The Foundations: Logic and Proofs 75 When you read proofs, you will offen find the words “obvious Ay dese wore uence stops have been omitted that the author expects the reader to be able to fill in, Unfortunately, this assumption Soften not warranted and readers are stire how to fill in the gaps. We will assiduously try to avoid ging these words and {ry not 0 omit too many steps, iuled all steps in proofs, our proofs ‘vould often be excruciatingly long, However, if we i Direct Proofs A Proof ofa conditional statement p —» is constructed when the first step is the ssumption that p is tue; subsequent steps are constry ing rules of inference, with the final step show- ing that g must also be true, A direct proof shows that a conditional statement p — q is true by showing that itp is true, then g must also be true, so that the combination p true and q false never occurs. In a direct proof, ‘xioms, definitions, and previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, o show that g must also be true, You will find that dircet proofs of many results are quite straight- fonward, with @ fairly obvious sequence of steps leading from the hypothesis to the conclusion. However, proofs sometimes require particular insights and can be quite tricky. The first direct proofs we present are quite straightforward; later in the text you will see some that are less obvious. We will provide examples of several different direct proofs. Before we give the first example, we need a definition, wwe assume that p is true and use Definition 1 The integer mis even if there exists an integer k such that = 2k, and m is odd if there exists an integer k such that 1 = 2k +1. (Note that an integer is either even or odd, and no integer is both even and odd.) Example1 — Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd integer, then n? is odd." Solution Note that this theorem states Vn(P(n) —> Q(n)), where P(n) is “n is an odd integer” and Q(n) is “y? is odd.” As we have said, we will follow the usual convention in mathematical proofs by showing that P(n) implies Q(), and not explicitly using universal instantiation. To begin a direct proof of Extra [EQ this theorem, we assume that the hypothesis of this conditional statement is true, namely, we Examples (J assume that mis odd. By the definition of an odd integer, it follows that n = 2k + 1, where & is some integer. We want to show that n? is also odd. We can square both sides of the equa- tion n = 2k + 1 to obtain a new equation that expresses m2. When we do this, we find that n? = (2k + 1? = 4h ~ 4h + 1 = 2(232 + 2k) + 1. By the definition of an odd integer, we can conclude that n? is an odd inte- + (it is one more than twice an integer). Consequently, we have proved that if m is an odd integer, then 7? is < an odd integer. Give a direct proof that if m and n are both perfect squares, then nm is also a perfect Example 2 square. (An integer a is a perfect square if there is an integer b such that a = b*.) ct proof of this theorem, we assume that the hypothesis of this conditional state- ment is tue, nemely, we assume that and 1 are both perfect squares. By the definition of a perfect square, it follows that there are integers s and such that m = s? and 1 = @, The goal of the proof is to show that mn must also be a perfect square when » and are; looking ahead we see how we can show this by multiplying the wo equations m= s2 and n = # together. This shows that mn = <2, which implies that mn = (se) (using commutativity and associativity of multiplication), By the definition of perfect square, it follows that mis also a perfect square, because itis the square of sf , which is an integer. We have proved that if mand mare both perfect squares, then mm is also # perfect square, < Solution To produce a diret Scanned with CamScannerccc proofs lead a the hyposhes ea theorem totheeg gsition DEE equence of deductions, and end with the cone! . of by Contr contin ei wiveach dead ends. We need other methods cr However? will sce that attempts at sires Pre eorems ofthis type that are not direct proofs, that i, thats i the form Vx (PCS) 7 OE)” tye conclusions are cailed indirect proofs. Ot eg with the hypothes and end W proof is known as proof by