MODULE 1

Origin
and
Forma
tion
In this module, you will be able to

 explain and give evidence for the formation of light elements in the big bang theory;

of the



describe and give evidence for the formation of heavier elements during star formation and
evolution; and
write the nuclear fusion reactions in stars, which led to the formation of new elements

Eleme
Key UNDERSTANDING

nts
The big bang model provides on explanation for the formation of light elements, which later evolved
into heavier elements through stellar evolution.

Key QUESTIONS

1. which elements emerged from primordial nucleosynthesis?

2. Which elements emerged from stellar nucleosynthesis?
3. How do elements heavier than iron form?
 While looking at the night sky, one might wonder what the purpose od stars is. Do they just provide
illumination or just beautify the nighttime sky? Stars may appear small to an observer on Earth, but they
have significant purpose for life on the planet. Their biggest role involves the formation of elements, and
therefore the origin of all matter.

How the universe and everything in it came about were initially explained through speculations and
myths. The scientists later on approached these topics by proposing model for which a sphere of
inconceivable properties burst in a “big bang”, scattering its contents outward the vast space. This
massive, primordial explosion is believed to be the origin of matter as we knew it.

THE ORIGIN OF THE LIGHT ELEMENTS

The emergence of the universe brought about the formation of elements, and consequently of
matter. One of the most popular attempts to describe the early universe is the big bang theory. It was
first proposed, though not named, by Belgian astrophysicist and priest Abbe Georges Edouard Lemaitre
(1894-1966). The big bang theory postulates that the universe emerged from a state of enormous
density and energy. The name “big bang” was coined by British astronomer Fred Hoyle in 1949. The big
bang theory was made in response to Einstein’s work.

In 1917, albert Einstein proposed that the universe is spatially bound (finite) and has a uniform
distribution of matter when average on very large scales. This model gave rise to various cosmological
models, one of which was Lemaitres. In 1927, Lemaitre argued that Einstein’s model was not physically
realistic since slight variations in homogeneity would result in a loss in equilibrium, and thus to
expansion or contraction. In the same year, Lemaitre published a paper stating that the universe I
constantly expanding and cooling; it was not a static universe as Einstein previously described.

Three key observational evidence support the big bang model:

a. Hubble or cosmic expansion,

b. Cosmic microwave background (CMB)
c. Primordial or big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN).
 By the early 1930s, American astronomer Edwin Hubble made a major discovery at Mount
Wilson Observatory in California, USA. Using the 100-inc Hooker Telescope, he had identified cepheids
(a class of variable stars pulsating periodically and which can be used as an indicator of distance and
velocity) in numerous spiral nebulae- now called galaxies- including the Andromeda nebula. This led to
the discovery of other galaxies far beyond the Milky Way. Hubble and his assistant, Milton Humason,
formulated Hubble’s law, which proved that the universe was expanding, thereby suggesting that it was
once compact. Hubble’s law (also known as Hubble expansion), which states that other galaxies are
moving away relative to the Milky Wat at a rate of proportional to distance, was the first observational
evidence of Lemaitre’s big bang model

In the 1940s, theoretical physicist

and cosmologist George Gamow, together with Robert Herman and Ralph Alpher, predicted that if the
early stage of the universe was hot and dense, then an afterglow of radiation must have filled up the
universe because of the cooling process. This afterglow is detected today as cosmic background
radiation, also known as the cosmic microwave background (CMB).

In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, two radio astronomers of Bell Laboratories in New
Jersey, USA, confirmed the presence of the CMB having an average temperature of 2.7 Kelvin. This
discovery is considered as the second most significant (after Hubble’s law) observation ever made
regarding the description of the universe

The “light elements” include hydrogen (H) and its isotope deuterium , helium-3, helium-4 and
lithium-7. At approximately 10 kelvin and within the first second after the big bang, protons (nuclei of
hydrogen), elections, and neutrons formed and moved with too much energy. As the universe
expanded, the temperature decreased, forming a stabilized number of protons and neutrons, with
protons outnumbering the neutrons in7:1 ratio.

