity in the throat is increased and the pressure therefore is reduced.
By attaching manometers to three sections of the tube, the pressure drop can be
measured and the flow rate through the throat can be calculated.

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5.2.6 PITOT-STATICS

The pressure exerted by a moving fluid, called the total pressure, can be
regarded as having two components: the static component, which it would have
if it were at rest, and the dynamic component which is the pressure equivalent
of its velocity.
The pitot-static tube measures total pressure. It consists of two tubes, one with an
opening facing the moving fluid and the other with an opening 90° to the direction
of flow (Fig 5.13).

Holes in Static
Static Tube
Tube allow air in To Static
Pressure
Airflow Chamber

Dynamic Tube To Dynamic

Pressure
Chamber

Fig 5.13 A pitot-static tube

The fluid at the open end of the pitot tube is at rest and a ‘stagnation’ region
exists there. The total pressure is also called the stagnation pressure. The static
component is measured holes (vents) on the outer surface of the tube.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation P + gh + ½v² = constant, the static component is
given by P + gh or by P if h is negligible, the dynamic component by ½v² and
the total pressure by P + ½v²

Hence total pressure – static pressure = P + ½v² - P = ½v²  v =

This expression enables a value for the velocity of flow v of an incompressible,

inviscid fluid to be calculated from the readings of pitot-static tubes. In reality v
varies across the diameter of the tube due to the fluids viscosity.
Pressures taken from pitot and static readings are used to display aircraft
information on flight decks such as:
Airspeed Pitot and static
Height (altitude) Static
Rate of climb/descent Static

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Static readings on large aircraft are generally taken using static ports located on
the sides of aircraft fuselages (Fig 5.14).

Auxiliary
Standby Pitot Head
(No3)
Captain First Officers

Static Ports

Main Pitot Head (No2, First Officers)

Fig 5.14 Location of pitot and static ports on an F100 aircraft

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6 THERMODYNAMICS

6.1 TEMPERATURE
Temperature can be thought of as the ‘degree of hotness’ of an object. It
indicates the direction of internal energy flow. When two objects are in contact,
internal energy goes from the one at higher temperature to the one at lower
temperature, regardless of the amounts of internal energy in each object.

6.1.1 TEMPERATURE SCALES

To measure temperatures, a temperature scale has to be established. Some

property of matter is selected whose value varies continuously with the degree of
hotness. Suitable properties must be accurately measurable over a wide range of
temperature. Two standard degrees of hotness are chosen called the fixed
points and numbers assigned to them.

6.1.1.1 Celsius scale

The Celsius scale named after Anders Celsius is a temperature scale which is
divided into 100 graduated increments known as degrees (° C). It assigns 0° C to
the freezing point of water and 100° C to its boiling point.

6.1.1.2 Fahrenheit scale

The Fahrenheit scale named after Daniel Fahrenheit. On this scale the freezing
point of water is at 32° F and the boiling point of water is at 212° F. These two
points are divided into 180 increments known as degrees (° F). A Fahrenheit
degree is 5/9 as large as a Celsius degree.

6.1.1.3 Converting between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

The following formulas give the procedures for converting a temperature in one
scale to the corresponding value in the other.
To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius
°C = (°F – 32)  1.8 or °C = 5/9 (°F – 32)
Example 6.1
Convert 77° F to Celsius
Using either °C = (°F – 32)  1.8 or C = 5/9 (°F – 32)
°C = (77 – 32)  1.8 = 25° C
°C = (77 – 32) x 5/9 = 25°C

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To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit

°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32 or °F = (9/5 x °C) + 32
Example 6.2
Convert 45° C to Fahrenheit
Using either °F = (1.8 x °C) + 32 or °F = (9/5 x °C) + 32
°F = (1.8 x 45) + 32 = 113 °F
°F = (9/5 x 45) + 32 = 113 °F

6.1.1.4 Absolute temperature scales

When the temperature of a sample of gas is changed while its pressure is held
constant, its volume changes by 1/273 of its volume at 0 °C for each temperature
change of 1 °C. If it were possible to cool a gas sample to - 273° C, its volume
would reduce to zero. Although the experiment cannot be carried out - 273° C is
a significant temperature.
On the absolute scale the zero point is set at - 273° C and is known as absolute
zero. Temperatures on this scale are expressed in Kelvin (also known as the
Kelvin scale; denoted by K not °K). These units are equal to Celsius degrees.
Thus: TK = TC + 273
The freezing point of water on the Kelvin scale is 273 K and its boiling point is
373 K.
Another absolute temperature scale based on the Fahrenheit scale is the
Rankine scale. Absolute zero on the Rankine scale is - 460° F.
Thus TR = TF + 460°
The freezing point of water on the Rankine scale is 492° R, and its boiling point is
672° R.
The relationship of the four scales can be seen in figure 6.1 below.

Fig 6.1 Temperature scale comparison

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6.2 HEAT
Heat is a form of energy that when added to a body increases the internal energy
content of the body, which causes its temperature to rise. By convention heat is
given the symbol Q.
The S.I. unit of heat is the Joule (J); however other units are sometimes used to
describe heat energy, such as the kilocalorie (kcal) and the British thermal unit
(Btu).
I J = 2.39 x 10-4 kcal = 9.48 x 10-4 Btu
1 Btu = 0.52 kcal = 1054 J

6.2.1 HEAT CAPACITY

The heat capacity c of an object is defined as the ratio of the heat supplied to an
object or specimen to its consequent rise in temperature. The unit of c is JK -1.
The value of c varies between substances because they respond differently to the
addition or removal of heat.

6.2.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity c of a substance is defined as the heat energy

required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K. The unit of c
is J kg-1 K-1. To raise the temperature of a mass m by , the heat energy
required is given by:
Q = mc
where: Q = heat supplied
c = specific heat capacity
m = mass
 = change in temperature

Material Specific Heat J/kgK

Lead 127
Mercury 139
Zinc 386
Copper 389
Steel 481
Aluminum 908
Water 4200
Table 6.1 Specific heat capacities of various materials

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 CAR 66 CATEGORY A
MODULE 2
PHYSICS

Example 6.3
An aluminum pan has a mass of 1.5 kg when empty. If the pan is then filled with
2.0 kg of water at 20° C. Calculate the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the pan and water from 20° C to 100° C.
The heat capacity of the aluminum pan is 908 x 1.5 J K-1 = 1362 J K-1
The heat capacity of the water is 4200 x 2.0 J K-1 = 8400 J K-1
 The total heat capacity of the filled pan is 1362 + 8400 = 9762 J K -1
To increase the temperature of the water and the pan from 20° C to 100° C, the
minimum amount of heat energy required is (100 – 20) x 9762 = 781 kJ
In practice more heat energy would be required to heat the pan and water due to
losses to the surroundings.

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