contraposition. Proofs by contrapoy useful type oF inet PT 5 qs equivalent to its contrapositive, —y —> —p, "Poston that de conditional IEMs by showing that its contrapositive, g —> ~p we es hess, and using axioms, definitions, and previously panes must follow. We will illustrate proof by comtapaiton position can succeed when we cannot easily finda ie clusion Pro begin with the prem use of the the conti contraposition of P together with rules examples. These &X ~ gwe take “J 38 of ence, we show that ae amples show that proof by con Example 3 Prove thatifnis an ineger and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd. Xal ie tempt a direct proof. isan, Solution We fist sent 2 = 2k + | for some integer k. Can we act to show that nis elds - This means that 31 + integer. This t there does not scem to be any direct way to conclude that nisadj Jo construct a direct proof, we first assume that 3n + 2 this see that 3n + 1 = 2k, bu Extra Because our attempt at a direct proof failed, we next try a proof by contraposition, The fist Examples (.3) step in a proof by contraposition is to assume that the conclusion of the conditional sx. serait an + 2 i odd, then nis odd” is false: namely, assume that n is even. Then, by ie definition of an even integer, n = 2k for some integer k. Substituting 2k for n, we find that 3n + 2 = 32h) + Se ok + 2 = 2GK + 1). This tells us that 3n + 2 is even (because it is a rmultiple of 2), and therefore mt sad. This is the negation of the hypothesis of the theorem. Because the negation of the conclusion of the conditional statement implies that the hypothesis is false, the original conditional statement is true, Ourpret by contraposition succeeded; we have proved the theorem “If 371 + 2 is odd, then 1 is odd.” 4 Example 4 Prove that ifn = ab, where a and b are positive integers, then a= Vn orbs vn Solution Because there is no obvious way of showing that a= Jn or h = Vin directly from theeqise n =a, wherea and b are positive integers, we attempt a proof by contraposition. first step in a proof by contraposition is to assume that the conclusion of the conditional s A = ab, where a b are positive integers, then a = Jn or b = Vn is false. That is, we assume tb! s ; statement (a = Vn) v (b= vn) is false. Using the meaning of disjunction together with De Mow aterett law, we see that this implies that both a= Jn vo - li tb = vnandb< Jn This implies that a > V7 ® : eer thes ines together (using the fae er ee Dis aah Sy then su < 0) 10 al Ins \n =n. _ Becaseibenezainalbecmsonargn neem the sateen = as . Me ‘conclus 1e conditi 5 othesi Fs original conditional statement is true. Our proof by conn statement implies that the oe dj tha where a and b are positive integers, then a= Jn orp pee succeeded; we have P! sthena= Vn orb < Jy = vn. Vacuous and Trivial Proofs We can qui ise i i i yetnow co is fale, because pa a Prove that a conditional statement P Sato io . proof, called a va © when p is fa quently, if we s tite used Wo esablshpecit oon 2°88 Prost, or ye false. Consequently if 86 ys pic f the conditional statement P74". forall iv ‘ : ftheoy tegers [i.e., a theor ir TEMS that gf integers [[ eorem of the kind YnP(n), aie State that a conditional statement : es theorems of this kind will be disc i ussed in Section 4 1”) 18 & propositional function]. Scanned with CamScannerThe Foundations * Logic and ple 5 Show that the proposition Pc) ig Proofs xa onsists of all integers. ‘rue, where P(n) is “In > 1, then 4a it 7 » Men n> yp» Note that P(0) is “IFO > 1, then 2 x and the soi > 1s false. This tells us that P(0) gary eeamstow PU (0) using a vacu automatically true. 'OUS PrOOf, because the 4 ‘vant to the ‘truth vah Buaranteed tobe tue. usion qi true. By showing ditional statement, 02 > 0, is false is irrele ; s ul statement wit is is af Weean a0 quickly bea a conditional statement p aes i fies a follows that p —> q must also be > angi true, It i true. A proof of p—> q that uses the fact that g j a 3 54 : a a is i il If. Triv ial ao is oo often important when special cases of theorems are Proved. (Gee thedie See jssinestion 1.7) and in mathematical induction, which ia proof technique discuss Semen Section 4,1, grample6 Let P(n) be “If a and b are positive int ith a = B, then ar = by,” nfall integers. Show that P(O) is true Ca ete ie Saar = OG where the dowacin solution The proposition P(0) is “If a = b, then a? = 69.” Because a? = b? = 1, the conclusion of the suodtional statement “Ifa = 6, then a? = 5?” js true. Hence, this conditional statement, which is P(0), is This is an example of a trivial proof. Note that the hypothesis, which is the statement “a > 6,” was not ed in this proof. 