After about a minute, temperature further decreased just enough for protons and neutrons to
collide and stick together to form the nuclei of deuterium. Occasional collisions of these nuclei led to the
formation of helium nuclei; and rarely, lithium nuclei. As temperature continued to fall rapidly, and with
a higher number of protons in the early universe, hydrogen became the most abundant (about 75
percent), while helium constituted 25 percent. There were also trace of lithium nuclei.

THE DISCOVERY OF COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND (CMB)

When the universe was young, photons were linked to matter because of the dense and hot
conditions. Three hundred thousand years later, the temperature declined to less than 3000 Kelvin. This
resulted in the formation of atomic hydrogen and in the release of photons. Around 1940, George
Gamow, together with his colleagues, hypothesized that the cooling process after the big bang
generated electromagnetic (EM) waves that fill the universe.

Radio astronomers, Penzias and Wilson, who were evaluating the performance of the new radio
telescope to be used in trans-Atlantic telephone communications, detected a small, unexplained signal.
At the same time, astrophysicists Robert Dicke, Jim Peebles, and David Wilkinson from Princeton
University were setting up their experiment to search for back ground radiation, and they, too, found a
small, unexplained signal whatever the direction the radio telescope was pointed. It was only 1964 that
they became aware that the noise in their telescope was in fact cosmic microwave background (CMB)
radiation that was postulated by the big bang model. The two groups decided to publish their joint
results. The Princeton group soon completed their measurements, verifying the work of Penzias and
Wilson. In 1978, Penzias and Wilson received the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of CMB.

THE ORIGIN OF THE HEAVY ELEMENTS

Which elements emerged from stellar nucleosynthesis?

Hydrogen atoms first produced in the big bang would need additional protons and neutrons to
become helium or lithium. In a nucleus, protons and neutron are held together by the strong force,
which overcomes and opposes the repulsion between protons. Protons can also be combined with
neutrons to form heavier nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion.

The atoms formed in the big bang merged into large clouds of gas. These clouds began to
contract under their own gravity, leading to star formation. Consequently, the heavier elements formed
inside stars and scattered in space because of instabilities and explosions. New elements came into
being during and after the explosions. Nucleosynthesis in stars is called stellar nucleosynthesis, which is
responsible for the formation of heavy elements. The two key processes of stellar nucleosynthesis are
nuclear fusion and neutron capture, both of which will be discussed in the later parts of this chapter
 Nuclei of different elements from boron to iron formed from nuclear fusion. Nuclei heavier than
iron emerged form neutron capture in conjunction with beta decay. Nuclear fusion and neutron capture
requires energy. Respectively.

To fully recognize the processes that form heavy elements, one must understand the life span of stars

UNDERSTANDING THE LIFE SPAN OF STARS

What determines the life span of stars?? Stars must have energy to exist for a certain length of
time. This energy comes from various nuclear fusion reactions between light elements, involving the
release of a huge amount of energy that keeps the star hot. The proposed big bang event was
hypothesized to yield mostly helium and hydrogen. These elements, in turn, are the nuclei for the
synthesis of heavier elements within stars.

In nuclear reactions, atoms collide with one another, a process that alters their atomic
structures and releases an enormous quantity of energy. This mechanism explains why bright light
emanates from stars and why they have extremely high temperatures. In essence, start are fueled of
powered by nuclear fusion reactions at their cores, processes that mostly involve the conversion of
hydrogen to helium.

Stellar nucleosynthesis depends on the mass of the star. Stars may be classified according to
mass as small, medium-sized, or massive. Small stars can merely transform hydrogen into helium. Stars,
such as the sun, are medium-sized whose hydrogen atoms are eventually depleted; their than that of
the sun are considered massive stars.

Medium-sized and massive stars convert helium into carbon and oxygen once their hydrogen
atoms run out/ however, massive stars undergo further nuclear reactions. Oxygen and carbon fuse to
form neon (Ne), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si), and sulfur (S). these elements are
transformed mostly int0 calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and others. As
they age, huge stars with depleted cores and exhausted fuel supplies undergo supernova. Supernova is
the explosion of a star, resulting in an extreme brightness and release of an exceedingly high amount of
energy. This results in the formation of other elements heavier than iron. These elements are then
ejected space, finally forming the basis for matter.