4 Alittle Proof Strategy We have described two important approaches for proving theorems of the mn ¥x(P (x) — Q(x): direct proof and proof by contraposition. We have also given examples that show w each is used. However, when you are presented with a theorem of the form Vx(P (x) —> tx), which zethod should you use to attempt to prove it? We will provide a few rules of thumb here; in Section 1.7 we I discuss proof strategy at greater length. When you want to prove a statement of the form ¥x(PQ)> ») firs evaluate whether a direct proof looks promising. Begin by expanding the definitions in the hypot- ‘ar to reason using these hypotheses, together with axioms and available theorems, If 2 iret proof ame thing with a proof by contraposition. Recall that in a pro by *steposition you assume that the conclusion of the conditional statement is false and use @ nae “Ov this implies that the hypothesis must be false. We illustrate this strategy in Examples 7 and § ® 2s sent our next example, we need definition, “Snot seem to go anywhere, try the sé : toed, ‘i that r = PY Defnition The real number ris rational if there exist integers p and q with @ © such tha 2l number that is not rational is called irrational, se include te impicl fran Vote that if real number sj is rational. ( I number rand every ple 7 Prove that the sum of 0 rational number: ‘od? here, the theorem we want 0 prove is “For every rea ‘ational numbers, then r +s és rational.) ion : iti num ds are rational per with q {information 10S suppose that r an ers p and q, Can we use tl We first attempt a direct proof. To begin, Of a rational number, it follows that there are integ i vith w # 0, such that s = Wt. btain Eteg gl integers rand x, with u #0, Ms = Hi, 100 a bed i i = ands *enpiee is rational? The obvious next step is to add r= P/ 1 _ putat reso he ta. qu @ Scanned with CamScanner1 # 0. Consequently, we have expressed r+ 5 ag 1p, 5.88 the pa: «tha bit nosy This means that r + s is rational. We have proy tio of, Ut oto find a direct proof succeeded, od that the ge empt to a a our acc? Sum gp is odd, then n is odd. \ Example 8 fon We firstattempt ata med cane use thi roof, SUPPOSE that 77 is an integer and r? is odd. Then, there exists information to show that 1 is odd? There seems to be no obyi aN in pps te equation 7 2k +1 , which isnot teribiyy Uses such that : to show that nis odd decane oN ‘ eel gid not bear fruit, we next attempt a Proof by contrapos; ‘u, Because thi enn ent that 8 HON Cudd. Because every integer is odd or even, then rake as our hypottesis Wa exists an integer stich that 1 = 2k, To prove the theorem, we need as ty wis cven Tis implies a Ne hat is not odd, that is, that nis even. Can we use the Aaa pve this? By squaring both sides of this equation, we obtain n? = 4k = 2(2), which 2a rae yocatse 2 = 27, WHEL = 22. We have proved that if» is an integer and nis od4 1, vr is odd, Our attempt to find a proof by contraposition succeeded. sh this hypothesis implies 4 Proofs by Contradiction Suppose we want © prove that a statement p is true. Furthermore, suppse stat we can find a contradiction q such that =p —> 4 16 true. Because q is false, but sp > q is true, seca, conclude that sp is false, which means that p is true. How can we find a contradiction g that might helps prove that p is true in this way? Because the statement r A ar is a contradiction whenever r is a proposition, we can prove that pist= fae can show that ap > (4a) is tte for some proposition r. Proofs of this type ar called proofs ty « meradietion, Because a proof by contradiction does not prove a result directly, itis another type of inde sonst We provide three examples of proof by contradiction. The first is an example of an application of Peconhole principle, a combinatorial technique that we will cover in depth in Section 5.2. Example 9 Show that atleast four of any 22 days must fall on the same day of the week Solution Let zt be the proposition “Atleast four of 22 chosen days fall on the same day of the week” SRS that —p is true. This means that at most three ofthe 22 days fall on the same day of the week. Beca Lai cen Banke eet ti otis hat t mos 21 days oul ave Bet ce ek, at me st day. THE te tradicts the hypothesis that we a three of the chosen days could fall om tha geo ‘ on crises that 22 da 22 days under consideration. That is if” ‘o aoe eit are hose, then we have shown that +p rR =n Consequently: wel") wr of 22 chosen days fll on the same day of the week Example 10 Prove that V2 isi rational by givi giving Solution Let p be the proposition J2 4 proof by contradiction. 1 ‘ is irrational” pp0s is true, Note that ~p is the statement “fj nal.” To st a wes e rent “Its, start radiction, We will show that assuming that —p Ae “ the case that J2 proof by oe yet f ue lea is irra » which $3 1f V2 is rational, there exist integers a 4 Ads 10 a contrad rational,” ¥ tint the fraction a/b is in lowest terms y (tion 2 With V2 in lowest terms.) Because J2 = ah, wh ere, we 2 = a/b » When both 5 ction, ym ah, wh ye no CO! + Whi db hay ere aan ‘tou it follo Te using thy " e fy ides of th fact that every ration S equation are squareds Scanned with CamScannerThe Foundations: Logicand Proofs 75 gy the definition of an even integer it follows that g2 tho be even, which follows by Exercise 16. Funtha, fneger,a = 2c for some integer c. Thus, ap = 4c. pividing both sides of this equation by 2 gives pele By the definition of even, this means that b? is even, Again using the fact that if the square of an integer is even, then the integer itself must be even, we conclude that b must be even as well. We have now shown that the assumption of =p leads to the equation V2. = a/b, where a and bhave no mon factors, but both a and b are even, that is, 2 divides both a and b. Note that the statement that V2 = a/b, where a and b have no common factors, means, in particular, that 2 does not divide both a and b, Because our assumption of =p leads to the contradiction that 2 divides both a and b and 2 does not divide both a and b, sp must be false. That is, the statement p,* J/2 js irrational,” is true. We have proved that V2 isirrational, 4 is even, We next use the fact that if @? is even, a must more, because a is even, by the definition of an even Proof by contradiction can be used to prove conditional statements. In such proofs, we first a negation of the conclusion. We then use the premises of the theorem and the nega amfve at a contradiction, (The reason that such proofs son the logical equivalence ofp -> g and (pg) > F. To sce that these statements are equivalent, simply note that each is false in exactly one case, namely when p is true and q is false.) Note that we can rewrite a proof by contraposition of a conditional statement as a proof by contradiction. Ina proof of p —> q by contraposition, we assume that —g is true. We then show that sp must also be true. To rewrite a proof by contraposition of p -> q as a proof by contradiction, we suppose that both p and +g are true. Then, we use the steps from the proof of sg > +p to show that ~p is true. This leads to the contradie- tion p A q is true by assuming that p and Showing that q must be also be true. This implies that —g and g are both true, a contradictior tion tells us that we ean turn a direct proof into a proof by contradiction. statement of i that is, as! Proofs OF Equivalence _® PFOV€ theorem that is @ biconditional statement, ee tea ie the form p ey gs we show that P 4 80d q —> p are both true. The validity of this approach is b ‘autolo, . ey Pegolpoorsarrh Scanned with CamScanner80 Discrete Mathematics & Its Applications Prove the theorem “If n is a positive integer, then n is odd if and only if n2 is odd.» Prove the theore? Example 12 tes Sa a : This theorem has the form “p ifand only if g,” where p is “n is odd” and q is “ris ogg, his theorem has i ; rem, Wi artes Jo not explicitly deal with the universal quantification.) To prove this theorem, we need to sho usual, we do not explicitly dea that p — q and q -> p are true, : le 1) that is true and (in Example 8) that q > pig tye. Ve have already shown (in Example 1) that p —> q ple 8) that cx FY barsueie fas shown that both p > g and q —> p are true, we have shown tha he Examples : theorem is true, equivalent. Such a theorem states that propa. Sometimes a theorem states that several-propositions are sitions p,, 7, Py... p, ate equivalent. This can be written as Pr OP ©... Py which states that all n propositions have the same truth values, forall Jandy and 1 =j = n, p,and p, are equivalent. One way to prove these mutually equivalent is to use the tautology Bie Py. Pd (PIA: > DY A.- AP, PIL This shows that if the conditional statements p, > PsP > Py P, > Py can be shown to be true, then the Propositions p,, p,,..., p, are all equivalent. : 2 {ris is much more efficient than proving that p, > p, for all /=j with 1 p, Ps Py and p, > p,. and consequently, that for all andj with 1 <<, Sn, tee Example 13. Stiow shat these statements about the integer n are equivalent: Py niseven. Px n= Lisodd. : Py Wiseven, Solution We will show that these three statements are equivalent by showing th; ments 2; — P,P; > py and p, > p, are true, . B We use a direct proof to show that p, ~> ps sequently, » — 1 = 2k— 1 = k= 1) 41 Thi where m is the integer k — 1. We also use a direct proofto show that p, > p,, Now supy ; 7 Pose n — integer k. Hence, m= 2k + 2 so that n? = (2k + 3) — 424 84 ul 7 is ata Then nm ~ 1 = 24+ 1 for somg is twice the integer 2k? + 4k + 2, and hence is even, + 4k + 2). This means that n To prove p, > py, we use a proof by contaposition, Tha jg ; even. This is the same as proving that ifn sod, then ya odd winven a i NOt even, then 1 snot This completes the proof. have already done in Example | 4 vat the conditional state Counterexamples in Section 1.3 we sated that to shoyy that i a we need only find a counterexample, that is, an example x for which Peay Of the form vx, P(x) is false, statement of the form Vx P(x), which we believe to be false °F Which has p Js false. When Presented with a fora counterexample, Weilusrte the use of counterexampie Example [a al! PfOof attempts, we look Example 14, Example 14 Show that the statement “Every positive integer ig the sum of is false. SMares of two imegers” Scanned with CamScannerThe Foundations: Logicand Proofs gy y that this statement is fal, qo show Se, We look f = got eee orhe squares Of tWo integers for a counterexample, which is a particular; ott es 1S ten a the Fa elk does not take long to find a counterexample, he integer canine oly perfect squares yo che ates of to integer. To show this isthe ae ta get 3 a8 the sam of ea eNeeeMing 3 ae 0 = O and 1 1. Furthermore ete y Re lerms each of is 0 or 1.C fawn at sve poultive liieme tn ch of which is 0 or 1. Consequently, we have g Fe that “Every Ps integer is the sum of the squares of two integers” i fe oe inproofs There are many commo yescribe some ofthese h ron professionsil mathematic sue Whenever YoU ts Mn errors made in constructing mathematical = ia roofs. mong the most common errors ate mistakes in arithmetic and vert make such errors, especially when workin, A ch commutation: : 18 with complicated ae ch computations you should check them as carefully as possible. (You should eview any troul ie fie of basic algebra, especially before you study Section 4.1.) «ep of a mathematical proof needs to be correct and the conclusion needs to follow logically from shat precede it. Many mistakes result from the introduction of steps that do not logi “Jpscede it. This illustrated in Examples 15-17. : oe eno gample 15 What is wrong with this famous supposed “proof” that | = 2? profi” We use these steps, where a and b are two equal positive integers. ‘Seep Reason Given Multiply both sides of (1) by a Subtract b? from both sides of (2) Factor both sides of (3) Divide both sides of (4) by a — Replace a by b in (5) because a Divide both sides of (6) by sition Every step is valid except for one, step 5 where we divided both sides by a — b. The error is that 2 bequls zero; division of both sides of an equation by the same quantity is valid as long as this quantity zero, < b and simplify Bample16 What is wrong with this “proof? “Theorem” If n? is positive, then 1 is positive. “Fe Suppose that n®is positive. Because the conditional statement “If m is positive, then mis positive” “swe can conclude that n is positive: | ion Let pin) be “nis positive” and O(n) be"? is positive.” Then our hypothesis is Q(n), The state- lt nis positive, then n? is positive” is the statement Vn P(n) > O(n)). From the hypothesis EY and ‘ement Yn( P (n) —» O{n)) we cannot conclude P(n), because we are not using & valid le of ni “Tstead, this is an example of the fallacy of affirming the conclusion. ‘A.counterexample is supplied "4 for which n2 = 1 is positive, but 1 is negative. Re & Ample 17 — Whar is wrong with this “proof”? “ ; iti “theorem” in “Theorem?” If n is not positive, then n? is not positive. (This is the contraposttive of the Sample 16.) Scanned with CamScannerBe Dvcrere mt A ite Applicatione Neeaase the conditional statement “If 1 is positive, then 1? is posi. Proof.” Suppose that n is not positive, Heca Five" is tre, we ean conchnde that mis not positive. xample 16. Then our hypothesis is —P(n) and the Scion <0) and ea in erento Pn)» Ot). Fro he ypshesis~Py She ce eT annot conchide O(n), because we are not using a valid rule of vee ads ss cannot the fallacy of denying the hypothesis. A counterexample is sole Fitba Be apa ao fot My ent es bd on cI beeing the quetion This alley oes when one or more steps ofa proof ar based on the we statement being proved, In other words, this fallacy arises when a statement is proved using itself, also called circular reasoning. inference. Instead. this is by» Example 18 Js the following argument correct? It supposedly shows that n is an even integer whenever even integer Suppose that n? is even, Then n that n is even. 2k for some integer &. Let » = 21 for some integer . This shows Solution This argument is incorrect. The statement “let n = 21 for some integer /” argument has been given to show that » can be written as 2/ for some integer / Secause this statement is equivalent to the statement being proved, namely, “) elf is correct; only the method of proof is wrong, 4 Making mistakes in proofs is part of the learning finds, you should carefully analyze where you we mistake again. Even professional mathema of important results have fooled people for m: occurs in the proof. No This is circular reasoning ‘nis even.” Of course, the result Just a Beginning We have now developed a basic : will introduce other important proof methods, We will als atone ee In the next section we Chapter 4, including mathematical induction, which ean be meets prove See sap leap steers In haptcr& we wil iroduce the notion of combinatorial roots, ne et BO fee all positive In this seetion we introduced several methods for provi Te 7 ‘ w theorems of the form Wx( P (x) Qa), ine! ing direct proofs and proofs by contraposition, 7 ae many theorems ofthis ype whose oe construct by direetly working through the hypotheses ang definitions 0} HS type Whose proofs are easy to often diet proves theorem witout trig aes of the theorem. However it iction, or some other proof technique. In Se root by contraposition by porns Fics 05 ae baad itd ey when ES We will ade s proof stratee ye crn Broo by eee oct stetighttorward approaches donee me a eee: lot work. Construct- ing proofs is an art that can be learned only through experi 8 Writing proofs, having your proofs dreading and analyzing other prooi, Nee inetudiny Exercises JF10 show that the sum OF Bo oa the term Aeleveruse of critiqued, @ 1, Use a direct proo M1 inte 4. Show aha en. tthe aclditiv, in gers is eve ow thatthe sui 0180 even ige inverse, oF n 2, Use adirect proof to show that "8. Prove ang Mtevet munber using a qe OF am even ers is even. mon and it + mand n+ pene geet ‘hiow that the square of an ofp? are integers, the owing a ditt pro. Met did you use?" + PiS even, What kind Scanned with CamScannerost poor stow that the product of two odd ye? Oe old ee sis root 1 show that every odd integer i the wares. weeeaft90 = perfect square, then + 2 is not g teat jens pe ate. ‘ ft py contradiction to prove that the sum of ay 227 her anda rational number is irrational tel proof to show that the product of Wo rational csisrational e araisprove that the product of two irrational num. sation. . sare that the poet of 3 nonzero rational $ Lake ‘nd an rational number is irrational, ee tif is rational, then 1/x is irrational a poet tis rational and x + 0, then 1c is ational, mae by contraposition to show that if + y = (Se Xand yate real numbers, then x = Lory = 1. tht ifm and n ae integers and mis even, then m seenornis eve. «Sun tat ifm isan integer and n° + $ is odd, then mis, cof by contraposition, ») sproofby contradiction. Prove that if m is an integer and 3 + 2 is even, then » is ceasing 2) aproof by contraposition. ») poof by contradiction. rove the proposition P(0), where P(1) is the proposition nis positive integer greater than 1, then n? > 1.” ‘kind of proof did you use? “we the proposition P(1), where P(n) is the proposition “nis & positive integer, then n? = 1.” What kind of Prof did vou use? Pir) be the proposition “If a and b are positive real es then (a + byt & att + br.” Prove that PCI) is ‘What kind of proof did you use? “ow tat if you pick three socks from a drawer contain- hs blue socks and black socks, you must get either a = Otblue socks or a pair of black socks. that a least 10 of any 64 days chosen must fall on x, Steday of the week. see tat least 3 of any 25 days chosen must fall in the 5 yp Month of the tes 1 year. ap, Pfby contradiction to show that there is no rational on for which + p+ 1 = 0. [Hint: Assume that ling 0 Where @ and b are integers and a/ is in lowest bye Then gene ation involving integers by multiplying look at whether a and b are each odd or even] ifnisa Positive integer then 7 is even if and +4iseven, if mis a positive integer, then 1 is odd if and +6is odd. ee 28, 29, 30. uM 2 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40, 4. 42. The Foundations: Logicand Proofs fs 83 Prove that m? = 1? if and only if m Prove or disprove that if m and n ‘mn = 1, then either m = land n = ZA, Show that these three statements are equi and bare réal numbers (ais less thar on oo “ ofa and h is greater than a, and (ii) the avenee eS bis less than b, reauerage ofc and Show that these statements about the integer lent: () 3e + 2is even, i) + Sisodd apatanee ‘Show that these statements about the real maker See ‘equivalent: (i) x is rational, (i) x/2 is rational, and 3x — 1 is rational. onal an (ay Show that these statements about the real number x are equivalent: (i) xis irational, (i) 3x + 2s ittationl, (i) x/2 is irrational. : Is this reasoning for finding the solutions ofthe equation 2x’ correct? (1) ¥2x? =I = x is given; (2) 20 1 =x, obtained by squaring both sides of (1); (3) 2 — 1 0, obtained by subtracting x? from both sides of (2); (4) (x — DG + 1) = 0, obtained by factoring the let hand side of x2 ~ 1; (5) = 1 orx = ~1, which fllows because ab = 0 implies that a = 0 or = norm = =n, are integers such that orelse m= —1 an ‘Are these steps for finding the solutions of Vx+3 correct? (1) Vx+3=3~x is given; (2).x +3 Gx + 9, obtained by squaring both sides of (1); (3) x2 — Tx + 6, obtained by subtracting x + 3 from both sides of (2); (4) 0 = (x ~ 1)(x ~ 6), obtained by factoring the right-hand side of (3); (5). lorx which fol- lows from (4) because ab = 0 implies that a = 0 or b = 0. ‘Show that the propositions p,,p, Ps, and p, can be shown to be equivalent by showing that p, + Py. P: Po 85?) Px Show thatthe propositions p,.p2.Ps-Pe,amepecanbe stows to be equivalent by proving that the conditional statements Pi Py Pr PPro + Py py > Po and ps — Ps are tue. Find a counterexample to the statement that every Post five integer ean be written as the sum of the squares of three integers. Prove that at least one ofthe real mumbers iy do. is greater than or equal to the average ‘of these numt What kind of proof did you use? Use Exercise 50 to show that if the first 10, Pee gers are placed around a circle, in any cole three integers in consecutive Hosations 20 that have a sum greater than oF QU! 117. ape Prove that if m is an integer, thes ior ee equivalent: (i) is even, (i) + 18 odd, (i odd, (iv) 3m is even. Prove that these four stat equivalent: (i)? is odd, (ti (iv) n? + Lis even. 4 integer "1 ements about the ie js odd. ) 1 — ais ever. (il Scanned with CamScanner